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Many innocent women and children who knew no wrong died here. -Inscription on the mass grave marker, 1903

I Draft Study of Alternatives Environmental Assessment January 1993

WOUNDED KNEE • SOUTH DAKOTA

United States Department of the Interior • National Park Service • Denver Service Center SUMMARY

This Study of Alternatives and Environmental landmark and adjacent lands. The National Assessment considers three alternatives to Park Service would take the lead in man­ commemorate the tragedy that took place aging and protecting the historic resources. at Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota, on December 29, 1890. Each of these alterna­ Under alternative 2 only a core area tives would acknowledge the massacre, would be managed directly by the Nation­ memorialize the Lakota victims, and inter­ al Park Service, and a historic landscape pret the significance of the site. In accor­ protection area would be established on dance with National Park Service (NPS) surrounding lands. Present ownership policies, and to reflect the full range of would be maintained on these lands, but alternatives mentioned by the public, a no­ land uses would be controlled through action alternative has also been considered. cooperative management by the Oglala Under this alternative existing conditions Sioux Tribe and the Park Service, along at the Wounded Knee site would be con­ with the local landowners and the Wound­ tinued, and a national memorial or park ed Knee community. The goal would be to would not be established. ensure that nearby land uses did not de­ tract from the significance and integrity of The differences between alternatives relate the national memorial. primarily to who would manage the area and how resources would be protected. Alternative 3 would establish an Oglala I Additional alternatives may be generated Cheyenne River Sioux tribal park that by incorporating elements from each of the would be jointly managed by both tribes three alternatives described in this docu­ and could be affiliated with the national ment. park system. Under this alternative the National Park Service would offer techni­ Alternatives 1 and 2 would both establish cal assistance in management and develop­ a Wounded Knee National Memorial as a ment, but it would not be directly in­ unit of the national park system. The me­ volved in seeking annual operating funds morial would be managed by the National or in day-to-day operations. Park Service in close cooperation with the Oglala and Cheyenne River Sioux tribes. Any proposal that would significantly affect either the Oglala Sioux Tribe or the Under alternative 1 the goal would be to Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe could not be protect the historic scene throughout the put into effect without the approval of the entire area, including the national historic respective tribal governments.

iii L ___ ------CONTENTS

Introduction 3 The Significance of Wounded Knee 3 Purpose of and Need for the Study 3 Location of the Study Area 4 Criteria for Parklands 4 Criteria for National Significance 4 Suitability and Feasibility for Inclusion in the National Park System 6 Interrelationship between This Study and Other Efforts 6

The Wounded Knee Massacre 11 A Historical Perspective of Wounded Knee 11 Prelude to Disaster 11 The Ghost Dance 11 The Role of Chief Big Foot 13 The Death of Chief Sitting Bull 13 The Search for Chief Big Foot 13 Big Foot's Surrender 14 December 29, 1890 14 The Aftermath 19 An Ethnographic Perspective of Wounded Knee 20

The Wounded Knee Study Area 24 Location/ Access 24 Natural Resources 24 Topography 24 Climate 24 Floodplains 25 Wetlands 25 Soils 25 Minerals 27 Vegetation 27 Wildlife 28 Viewshed Analysis 28 Cultural Resources 29 Historic Landscape 29 Archeological Resources 31 Current Uses and Landownership 31 Existing Uses 31 Land Values 32 Landownership on Reservations 32 Tribally Owned Land 32 Allotted Lands 32 Deeded Lands 34 Mineral Rights and Outstanding Leases 35 Existing Tribal Zoning Laws 35 Hazardous Substance Determination 35 Threats to the Wounded Knee Resource 35

v CONTENTS

Socioeconomic Conditions 38 Regional Overview 38 Pine Ridge Reservation 39 Visitor Use 39 Black Hills Area Tourism 39 Existing Wounded Knee Visitation 40 Visitation Forecasts 40 Wounded Knee 40 Bridger I Cherry Creek 42 Future Growth 42 Description and Analysis of Alternatives 45 No-Action Alternative: Continued Existing Conditions 45 General Description 45 Management 45 Interpretive Themes and the Visitor Experience 45 Resource Protection 45 Facilities and Services 46 Impact Analysis 46 Natural Resources 46 Cultural Resources 46 Sociocultural Environment 46 Visitor Experience 46 Local Economy 47 Elements Common to Alternatives 1, 2, and 3 47 Monument to the Victims 47 Big Foot National Historic Trail Feasibility Study 47 Alternative 1: A Wounded Knee National Memorial - Preserving the Historic Landscape 48 General Description 48 Management 48 Interpretive Themes 48 Visitor Experience 50 Resource Protection 50 Facilities and Services 51 Entrance Fees 51 Access 51 Training and Employment 52 Land Acquisition Costs 52 Development Costs 53 Staffing and Operating Costs 53 Impact Analysis 53 Natural Resources 53 Cultural Resources 54 Sociocultural Environment 54 Visitor Experience 56 Local Economy 56 Feasibility for Addition to the National Park System 57

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Contents

Alternative 2: A Wounded Knee National Memorial- Cooperatively Managing the Historic Landscape 58 General Description 58 Management 58 Resource Protection 58 Entrance Fees 60 Access 60 Land Acquisition and Easement Costs 60 Impact Analysis 61 Natural Resources 61 Cultural Resources 61 Sociocultural Environment 62 Visitor Experience 62 Local Economy 62 Feasibility for Addition to the National Park System 62 Alternative 3: An Oglala/Cheyenne River Sioux Tribal Park 63 General Description 63 Management 63 Interpretive Context 63 Visitor Experience 64 Resource Protection 64 Facilities and Services 64 Entrance Fees 64 Access 64 Training and 'Employment 64 Acquisition, Development, and Operating Costs 65 Impact Analysis 65 Natural Resources 65 Cultural Resources 65 Sociocultural Environment 65 Visitor Experience 66 Local Economy 66 Feasibility for Affiliation with the National Park System 66 Other Alternatives Considered 67

Consultation and Coordination 72 Public Involvement 72 Public Meetings - june 1991 72 Initial Ethnographic Interviewing- August 1991 72 The Lakota Cultural Review Panel- November 1991 73 Rapid Ethnographic Assessment- November-December 1991 73 Preliminary Alternatives - March 1992 73 Cultural Evaluation of Alternatives- March 1992 73 Public Interest and Support 74

Appendix A: Assistance Available through Existing Programs 75 Appendix B: Summary of Public Responses to the Preliminary Alternatives 77 Appendix C: Alternative Interpretive Concepts 82 Bibliography 83 Study Team and Consultants 89

vii CONTENTS

MAPS

Region 5 Route of Big Foot and His People to Wounded Knee 16 The Wounded Knee Massacre- Dec. 29, 1890 17 Floodplain 26 Existing Conditions 30 Landownership 33 Alternative 1 - Preserving the Historic Landscape 49 Alternative 2 - Cooperatively Managing the Historic Landscape 59

TABLES

1: Themes and Subthemes Potentially Represented by a National Park System Unit at Wounded Knee, South Dakota 7 2: Population Characteristics, Wounded Knee Study Area 38 3: Employment by Sector, Wounded Knee Study Area 39 4: Black Hills Area Visitation 40 5: Twenty-Year Annual Visitation Projections 42 6: Summary of Alternatives 68

viii On the morning of December 29, 1890, the Seventh Cavalry of the U.S. Army engaged the Lakota followers of Chief Big Foot in a bloody and tragic confrontation near Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota. At ap­ proximately 9:15 A.M. a rifle was fired, precipitating a violent outbreak of gunfire on both sides. The most intense fighting occurred within the first 30 minutes, with many Lakotas being shot as they tried to flee to the west through a dry ravine. Accounts from eyewitnesses indicate that sporadic gun fire continued perhaps until early after­ noon. It was nearly 5 P.M. before the wounded were evacuated, and the troops and many of the surviving Indians left for the Pine Ridge Agency. The U.S. Army lost 25 soldiers, many from their own cross­ fire; more than 250 Lakota men, women, and children died.

