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1 Allgemeine Einleitung ______1 Die Reproduktion von Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae) in Südostasien: Bestäubung durch Thripse und Kastration durch Pflanzenameisen Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Naturwissenschaften vorgelegt im Fachbereich Biologie und Informatik der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität in Frankfurt am Main von Ute Moog aus Überlingen am Bodensee Frankfurt am Main 2002 Inhalt Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Allgemeine Einleitung ______________________________________________________ 1 2 Bestäubung _______________________________________________________________ 5 2.1 Einleitung_____________________________________________________________ 5 2.1.1 Fragestellung _______________________________________________________ 8 2.2 Material und Methoden _________________________________________________ 9 2.2.1 Macaranga ________________________________________________________ 9 2.2.2 Untersuchungsgebiete und Zeitraum der Untersuchungen ___________________ 10 2.2.3 Die Macaranga-Flora im Untersuchungsgebiet ___________________________ 11 2.2.4 Blütenmerkmale von Macaranga ______________________________________ 13 2.2.5 Aufsammlung von Blütenbesuchern ____________________________________ 14 2.2.6 Exemplarische Untersuchung von Thripsbestäubung an M. hullettii ___________ 15 2.2.6.1 Reproduktive Phänologie von M. hullettii ____________________________ 15 2.2.6.2 Blütenmerkmale und Anthese _____________________________________ 15 2.2.6.3 Beobachtung und Aufsammlung von Blütenbesuchern__________________ 16 2.2.6.4 Aufzucht von Thripsen___________________________________________ 17 2.2.6.5 Pollentransport _________________________________________________ 17 2.2.6.6 Samenansatz unter natürlichen und experimentellen Bedingungen_________ 18 2.2.7 Untersuchungen der Bestäubung von M. heynei und M. tanarius______________ 19 2.2.8 Vergleichende Blütezeiten von sympatrischen Macaranga-Arten _____________ 19 2.3 Ergebnisse ___________________________________________________________ 20 2.3.1 Blütenbesucher und Blütenmerkmale von Macaranga______________________ 20 2.3.1.1 Sektion Pachystemon (Gruppe 1)___________________________________ 20 2.3.1.2 Sektion Pachystemon (Gruppe 2)___________________________________ 24 2.3.1.3 Sektion Pachystemon (Gruppe 3)___________________________________ 24 2.3.1.4 Sektion Pachystemon (Gruppe 4)___________________________________ 26 2.3.1.5 Sektion Stachyella ______________________________________________ 27 2.3.1.6 Sektion Winklerianae____________________________________________ 28 2.3.1.7 Sektion Pruinosae ______________________________________________ 29 2.3.1.8 Sektion Javanicae ______________________________________________ 32 2.3.1.9 denticulata-Gruppe _____________________________________________ 34 2.3.1.10 tanarius-Gruppe_______________________________________________ 34 2.3.1.11 M. trichocarpa ________________________________________________ 36 2.3.1.12 Sektion Pseudo-Rottlera ________________________________________ 36 II Inhalt 2.3.2 Exemplarische Untersuchung von Thripsbestäubung an M. hullettii ___________ 39 2.3.2.1 Blütezeiten von M. hullettii _______________________________________ 39 2.3.2.2 Blütenmerkmale und Anthese _____________________________________ 40 2.3.2.3 Lokale und temporale Zusammensetzung der Blütenbesucher ____________ 42 2.3.2.4 Verhalten von Blütenbesuchern ____________________________________ 44 2.3.2.5 Aufzucht von Thripsen___________________________________________ 45 2.3.2.6 Pollentransport _________________________________________________ 45 2.3.2.7 Samenansatz unter natürlichen und experimentellen Bedingungen_________ 47 2.3.4 Macaranga-Pollen__________________________________________________ 49 2.3.5 Die Trichomnektarien _______________________________________________ 51 2.3.6 Blütezeiten in einer Macaranga-Gemeinschaft____________________________ 52 2.3.7 Ergebnisübersicht blütenbiologischer Untersuchungen _____________________ 55 2.4 Diskussion ___________________________________________________________ 58 2.4.1 Blütenbesucher ____________________________________________________ 58 2.4.1.1 Taxonomie blütenbesuchender Thripse ______________________________ 59 2.4.1.2 Biologie blütenbesuchender haplothripiner Thripse ____________________ 60 2.4.1.3 Phylogenetische Interpretationsansätze zur Blütenthrips-Evolution ________ 62 2.4.1.4 Terebrante Thripse in Macaranga-Infloreszenzen______________________ 63 2.4.1.5 Wanzen_______________________________________________________ 63 2.4.2 Thripse als effektive Pollenvektoren____________________________________ 65 2.4.3 Macaranga als Brutstätte für ihre Bestäuber______________________________ 66 2.4.4 Wirtspezifität______________________________________________________ 68 2.4.4.1 Wo sind die Thripse, wenn ihr Wirt nicht blüht?