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Spatial Reference in Marshallese

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Spatial Reference in Marshallese Atolls, Islands, and Endless Suburbia: spatial reference in Marshallese Jonathan Schlossberg BA(Hons)(Monash University) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics June 2018 This research was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship I hereby certify that the work embodied in the thesis is my own work, conducted under normal supervision. The thesis contains no material which has been accepted, or is being examined, for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. I give consent to the final version of my thesis being made available worldwide when deposited in the University’s Digital Repository, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 196 8 and any approved embargo. Printed name: Jonathan Schlossberg Signed: _________________________ Date: 16/06/2018 ii Acknowledgements This work would not have been possible without the support of many people and institutions. I thank the Australian Research Council for providing the funds which supported both my scholarship and research funds (Discovery Project G1100293). I am also very grateful to the CIs of the Discovery Project: my primary supervisor Dr. Bill Palmer and my secondary supervisor Dr. Alice Gaby, both for the faith they showed in me in selecting me to carry out this research in the first, but also for their continued support and advice along the way. I also wish to particularly thank Jonathon Lum, the other PhD student on this Discovery Project. We started our PhDs together and have been in constant communication throughout the length of this project. We have collaborated extensively on aspects of research design and on academic outputs and have shared hundreds of hours of both high-minded theoretical discussion and low-minded drunken kvetching about the trials and vicissitudes inherent to the life of a PhD student in linguistics. There are many people in the Marshall Islands and Springdale without whom this work would not have been possible. Firstly, I must thank Matt Riding at the Historic Preservation Office in Majuro, for assisting me in securing an anthropological research permit and Coffee Kiluwe for translating the elicitation task instructions. I would also like to thank the various Mayors and other community leaders at each of my field sites who kindly invited me into their communities: Bila Jacklick on Jaluit; Jack Niedenthal and Wilson Note for Kili, and Albious Latijor in Springdale. I am particularly grateful to all my consultants, who helped me recruit participants, transcribe and translate data, and were generally patient with me while I stumbled awkwardly in my attempts to learn Kajin Majel and Mantin Majel. These include: Peter Peter, Juni Nimoto, Gastro Ajri, and Paul Ned Benkim on Jaluit Atoll; Almon Leviticus, Junjun Leer, and Robin on Kili, and Sharlynn Uluitavuki and Timothy Alik in Springdale. There were a few people who made my stay in Jaluit in particular who made my stay there feel less like a fieldwork trip and more like a home away from home. These include Peter Peter and his wife Mintha Peter, in whose home I was always welcome and who were always ready with an offering of pancakes or coconuts. Kukki and Dillon, who I would play cards with almost nightly and unfailingly responded with extreme amusement when I would try to shock them with all the Marshallese rude expressions I knew. Father Ariel and the two sisters at the Catholic Church who would always invite me to their celebrations and feasts despite my evident unfamiliarity with the inside of a church. All of the children on Jabor who took joy in my hurling them metres through the air into the lagoon off the town jetty. Presley and Kellen, two brothers of three and four, who took unending delight in being carried through town like little lordlings while sitting on my shoulders. Most of all, I thank all of the 222 Marshallese people who took time out of their busy lives for me to record them playing strange and esoteric games for purposes unknown to them. On Kili, I wish to particularly Fred for his kindness in helping me get set up and Almon Leviticus for being not only my consultant, but also my guide, purveyor of coconuts, and friend. The kindness and patience of all these people is a true reflection of the Marshallese spirit for compassion and generosity. Many others helped in various ways. I would like to thank Mehmet Özmen for the statistical support and Peter Johnson for the cartographical assistance. All of the maps in this work are thanks to him. Bertrand Tomachot kindly assisted with development of some of the elicitation stimuli. Diego Schlossberg, Dr. Esther Ginsberg and Dr. Catriona Malau iii helped proofread parts of the manuscript. Finally, I am grateful to my family and my partner Rachel Yam, for their love and support over the past several years. iv v Abstract Spatial language and non-linguistic spatial cognition have been found to be correlated. However, there is debate as to the nature of this correlation. Some have suggested that these correlations are evidence for linguistic relativity, the proposition that arbitrary variation in linguistic preferences influences cognition. Others have suggested that spatial language and spatial cognition are similar because they both result from external environmental pressures. This thesis is an exploration of spatial Frames of Reference in Marshallese, an Austronesian language of the Marshall Islands. Marshallese is used as a case study to examine the relationship between spatial language, spatial cognition, and the physical environment. This study presents evidence from data collected using both established and innovative techniques in three field sites in the Marshall Islands and one in the United States. Together, these four sites represent three distinct topographies: an atoll, a singleton island, and an inland suburban area. These data are used to inform an extensive description of the structure of spatial reference in Marshallese more broadly. In addition, the spatial referencing strategies of the four sites are compared, not only qualitatively, but also quantitatively in the form of a frequency analysis of a corpus of 48 director-matcher ‘Man and Tree’ space games. Furthermore, data on non-linguistic aspects of spatial cognition are collected by means of the spatial memory tasks ‘Animals-in-a-Row’ and ‘Scout Game’. On the basis of this mixed-methods analysis of Marshallese, as well as a survey of recent studies on other languages, it is concluded that both linguistic relativity and environmental determinism have some explanatory power, but neither is sufficient for explaining the range of variation observed cross-linguistically, or in Marshallese specifically. Instead, the data points to a more complex ‘Sociotopographic Model’, where diversity in spatial reference emerges from speakers’ interaction with both one another, and their local physical environment. vi Table of Contents Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... iii Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... vi Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... vii Figures ......................................................................................................................................... xiii Tables ........................................................................................................................................... xv Symbols and Abbreviations ....................................................................................................... xviii In main text ........................................................................................................................... xviii In interlinearised examples ..................................................................................................... xix 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 Motivation for project................................................................................................... 2 The Marshallese language and its speakers ................................................................. 3 1.2.1 Geography of the Marshall Islands ....................................................................... 3 1.2.2 Marshallese in the United States .......................................................................... 8 1.2.3 The sociolinguistic status of Marshallese.............................................................. 8 Why Marshallese? ......................................................................................................... 9 Aims and research questions ...................................................................................... 10 Fieldwork and data ..................................................................................................... 11 1.5.1 Elicitation tasks ................................................................................................... 11 1.5.2 Field
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