)_ INTRODUCTION

THE SIGNIFICANCE rating the tragic events at Wounded Knee OF WOUNDED KNEE on December 29, 1890. Two alternatives propose the establishment of a national The tragedy at Wounded Knee has been memorial as part of the national park sys­ recognized by American Indians, scholars, tem, and a third alternative proposes an and the general public as a symbolic event intertribal park that would be managed by in the long history of relations between the the Cheyenne River and Oglala Sioux Indian and white societies. What tran­ tribes and that could be affiliated with the spired at Wounded Knee in 1890 has been national park system. In accordance with described as both a massacre and a battle, NPS policies, and to reflect the full range reflecting two polarized interpretations of alternatives mentioned by the public, a that have evolved since reporters and no-action alternative is also considered. photographers dramatically brought the Under this alternative existing conditions event to the attention of the American at the Wounded Knee site would be con­ public in the last days of 1890. tinued, without the establishment of a national memorial or park. For the Lakotas, Wounded Knee shattered the Ghost Dance religious beliefs, broke The alternatives address the following their sacred hoop of the world, and left the issues and concerns: tribe resigned to reservation life. The site of the massacre has become sacred ground, Concept for a national memorial - What consecrated by the blood of their people would be the purpose of a memorial? and commemorated by survivors, relatives, Should there be a monument to me­ and descendants. In 1973 Wounded Knee morialize the Lakota people who died once again gained national attention when at Wounded Knee? What should the several hundred Lakotas and their sup­ landscape surrounding the mass grave porters occupied the area in a violent ex­ look like? Should it be restored to look pression of Indian rights. like it did in December 1890? Or should all existing development be re­ For the U.S. Army, Wounded Knee com­ moved and the area restored to a prised a final chapter in the Sioux Cam­ natural appearance? paign of 1890-91, and the last major armed encounter between Indians and whites on Management - Who should take care the North American continent.* of the site and provide services? Should the National Park Service be involved? How should the Sioux tribes PURPOSE OF AND NEED be involved? Should there be a corn­ FOR THE STUDY mission to advise park managers? Who should be on the commission? This study of alternatives, which was re­ quested by the secretary of the interior, Interpretive themes - How should the analyzes three alternatives for cornrnerno- story be told to visitors?

"" The term Sioux is a French corruption of a Chippewa word for the peoples living to the west of them. The term coUectively refers to three tribes - from east to west, the Dakotas, Nakotas, and Lakotas, who are atl speakers of related Siouan languages. The Lakotas are also referred to as the Teton Sioux.

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Resource protection - What size area CRITERIA FOR PARKLANDS needs to be specially managed to pro­ tect the Wounded Knee site, including Under two alternatives a Wounded Knee the mass grave? How should these National Memorial would be added as a lands be protected? unit to the national park system. To quali­ fy for addition to the park system, a site • Facilities - What facilities are needed must be nationally significant, and it must for visitors and for site management, also meet suitability and feasibility require­ and where should they be located? Ex­ ments, as described below. amples of visitor facilities include a visitor center, parking areas, and rest­ rooms; management facilities include Criteria for National Significance office space, maintenance facilities, employee housing, and utilities, such The criteria for evaluating areas for inclu­ as sewage treatment. sion in the national park system are in­ cluded in the 1988 NPS Management Poli­ • Access - How would visitors get to cies and the Criteria for Parklands. These the memorial? Should they be able to policies state that a resource will be con­ drive to the grave site, take a shuttle, sidered nationally significant if it meets all or only walk? four of the following criteria:

• Entrance fees - Should the memorial • It is an outstanding example of a par­ be free to all visitors, only to Lakota ticular type of resource. tribal members, or only to descendants of the victims? It possesses exceptional value or quali­ ty in illustrating or interpreting the • Training, employment - What kind of natural or cultural themes of our training should be offered, and who nation's heritage. should offer it? Who should work at the site? • It offers superlative opportunities for recreation, for public use and enjoy­ • Acquisition, development, and operating ment, or for scientific study. costs - Who should pay for the acqui­ sition of lands? Who should pay for It retains a high degree of integrity as development and operations? a true, accurate, and relatively un­ spoiled example of the resource.

LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA These criteria closely parallel national his­ toric landmark criteria that were devel­ Wounded Knee is on the Pine Ridge Reser­ oped in 1983. A site that has been desig­ vation in southwestern South Dakota. nated as a national historic landmark has However, the chain of events that led up been determined to meet the criteria and is to the massacre stretched across the west­ considered to possess national significance; ern half of the state, from the Standing therefore, a national historic landmark re­ Rock Reservation, where Chief Sitting Bull quires no further analysis of significance was killed on December 15, to the Chey­ for consideration as a new unit of the enne River Reservation, Chief Big Foot's national park system or as an affiliated home, to Wounded Knee (see the Region area. The Wounded Knee site was desig­ map). nated a national historic landmark by the secretary of the interior on December 21, 1965.

4 Wounded 4North Knee South Dakota North Dakota DSC •Sept.'92 •WOKN •20,000 United States Department of the Interior National Park Service