_______________________ 69 2.4.5 Belohnung und Lockmittel für Bestäuber ________________________________ 71 2.4.6 Spezifische Merkmale für die Bestäubungstypen __________________________ 72 2.4.6.1 Adaptive Merkmale _____________________________________________ 73 2.4.6.2 Variabilität der Trichomnektarien __________________________________ 75 2.4.7 Faktoren für die Diversifizierung in Macaranga __________________________ 76 2.4.7.1 Blütezeiten ____________________________________________________ 79 2.4.7.2 Der Einfluss des Blühverhaltens auf die Diversifizierung in Macaranga ____ 81 3 Interaktionen der Reproduktion von Macaranga mit der Myrmekophytie __________ 83 3.1 Einleitung____________________________________________________________ 83 3.1.1 Fragestellung ______________________________________________________ 85 3.2 Material und Methoden ________________________________________________ 87 3.2.1 Infloreszenzschäden ________________________________________________ 87 3.2.2 Außenaktivität der Ameisen __________________________________________ 89 III Inhalt 3.2.3 Futterkörperchen auf den Infloreszenzen ________________________________ 89 3.2.4 Untersuchungen zu potentiellen Barrieremechanismen _____________________ 90 3.2.4.1 Funktion der Wachsbereifung auf Infloreszenzen ______________________ 90 3.2.4.2 Experimente zu ameisenabwehrenden Substanzen _____________________ 90 3.2.5 Frucht- und Samenansatz unter natürlichen und experimentellen Bedingungen __ 91 3.2.6 Vergleichende Untersuchungen zur Ursache der Blütenzerstörung ____________ 91 3.2.6.1 Blühfrequenz __________________________________________________ 91 3.2.6.2 Beschattungsgrad _______________________________________________ 91 3.2.6.3 Vermessung der Bäume __________________________________________ 91 3.2.6.4 Die Stipeln ____________________________________________________ 92 3.2.6.5 Koloniedichte und -größe_________________________________________ 92 3.2.6.6 Abundanz der Trophobionten _____________________________________ 93 3.3 Ergebnisse ___________________________________________________________ 94 3.3.1 Blütenbeschädigung durch Ameisen ____________________________________ 94 3.3.2 Die Außenaktivität der Ameisen in Bezug auf die Infloreszenzen _____________ 97 3.3.2.1 Verhalten der Ameisen in Bezug auf die Bestäuber ____________________ 99 3.3.3 Fruchtansatz unter Ausschluss von Ameisen ____________________________ 100 3.3.4 Futterkörperchen auf den Infloreszenzen _______________________________ 101 3.3.5 Untersuchungen zu potentiellen Barrieremechanismen ____________________ 102 3.3.5.1 Wachs auf den Infloreszenzen als ameisenabwehrende Barriere?_________ 102 3.3.5.2 Experimente zu ameisenabwehrenden Substanzen auf den Infloreszenzen__ 104 3.3.6 Vergleichende Untersuchungen zur Ursache der Blütenzerstörung ___________ 106 3.3.6.1 Die Ameisenarten______________________________________________ 108 3.3.6.2 Untersuchungen zu potentieller Nistraumlimitierung __________________ 110 3.3.6.3 Untersuchungen zu potentieller Nahrungslimitierung __________________ 111 3.3.6.4 Die Baumgröße _______________________________________________ 115 3.3.6.5 Kolonie-Parameter von C. msp. 4 _________________________________ 117 3.4 Diskussion __________________________________________________________ 124 3.4.1 Pflanzenameisen als Blütenzerstörer___________________________________ 124 3.4.1.1 Die Ameisenarten______________________________________________ 124 3.4.1.2 Die Koloniegröße: Ein entscheidender Faktor für das Kastrationsverhalten_ 125 3.4.1.3 Tradeoff in der Energiebilanz zu Zeiten der Reproduktion ______________ 126 3.4.1.4 Bietet die Kastration den Ameisen einen Vorteil?_____________________ 126 3.4.1.5 Blütenzerstören und Rankenbeißen: Das gleiche Verhaltensmuster? ______ 127 3.4.1.6 Warum verhalten sich große Kolonien anders als kleine Kolonien? _______ 129 IV Inhalt 3.4.1.7 Wie wird ein biotischer Pflanzenschutz mit "faulen" Kooperationspartnern erreicht? ___________________________________________________________ 132 3.4.1.8 Die Kolonie- und Wirtsgröße als Selektionsfaktoren __________________ 133 3.4.1.9 Warum beginnt M. hullettii vor C. msp. 4 zu reproduzieren? ____________ 134 3.4.1.10 Warum zerstören auch "echte" Mutualisten Blüten? __________________ 136 3.4.2 Barrieremechanismen ______________________________________________ 137 4 Zusammenfassung _______________________________________________________ 140 5 Literatur _______________________________________________________________ 142 6 Anhang ________________________________________________________________ 152 V Allgemeine Einleitung 1 Allgemeine Einleitung Wenn bewiesen werden könnte, dass irgendein Teil einer Struktur einer beliebigen Art zum ausschließlichen Nutzen einer anderen Art ausgebildet wurde, so würde
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