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Nebraska

Region INTRODUCTION

Suitabmty and Feasibility for Inclusion threats to the resource, and staff or devel­ in the National Park System opment requirements. The feasibility of each alternative is discussed in the "De­ An area that is nationally significant must scription and Analysis of Alternatives" also meet criteria for suitability and feasi­ chapter. bility to qualify as a potential addition to the national park system. INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THIS Suitability. To be suitable for inclusion in STUDY AND OTHER EFFORTS the national park system, an area must represent a natural or cultural theme or This Study of Alternatives is one in a series type of recreational resource that is not al­ of proposals focusing on Wounded Knee ready adequately represented in the park or Lakota culture that date back to the system or is not comparably represented 1950s. and protected for public enjoyment by another land-managing agency. Congressional bill - The Wounded Knee survivors associations of the Cheyenne Cultural themes are defined in the History River and Pine Ridge reserva lions have and Prehistory in tile National Park System proposed legislation to Congress to estab­ and the National Historic Landmarks Program lish a Chief Big Foot National Memorial (NPS 1987). Table 1 shows the various Park and a Wounded Knee National Me­ themes and subthemes that could be repre­ morial. The bill was introduced in both sented by a national park system unit at houses of Congress on August 12, 1992. Wounded Knee. With respect to the theme This NPS Study of Alternatives is unrelated "Indigenous American Populations," a to the bill. national park system unit at Wounded Knee could place Lakota culture and histo­ The proposed legislation would establish ry in a larger context. Before the arrival of both a national memorial and a national white settlers, the Lakotas had traditionally memorial park at the site of the Wounded followed a nomadic way of life on the Knee massacre, plus a unit on the Chey­ Great Plains, pursuing the great herds of enne River Reservation. It would also au­ buffalo. But after 1890 they were forced thorize studies to examine the feasibility onto reservations where food was rationed (1) of designating a Chief Big Foot Nation­ to them. With respect to the theme "West­ al Historic Trail, with visitor centers on ward Expansion," Wounded Knee reflects Interstate 90 at Cactus Flats and on the the Lakotas' resistance and eventual resig­ Cheyenne Indian Reservation, and (2) of nation to reservation life, the growth and establishing a Crazy Horse Memorial decline of the Ghost Dance religion, and Highway. The National Park Service, in the last major armed encounter between consultation with a park advisory council, the U.S. Army and the American Indians. would be authorized to administer the site through a leasehold of Pine Ridge Reserva­ Feasibility. To be feasible as a new unit of tion and Cheyenne River Reservation the national park system, an area must be lands. The Park Service would also design of sufficient size and appropriate configu­ and construct, in consultation with the ration, considering natural systems or Wounded Knee survivors associations, a historic settings, to ensure long-term pro­ memorial to the victims of the massacre. tection of resources and to accommodate public use. It must also have potential for Cankpe Taopi: Wounded Knee Feasibility efficient administration at a reasonable Study, 1988-1990. This study was prepared cost. Important feasibility factors include by Wyss, Inc., for the South Dakota Histor­ landownership, acquisition costs, access, ic Preservation Center, and it was funded

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Interrelationship between This Study and Other Efforts

TABLE 1: THEMES AND SUBTHEMES POTENTIALLY REPRESENTED BY A NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM UNIT AT WOUNDED KNEE, SOUTH DAKOTA

Thematic Representation Themes and Subthemes in the National Park System Theme I -Cultural Developments: Indigenous Agate Fossil Beds National Monument, Nebraska* American Populations Badlands National Park, South Dakota* Subtheme D - Ethnohistory of Indigenous Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site, American Populations North Dakota* (Hidatsa and Mandan cultures) 1. Native Cultural Adaptations at Contact Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, Mon­ h. Native Adaptations to Plains Envi­ tana* ronments 2. Establishing Intercultural Relations c. Military Scouts e. Defending Native Homelands f. Defending Native Religious Systems g. Introductions to Foreign Religious Systems 3. Varieties of Early Conflict, Conquest, or Accommodation c. The New Demographics (1) Disease and Massacres: Their Cul­ tural and Biological Effects d. Changing Settlement Types (6) Reservations 5. Becoming Native American d. Native Responses to New Economic, Political, and Territorial Arrangements 6. The Myth of the Vanishing Native a. Ethnic Revitalization (1) Changing Tribal Statuses, Political, and Religious Systems

Theme X - Westward Expansion of the British Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area, Colonies and the United States, 1763-1898 Montana I Wyoming Subtheme C -Military-Aboriginal American Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, Mon- Contact and Conflict tan a 3. The Northern Plains Fort Laramie National Historic Site, Wyoming Fort Union Trading Post National Historic Site, North Dakota

* Units of the national park system potentially represented under theme I; units have not yet been formally classified.

by the South Dakota Historic Preservation cemetery. The study included a multi­ Center, the South Dakota Department of disciplinary team, directed by the South Tourism, the South Dakota Community Dakota state historic preservation officer, Foundation, the National Trust for Historic with representation from the South Dakota Preservation, and the South Dakota Cen­ Department of Tourism, the National Park tennial Commission. Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Wounded Knee community, the Wounded The purpose of this 1988-90 study was to Knee survivors associations, the Oglala help direct preservation and development Sioux Tribe, and representatives from the of the Wounded Knee massacre site and office of U.S. Congressman Tim JohnsOn of

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South Dakota. Volume one contains visitor Wounded Knee National Historic Landmark demand information, data analysis, a pre­ Nomination. Although Wounded Knee was liminary site inventory, and an identifi­ designated a national historic landmark in cation of critical issues. Volume two pro­ 1965, no nomination form was prepared. vides preliminary concepts on visitation, The draft nomination that has been pre­ management, and development of the site. pared and is now on review includes a Volume three contains numerous recom­ description of the site and its resources, a mendations concerning development and historic context, and a narrative of the visitation, including a preferred plan with events leading up to and including the the following major points: massacre. The nomination also proposes an 870-acre boundary for the landmark. This Interpretation should be from the national historic landmark .documentation viewpoint of the Lakotas. process is separate from this Study of Alter­ natives. The best memorial is the land. Special Site Report on Wounded Knee Battle­ • The visitor center should be located field, Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, South outside the boundaries of the site. Dakota. In 1965 the Midwest Regional Of­ fice of the National Park Service provided Existing roads should be rerouted a brief historical overview of the "battle­ around the site, and no vehicular ac­ field" site and described the physical envi­ cess should be permitted to the site ronment. The report concluded that the beyond the visitor center. site possessed national significance, but it contained no management recommenda­ All nonhistoric structures on the site tion. should be relocated. Report on Historical Investigation of Wounded Proposal for the Oglala Sioux Museum and Knee Battlefield Site, Pine Ridge Indian Reser­ Cultural Center. This 1989 document was vation, South Dakota. Prepared in 1952 by prepared by the Native American Resource Merrill J. Mattes, the NPS regional histori­ Development Association, Pueblo, Colora­ an, this report assessed the significance do, for the Oglala Sioux Tribe Parks and and suitability of Wounded Knee for addi­ Recreation Authority. Its purpose was to tion to the national park system. Prepared respond to the lack of tourist accommoda­ at the request of the South Dakota con­ tions at Wounded Knee and to stimulate a gressional delegation, the informal com­ tourist economy. The proposal consisted of mittee included representatives from the an Oglala Sioux Museum and Cultural Oglala Sioux Tribal Council, the Wounded Center, with four buildings encircling the Knee Survivors Association, the Holy Ro­ museum. The four buildings would in­ sary Mission, and landowners, as well as clude a Lakota art gallery, gift shop and the Park Service. The study recommended restaurant, hotel, and a studio for Lakota that a small unit of the national park sys­ artists. tem be created, but there was no consen­ sus on management, and the proposal was tabled.

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When the firing began, there was so much smoke enveloping the scene that nobody could be seen with distinctness. There was no wind to clear it away. It hung like a pall over the field. Through the rifts in the smoke, heads and feet would be visible. Women were killed in the beginning of the fight, just the same as men were killed. -joseph Horn Cloud, a survivor

For us, December 29, 1890, will live forever in the memory of Indian people as a day of infamy. -Melvin Garreau ------·------

THE WOUNDED KNEE MASSACRE

Historians frequently cite the Wounded A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Knee massacre as a turning point in OF WOUNDED KNEE Indian/white relations. But to the Lakotas, Wounded Knee symbolized an end to their Prelude to Disaster traditional way of life and resignation to living on reserva lions. On February 8, 1887, President Grover Cleveland signed the Dawes Severalty Act. During the late 18th and early 19th centu­ Championed by Senator Henry L. Dawes ries the Lakota homelands covered por­ of Massachusetts, the chairman of the tions of five present-day northern Great Senate Indian Committee, the act's pur­ Plains states (North Dakota, South Dakota, pose was to quickly assimilate Indians into Nebraska, Wyoming, and Montana). The white society by instructing them in farm­ Lakotas followed a hunting-and-gathering ing and the benefits of individualism and way of life, using horses to pursue the private property ownership. The act pro­ herds of buffalo that were essential to their vided for 160 acres of land to be allotted to subsistence. The buffalo provided food, the heads of families, and for smaller allot­ clothing, shelter, and a variety of imple­ ments to bachelors, women, and children. ments. Because of the Lakotas' nomadic Any "surplus" reservation lands were then existence, the concept of an individual opened to white homesteaders. As a result owning land was unknown. of the Dawes Act, the Lakotas lost more than 9 million acres of land. The allotment The Lakota culture was based on sharing, process seriously eroded the authority of especially with kinspeople in small and tribal governments, destroyed traditional large extended families (tiwahes and wico­ land tenure systems, dispersed close-knit tis). Several extended families made up a extended families, and accelerated the band (tiyospayc), and several bands consti­ spread of poverty among the Lakotas. tuted a tribe (oyate). There were seven affiliated Lakota tribes- the Blackfeet, Almost before the ink was dry on the Brules, Hunkpapas, Minneconjous, Oglalas, latest agreement, rations for the tribe were Sans Arcs, and Two Kettles. cut as a result of a government reduction in appropriations to the Bureau of Indian When Euro-American settlers started arriv­ Affairs. This loss of rations coincided with ing in the mid 1800s, they brought with a severe drought on the High Plains in them the concept of individual proprietary 1889 and 1890. Forced to abandon a satis­ rights, inevitably leading to a clash of fying nomadic way of life, the Lakotas had cultures. As the Indian homelands were to stand in line like beggars to receive partitioned and sold to settlers, the Lako­ their rations as handouts, further empha­ tas were relentlessly forced onto smaller sizing the shift from self-sufficiency to and smaller tracts of land. By 1890 five dependency. Lakota reservations in North and South Dakota made up just a small fraction of The Ghost Dance. The harshness of reser­ their former territory. vation life and the failure of the govern-

Note: The historical perspective of the events at Wounded Knee has been adapted from the national historic landmark nomination prepared for the site in 1990 by Richard E. Jensen and R. Eli Paut authors of Eyewitness at Wounded K11ce (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991). An important documented source for the Lakota vt:>rsion of what happened is Tl!c Wo!lndcd Knee lntcrvicws of Eli S. Ricker, edited by Donald F. Danker (reprinted from Nebraskn History, vol 62, no. 2, summer 1981). Ricker interviewed survivors of the massacre in the early 1900s.

11 THE WOUNDED KNEE MASSACRE ment to fulfill its treaty obligations On November 13, 1890, President Benjamin doomed the Lakotas to a life of despair Harrison ordered Secretary of War Red­ and frustration. But in 1889 rumors began field Proctor to ready troops for the field. circulating among Indian tribes of a messi­ The following day, Commanding General ah, sparking a glimmer of hope. In January John M. Schofield told Maj. Gen. Nelson A. 1889 a Paiute Indian shaman, Wovoka Miles, commander of the Military Division (also called Jack Wilson), had a great vi­ of the Missouri, to "take such action as, in sion that prophesied the end of white [your] judgement, may be necessary in culture. Wovoka lived near the Walker view of the existing situation." By Novem­ Lake Reservation in western Nevada, and ber 18 the War Department had dispatched in 1889 and 1890 two Lakota delegations troops to begin the military occupation of slipped away from the Pine Ridge Reserva­ the reservations. tion to find out more about what became known as the Ghost Dance religion. They Brig. Gen. John R. Brooke, commander of returned with the news that the Messiah the Department of the Platte, and about was truly on earth and that his coming 400 troops marched north from the rail­ would benefit the Indians, not the whites. head at Rushville, Nebraska, toward the The teachings foretold the return of dead Pine Ridge Reservation, arriving before ancestors, who would help defend their daybreak on November 20. Brooke's orders lands in the future, as well as the return of from General Miles were to protect the vast herds of buffalo, which would pro­ agency and to encourage the "loyal" faction vide sustenance and fill a spiritual void for of Sioux - those Indians who cooperated the Lakotas. The Lakotas embellished the with government policy. Over the next significance of the Ghost Dance by adding month additional troops were transferred elements of their own religious beliefs. to Pine Ridge from posts scattered across the West. The Seventh Cavalry, containing Whites viewed the adoption of the Ghost several officers who had fought at the Dance as evidence of the Lakotas' warlike Little Bighorn 14 years earlier, left Fort intentions, ignoring the primarily defen­ Riley, Kansas, on November 23, arriving at sive character of the new religion and the Pine Ridge on November 26. fact that the Ghost Dance promised su­ pernatural intervention in the struggle The Lakotas began to divide into two fac­ against the whites, rather than armed tions after the first army units arrived on force. Nevertheless, the Bureau of Indian November 20. Agents were ordered to seg­ Affairs perceived the Ghost Dance as a regate the "well-disposed from the ill-dis­ threat to plans for the assimilation of the posed Indians." At the same time the Sioux. Indian agents assigned to the reser­ Ghost Dance leaders "notified all those vations sought to ban all associations with who did not belong in the dance and the Ghost Dance on their agencies, sup­ would not join it, to stay at home or go to ported by white settlers convinced the the agency." By November 24 there were Indians were preparing for war. 150 lodges of these "friendly" Lakotas camped near the east edge of the Pine In late September 1890 a South Dakota Ridge Agency. The Ghost Dance followers, physician, Daniel F. Royer, arrived on the perhaps 3,500 people, congregated in the Pine Ridge Reservation as the new agent. northwestern part of the reservation in a His paramount goal was the suppression section of the Badlands that came to be of the Ghost Dance. He insisted that mili­ known as the Stronghold. This group of tary intervention was needed not only to dancers was comprised primarily of Brule suppress the new religion, but also to Lakotas from Rosebud, but many Oglala protect civilians from an imminent out­ Lakotas from Pine Ridge were also pres­ break of hostilities. ent. Despite the attempted segregation, the

12 A Historical Perspective of Wounded Knee line between Ghost Dance believer and Hump's band decided to join Big Foot's nonbeliever was never sharply drawn. village.

The Role of Chief Big Foot. Chief Big Far to the south, most of the Ghost Danc­ Foot and his band of Minneconjou Lakota ers who had found refuge at the Strong­ Ghost Dancers near the Cheyenne River hold left for the Pine Ridge Agency. Reservation had begun attracting attention in mid-September. Big Foot clung to the The Search for Chief Big Foot. Almost by old Lakota traditions and resisted efforts default Big Foot had become the center of by the Bureau of Indian Affairs to "civilize" attention. General Miles had sought to him. The Minneconjou' s Cheyenne River close the trail between the Pine Ridge and Reservation agent, Perain P. Palmer, re­ the Cheyenne River reservations, which ported that Big Foot's band was "becoming would keep Big Foot's followers from go­ very much excited about the coming of a ing to Pine Ridge. Miles called Big Foot messiah. My police have been unable to "one of the most defiant and threatening" prevent them from holding what they call Ghost Dance leaders, and considered his ghost dances." Palmer also complained band "malcontents of the Sitting Bull fra­ that nearly all of the dancers had Win­ cas." Miles believed that the situation was chester rifles. too volatile and the negotiations too deli­ cate to allow the introduction of such a A part of the Eighth Cavalry closely moni­ catalyst, and the order for Big Foot's arrest tored Big Foot's actions from Camp Chey­ was issued. enne, a temporary station only about 15 miles west of Big Foot's village. After the On December 21 on their way back to their army occupation of Pine Ridge, Lt. Col. Deep Creek village, Big Foot's band was Edwin V. Sumner was placed in command intercepted by Colonel Sumner. Big Foot of the army camp on the Cheyenne River, agreed to take his people unescorted to with orders to prevent Indians from leav­ Fort Bennett near the Cheyenne River ing their home reservations. Reservation and surrender. However, when Big Foot had not left by December The Death of Chief Sitting Bull. On De­ 23, Sumner sent John Dunn, a civilian, to cember 15 the situation was exacerbated urge Big Foot to start for Fort Bennett. when agency Indian police killed Chief Dunn unaccountably advised the Minne­ Sitting Bull, who had permitted Ghost conjous to head to Pine Ridge instead, Dancing on the "Standing Rock Reservation. warning that otherwise the Indians would About 150 of Sitting Bull's Hunkpapa be arrested and taken from their homes. Lakota followers fled the reservation and Big Foot had already received a message sought refuge. Big Foot offered to care for from several important chiefs at Pine these refugees, and perhaps as many 40 Ridge, including Red Cloud, who invited Hunkpapas joined his village. Big Foot and his growing band to come to Pine Ridge to "help make peace" with the At the time of Sitting Bull's death, Big Foot U.S. Army. In return for his help, Big Foot and his people had been on their way to was to receive 100 horses. No doubt moti­ Fort Bennett to collect their winter rations. vated by a belief that his people would be Now, fearing reprisals, they were reluctant safer if the various bands were consoli­ to go on. Hump, who had given up the dated, Big Foot was persuaded by his Ghost Dance, decided to go to Fort Ben­ council to travel to Pine Ridge. On the nett. However, Big Foot and his people night of December 23, the band quietly decided to return home to their Deep slipped out of the village and eluded the Creek camp, near the forks of the Chey­ soldiers. enne River. Some 30 believers from

13 THE WOUNDED KNEE MASSACRE

General Miles feared that this may have Indians all night [for fear] that they were turned "all the scale against the efforts that to be killed." have been made to avoid an Indian war." Troops from the Sixth, Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Cavalry regiments were sent to December 29, 1890 comb the country for Big Foot's band and to prevent them from escaping into the On the morning of December 29 Colonel Badlands. On December 26 Maj. Samuel Forsyth called a council. He ordered the M. Whitside, with four troops of the Sev­ Lakotas to surrender all of their guns and enth Cavalry and accompanied by a pla­ told them they would be taken to another toon of the First Artillery, was ordered to camp. This immediately started a rumor find Big Foot. On that same day Whitside among the Indians that they were to be established a base camp for his field opera­ taken to Indian Territory in what is now tions at Wounded Knee Creek. Oklahoma - a fate worse than prison to the Minneconjous. The Lakotas grudgingly Big Foot's Surrender. The Minneconjous surrendered a few old weapons, but be­ moved in a southerly direction from Big cause Forsyth believed the Indians were Foot's village. When Big Foot came down hiding their best rifles, he ordered a search with pneumonia, the march slowed to a of the warriors and the camp. crawl. On December 28 the band collided with Whitside's column just northeast of While a few soldiers rummaged through Porcupine Butte. Although Big Foot carried the Indians' tents for weapons, an Indian a white flag, both sides formed battle lines. from the council circle began singing Whitside met with Big Foot and ordered Ghost Dance songs and "stooping down, the Indians to move to the army camp on took some dirt and rose up facing the Wounded Knee Creek, and Big Foot west ... cast the dirt with a circular mo­ agreed. When Whitside demanded 25 tion of his hand toward the soldiers." Lt. rifles, the chief became evasive but pro­ John C. Gresham later said that when he mised to turn the guns over later. saw this action, he and the rest of the soldiers interpreted it to be a signal to General Brooke sent Col. James W. Forsyth attack the troops. But Dewey Beard later and four more troops of the Seventh Cav­ explained that the man threw the dirt "as alry, a troop of Oglala scouts, and another they did in the ghost dance when they call platoon of the First Artillery to reinforce for the Messiah." Whitside. On Sunday evening, December 28, Forsyth arrived at Wounded Knee and Shortly after that, Black Coyote (sometimes took command as senior officer. He estab­ called Black Fox) refused to surrender his lished a camp to the northwest of Whit­ rifle. A struggle ensued, and a gun was side's camp. Four Hotchkiss cannons were fired. Almost immediately fighting broke positioned on a little hill northwest of the out on both sides. The few Indians who tent camp. were still armed fought back, while others retrieved firearms from the pile of confis­ Big Foot's people camped to the south of cated weapons and joined the fighting. the soldiers along the north edge of a dry According to Whitside, the Indians fired ravine. Little movement occurred in the into Troops B and K and the soldiers re­ Indian camp that evening, although turned the fire. Dewey Beard, a young man at the time and one of the Lakota survivors, later said, The shock, the surprise, and the pall of "There was a great uneasiness among the black powder smoke obscured much of the

14

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A Historical Perspective of Wounded K11ee horror of the first few minutes of fighting, Knee Creek. Many Lakotas died in the when probably more than half of the fatal­ ravine, including most of the women and ities occurred. Big Foot was wounded in children. Dewey Beard, who also took the initial burst of gunfire and was later refuge in the ravine, later described what killed when his movements, according to he saw: newspaperman Charles Allen (an eyewit­ ness), attracted the soldiers' attention. I was badly wounded and pretty weak too. While I was lying on my At the time the shooting started, Capt. back, I looked down the ravine and Charles A. Varnum and 15 men of Troop B saw a lot of women coming up and had been conducting a weapons search of crying. When l saw these women, girls, and little girls and boys, coming the Indian encampment, starting on the up, I saw soldiers on both sides of north end, "towards the hill where the the ravine shoot at them until they battery was located." The remainder of had killed every one of them. Troops B and K moved to the hill where the artillery was placed. After the cavalry­ Troop movement then shifted to the head men evacuated the Indian camp, artillery­ of the ravine, where Capt. Henry Jackson men began firing the four Hotchkiss can­ and Troop C captured a small number of nons. Discharging 50 two-and-a-half Lakotas who had taken shelter under an pound explosive artillery shells per min­ overhang on the bank. A large war party ute, the cannons raked the Indian camp of Indians coming from the direction of the from one end to the other. As the fighting Pine Ridge Agency fired on the soldiers progressed, several men rolled one cannon from long range and succeeded in rescuing down the hill to the ravine and fired on the prisoners. Some of the Indian survivors the fleeing Indians. who escaped during the fighting found refuge at the Stronghold in the Badlands. The deadly gunfire at the council circle only lasted about 10 minutes before the By afternoon the shooting at Wounded Indian survivors began to flee. Most of Knee had come to an end. The army gath­ them ran to the south across the Indian ered up their dead and wounded and camp to the meager safety of the ravine began the slow march back to the Pine and ran to the west. Some crossed the ra­ Ridge Agency. They were accompanied by vine and escaped through the south line. most of the Indian survivors, including Others took the road between Troop E approximately 30 seriously wounded Indi­ (facing east) and the wire fence. ans who rode in army wagons. One soldier from the Seventh Cavalry recalled, Troop I was positioned south of the ra­ vine. Capt. Henry J. Nowlan, the troop Slowly, for the sake of the wounded, commander, testified, "from the position I the long column left the battleground occupied on the far side of the ravine, I where the reds were lying as dark saw the Indians come towards us into the spots in the winter night and their ravine and go up and down it." First came sign of peace, the white flag, was noncombatants who were allowed ·to pass moving gently with the wind. unharmed, Nowlan said, but the men who followed Ia ter were fired on. The column reached the Pine Ridge Agen­ cy at 9:30 P.M. Lt. Sedgewick Rice led his platoon of Troop E to the northwest where they pro­ When word of the slaughter at Wounded ceeded down the ravine toward Wounded Knee reached the agency, where the firing

15 Wounded ~ 01""-'"iiO--::zo MLL-CS Knee South Dakota DSC • Sept.'92 •WOKN • 20,01Z United States Department of the Interior National Park Service

Route of Big Foot and his people to Wounded Knee ------

Wounded Knee 4Nortl1 South Dakota osc ·sc8~;i;d·,~~~~ ·2o,ot1 Departn1cnt of the Interior Route of Big Foot and his NJtionJ.I r.uk Scrvke people to Wounded Knee Wounded Knee-Dec. 29, 1890

Dec. 15, 1890: Chief Sitting Bull of the A Col. james W. Forsyth, Seventh Cavalry, orders 0 Hunkpapa Lakotas is killed by Indian U' the Minneconjous to surrender their guns, auu-,,:?:a policemen; many of his followers leave for Chief soldiers begin a search of the Indian village. While the Hump's village to the south. Lakotas are being disarmed, a shot is fired in the council circle, and fighting erupts about 9:15A.M. Big I I!' I A Dec. 15, 1890: Chief Big Foot leads his band of Foot is wounded in the initial burst of fire and is killed V Minneconjou Lakotas east toward Fort Bennett later. for rations. Indians and Troops Band K return fire. A Dec. 20, 1890: At Hump's village, near the Soldiers and Oglala scouts south of the ravine V confluence of Cherry Creek and Cheyenne are inadvertently hit. I River, Big Foot learns of Sitting Bull' s death from I· Hotchkiss cannons are fired from the hill I' Hunkpapa refugees. Hump, who has given up the Ghost Dance, decides to take his followers to Fort overlooking the council circle. i Bennett. But Big Foot decides to return home, accompanied by about 40 Hunkpapas and about 30 of After about 10 minutes the Minneconjous begin Hump's Ghost Dance believers. to flee. Most run to the dry ravine and flee to the west, some run past the ravine and escape through Dec. 21, 1890: Big Foot's band is intercepted by the south line, and others take the road between Troop 0 Lt. Col. Edwin V. Sumner, Eighth Cavalry. Big E and a wire fence. Foot agrees to take his people on his own to Fort Bennett to surrender. A Hotchkiss cannon is rolled down the hill and. fired into the ravine. - A Dec. 23, 1890: A civilian, john Dunn, is sent to W urge Big Foot to leave for Fort Bennett. By mid-afternoon the shooting stops. The army_ However, Dunn instead urges the Indians to go to gathers up the dead and wounded, including Pine Ridge. Although Big Foot wants to stay in the approximately 30 wounded Indians, and slowly • returns to the Pine Ridge Agency, arriving at 9:30P.M. • village, he finally accedes to the wishes of the 1 : ...... ,,,, 'Jfl{-'tf'~>!l~ '''"'' ''''"''''' majority, and they quietly leave for the south. ) Jl I I I I I I I Ill I Jl j)J ' I J)J I, J li J J II J I);,' 6 On jan. 4, 1891, a total of 146 bodies are buried : A Dec. 24, 1890: Big Foot crosses the Badlands W in a tnass grave; however, more than 250 W Wall through what has become known as Big Lakota men, women, and children are believed to have Foot Pass. been killed. A monument is erected at the site on May 28, 1903, by Joseph Horn Cloud. A Dec. 26, 1890: Big Foot and his band camp V along Medicine Root Creek, seeking the Note: This map is largely based on sketches dwwn by Lt. Sydney A. Cloman, acting engineer officer, First U.S. Infantry, after his inspection o( '; shelter of steep bluffs. the site on JanuMy 3, 189L It shows Indian and troop positions when the fighting began. A Dec. 28, 1890: Big Foot's band is intercepted at W Porcupine Butte by Maj. Samuel M. Whitside, Seventh Cavalry, and escorted under a white flag to a military camp near Wounded Knee Creek.

Note: This map is bused on an 1891 map created by the U.S. Army, ;_-:Engineers Office, Headquarters, Department of the Missouri.

Wounded Knee-Dec. 29,1890 i A Historical Perspective of Wounded Knee had been heard 15 miles away, a furor Washington, General Miles launched an arose among the Lakotas camped nearby. investigation. Many Lakota men became enraged and fired on the soldier camp from long range. On January 3, 1891, the Army escorted a Brooke ordered his men to hold their fire. civilian burial party to Wounded Knee. A Civilians were convinced that the agency second contingent of soldiers came from would be attacked, but it never happened. the Rosebud Agency, under the command Nearly all of the Lakotas fled north to the of Capt. Folliet A. Whitney, Eighth Infan­ Stronghold. try, to meet the party. The burial detail had been detained because of concern about a possible Indian attack and a bliz­ The Aftermath zard on the night of December 31.

On Tuesday morning, December 30, the Captain Whitney counted 47 dead in the first accounts of what happened at immediate area where the council had met Wounded Knee appeared in daily newspa­ but noted "evidence that a greater number pers nationwide. That same morning La­ of bodies have been removed." During the kota warriors who were angered by the course of their task, the burial party col­ slaughter set fire to a small log school­ lected all the dead remaining on the site. house near the Drexel Mission, located Workers found numerous bodies in the about 4 miles below the Pine Ridge Agen­ ravine south of the Indian camp, where cy. Responding to the blaze, Colonel For­ many of the victims had sought shelter. syth led his regiment into a narrow canyon The next day 146 bodies were interred in a where his 400 soldiers were pinned down mass grave on the same hill from where all day by a band of no more than 50 war­ the Hotchkiss cannons had raked Big riors. Six soldiers were wounded and one Foot's camp. killed before Forsyth's troops were rescued by a squadron from the Pine Ridge Agen­ The total number of fatalities at Wounded cy under the command of Maj. Guy V. Knee was undoubtedly higher. Survivors, Henry. family, and friends removed some of the dead and dying before the burial party Over the next few days Lakota warriors arrived on january 3, 1891. Oral tradition also fired on the Pine Ridge Agency and among the Lakota people today tells of attacked an army supply train near the several bodies being taken and buried mouth of Wounded Knee Creek. along Wounded Knee Creek. Some of the Indians taken to Pine Ridge later died General Miles arrived on December 31 and from their wounds. Eyewitness Joseph took personal command at Pine Ridge. Horn Cloud compiled a list of 186 Indian Miles had grave doubts concerning the dead. Interviews conducted later with accuracy of the initial accounts of the fight. survivors and others by Bureau of Indian He began to hear of the severe casualties Affairs investigator James McLaughlin suffered by noncombatants. Miles also indicate that some casualties were over­ began to suspect that the 25 soldier casual­ looked by Horn Cloud. At least 250 dead ties were due to poor troop placement by is almost certain. Forsyth, which had resulted in a deadly crossfire. Miles was also displeased with By january 3 peace talks were again under Forsyth's performance at Drexel Mission way. On january 7 Miles requested Oglala on December 30. With the approval of leader Young Man Afraid of His Horses to travel to the Stronghold and serve as an

19 THE WOUNDED KNEE MASSACRE intermediary. Young Man Afraid of His Land, identity, and spirit are all tied to­ Horses was able to convince many Oglalas gether among the Lakota people. Spirit or to leave the Stronghold and to return to nagi is the essence of life and is related to the agency. By January 15 the last of the coming from the earth and living with the Ghost Dancers had reached the Pine Ridge animal, plant, and spirit resources of the Agency, and on January 16 Kicking Bear land. surrendered his rifle to General Miles. On January 18 Miles officially proclaimed the All land is, in a sense, sacred. It is the end of the Sioux Campaign. With the matrix of Lakota life, and there is a holistic "war" concluded, demobilization began relationship with the other forms of life in immediately. The majority of troops were the universe. Specific places may assume a transferred from Pine Ridge by the end of certain additional sacred quality or wakan January. because of important events. The Wounded Knee massacre site is such a With the help of family and friends, place. Wounded Knee survivor Joseph Horn Cloud erected a monument at the site of Lakotas generally agree that the mass the mass grave on May 28, 1903. The gran­ grave at Wounded Knee is a place where ite marker is inscribed with the names of respect is called for and should be shown many of those who were killed at Wound­ when visiting. Some of the spirits of the ed Knee. The inscription reads in part, dead may still be there. Regular pilgrim­ ages to the site take place by families and Big Foot was a great Chief of the Sioux individuals as homage to ancestors and a Indians. He often said I will stand in recognition of wakan. Small gifts of tobac­ peace till my last day comes. He did co, food, and personal items are often left many good and brave deeds for the along with ribbons in the four sacred La­ white man and the Red Man. Many kota colors - black, white, red, and yel­ innocent women and children who low. It is not unknown for people to visit knew no wrong died here. at night as well as in the daytime. Respect is also shown by the periodic cleaning up and raking of the mass grave site, which is AN ETHNOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE undertaken by various local church groups OF WOUNDED KNEE and other Lakota people. The strong feelings the Lakotas hold for Many Lakotas continue to live with the the Wounded Knee site are based on human suffering caused by the Wounded ethnographic interviews with Lakotas. Knee massacre, and the tragedy remains Ethnography describes a people's cul­ very real and poignant, as if it had hap­ ture - the distinctive beliefs, concerns, pened only yesterday. Many Lakotas con­ ideas, values, and related behavioral pat­ tinue to feel betrayed by the incident since terns that they share as members of a Big Foot was traveling under a white flag particular group. It also relates to how of truce. The promise of safe conduct was conflicts within the group are handled. broken, just as were all the other treaty

Note: The ethnographic perspective has been developed by NPS anthropologist Larry Van Horn from interviews with Lakota people conducted on the Pine Ridge and Cheyenne River reservations, August 3-18, 1991; the "Cultural Review of the Wounded Knee Alternatives Study," by Beatrice Medicine, 1992; and the "Rapid Ethno­ graphic Assessment: Wounded Knee Alternatives Study," by William K. Powers and Marla N. Powers, 1992.

20 ------·-- ·------

An Ethnographic Perspective of Wounded Knee

promises of adequate land, food, and other sacre was revenge for the annihilation of provisions. George Armstrong Custer's troops by Lakotas and Northern Cheyennes at the According to Lakota traditions, anything Battle of the Little Bighorn or Greasy Grass that afflicts the Indian people should be on June 25, 1876. The Lakotas still regard resolved by the seventh generation, and Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse as heroes for the Oglala medicine man Black Elk had having led that attack. also predicted that the tribe's sacred hoop would be mended during the seventh Another aspect of what happened is the generation. One of the results of this belief fact that innocent people suffered greatly is the Big Foot Memorial Ride Society (Si as a consequence for practicing their reli­ Tanka Wokisuye Okolakiciye), which was gion. The Ghost Dance was a peaceful way established in 1985 as a way to commemo­ to call for the revitalization of the Lakota rate the tragedy and to show respect for way of life - a return to the old ways the riders' Lakota heritage. before the arrival of whites - and they were persecuted for this. The Lakotas emphasize that the account of Wounded Knee needs to be told from their The Lakota story would also include the point of view, bringing out the stories that aftermath of the massacre. Suffering con­ have been passed down orally in the fami­ tinued for the survivors, some of whom lies of survivors. For example, one story made it back under conditions of great common among the Lakotas is that the hardship to the area of the Minneconjou troops had been drinking the night before. village in the Bridger I Cherry Creek area at Another story relates how a soldier fired Cheyenne River. Others stayed under the first shot, purportedly at an Indian equally adverse conditions among the Og­ blanket he himself threw in the air. The lalas at Pine Ridge. Lakotas also believe that medals of honor and pensions for active war duty were The Lakotas would like a detailed listing awarded as a cover-up of the massacre. of the American Indian groups and indi­ This is insulting to the victims, because in viduals who ended up at Wounded Knee. the context of Lakota values and situation­ Even though most of the victims were al ethics, people and human relationships Minneconjous, there were also Hunkpapas are more important than the possession of and Oglalas, as well as two Crees. The material objects. exact identification of who was there is important to the contemporary Lakotas Because of the involvement of the Seventh because it is the foundation of their own Cavalry, many Lakotas insist that the mas- survivors' history.

21 ,':j}~~iJJ;_.;_'

J:::ilS- '-'.,,~ ,~~:~·-~o.--::<'·

Photos courtesy of the Nebraska State Historical Society. ------

WOUNDED KNEE -JANUARY 1891 THE WOUNDED KNEE STUDY AREA

The Wounded Knee site, which lies in a primarily serve as residential and grazing low stream valley amid gently rolling access routes. grasslands in southwestern South Dakota, has experienced several physical alter­ The junction of Highways 27 and 28 is ations and intrusions since December 29, adjacent to the mass grave at Wounded 1890. The natural features, however, have Knee. The Bureau of Indian Affairs roads not been seriously compromised by the division has plans to improve Highways alterations. The three natural features that 27 and 28 in this area, including the pur­ have the clearest and most direct associa­ chase of a road easement, but action has tions to the historical event are the burial been delayed on any local improvements hill, the dry ravine, and Wounded Knee pending the determination of plans for a Creek. The burial hill was the location of national memorial or park area. the army's artillery during the engagement and, afterwards, of the mass grave. The dry ravine served as the major escape NATURAL RESOURCES route for the Indians. And Wounded Knee Creek gave the site its name and served as Topography a natural eastern boundary for the army and Indian camps and for the events in Wounded Knee is in the northern Great December 1890. Plains physiographic province and is char­ acterized by rolling mixed prairie grass­ The study area consists of approximately lands. The grasslands are often cut by 1,800 acres south of the community of wide and shallow stream valleys, and the Wounded Knee. This area includes the relief becomes slightly steeper along the mass grave site and the national historic Wounded Knee Creek and its tributaries. landmark. For a description of how this The elevations in the study area range area was determined, see the "Viewshed from a low of 3,177 feet, to a high of 3,540 Analysis" (page 28). feet above sea level.

The site is cut by a dry ravine running east LOCATION/ACCESS to west. Near Wounded Knee Creek, the ravine is approximately 50 feet wide and The community of Wounded Knee is in 20 feet deep with nearly vertical sides. As Shannon County on the Pine Ridge Reser­ the ravine extends west, the gulch becomes vation. Besides Wounded Knee, the nearest narrower and deeper as it cuts into the communities to the historic site are Man­ uplands, and it divides into smaller nar­ derson (approximately 9 miles to the row branches that rise to a ridge. northwest), Porcupine (approximately 8 miles to the north), and Pine Ridge (ap­ proximately 18 miles to the southwest). Climate The area's primary access routes are High­ way 27, which is a regional north/ south The climate of southwestern South Dakota route, and Highway 28, which enters the is semiarid and characterized by hot sum­ area from the northwest; both highways mers and cold winters. Precipitation aver­ are maintained by the Bureau of Indian ages 16 inches each year, most of which Affairs. Numerous secondary dirt roads occurs during May and June. Thunder­ storms are the main source of spring rain-

24 Natural Resources fall. Flash flooding can occur along minor identifying wetlands in the study area. tributaries as a result of heavy rains. Final mapping will take approximately two years. The area can be extremely hot during the summer, with temperatures exceeding The preliminary determination indicates 100° F on an average of 13 days annually. that the wetlands area is slightly larger Winds of 50 mph can be expected during than the 100-year floodplain, including all any month, but are most likely during oxbow areas (approximately 190 acres). summer. The area most likely to support wetland vegetation is along Wounded Knee Creek; Winters can be very cold, with an average higher elevations and tributary streams of 18 days per year with temperatures would be less likely to support such vege­ below oo F. Yearly snowfall averages 24 tation. In terms of any future facility place­ inches, with a couple of heavy snowstorms ment, the presence of forested or emergent each year. Heavy winds can create bliz­ areas of ash, box elder, willow, or Russian zards and snowdrifts of several feet, mak­ olive would indicate the likelihood of ing road maintenance and travel difficult. wetlands.

Floodplains Soils

Wounded Knee Creek flows northward Each soil series has varying features that through the study area, entering on the impose construction limitations on high­ southern side. Upstream from this point ways and foundations for low buildings. the creek drains 121.2 square miles. An All soil types are susceptible to erosion, estimated 152 acres within the 1,800-acre and highway construction would have to study area are within the 100-year flood­ include measures to mitigate adverse ef­ plain (see Floodplain map). fects, particularly in cut-and-fill sections.

The floodplain information is based on a The general soil association at Wounded preliminary analysis, and a flash flood area Knee is Oglala-Canyon. Soils consist of and probable maximum floodplain must rolling to hilly, well drained to excessively also be defined. The probable maximum drained loamy types that are deep to shal­ flood area is going to be significantly low over soft sandstone. Patches of silty larger than the 100-year floodplain shown soils, mainly dark-colored Kieth and Rose­ on the map, and no development or con­ bud soils, are scattered throughout the gregating of visitor use would be allowed Oglala-Canyon association. Oglala and in this area. Therefore, the siting of facili­ Canyon soils make up approximately 70% ties would be even more restricted than of the area; Kieth soils, 15%; and Rosebud indicated on the 100-year floodplain map. and alluvial, 15%. The full range of floodplain determinations must be made before any detailed site Kieth and Rosebud soils are also suscepti­ planning can occur. ble to frost heaving. Oglala and Canyon soils have fair to poor bearing capacities for building foundations, and Kieth soils, Wetlands poor bearing capacity.

The South Dakota Department of Wildlife Permeable underlying material affects the and Fisheries (at South Dakota State Uni­ water-holding capacity of most sewage versity) is in the preliminary stages of lagoons in the Oglala-Canyon association.

25 ($- Wounded North 0 10()0 Knee South Dakota DSC ·Sept.'92• WOKN • 20,005 United States Department of the ln~erior National Park Serv1ce

Wounded Knee community

ij~

lOO-year floodplain inside study area loa OJ Historic landscape protection area Floodplain Natural Resources

The topography and depth to bedrock are Vegetation limitations on the use of these soils as sewage disposal fields. Care must also be Vegetation within the Wounded Knee taken in reshaping waterways since soils study area is characterized by a mixed are susceptible to erosion until vegetation prairie grassland, with a few areas of is well established, which may require a dense shrubs and relatively few trees. In fairly long period in this climate. addition to the short-grass prairie ecosys­ tem, there is a riparian ecosystem along The suitability of soil for topsoil depends Wounded Knee Creek. Because of the largely on depth, texture, organic matter semiarid climate, plants mature early in content, and natural fertility. Sand and the summer and are able to withstand gravel suitable for construction purposes drought. Fire is part of the natural ecology generally are not available in Shannon of the grasslands. County. Among the most important grass species at Wounded Knee are buffalo, blue grama, Minerals western wheat, needle, and thread. Along with many other species these grasses pro­ In the past two decades the U.S. Geologi­ vide food fer animals, as well as nesting cal Survey and the South Dakota Geologi­ habitat for birds. As grasses decay each cal Survey have worked together on the season, or are set on fire, fertile organic Pine Ridge Reservation to identify poten­ compounds are added to the soil. Grasses tial mineral resources, such as clays, sand also protect most of the soil from being and gravel, zeolite, limestone, oil, and gas. washed away by heavy rains. Prairie wild­ In 1987 the Oglala Sioux Tribe established flowers include phlox, raceme, goldenpea, a mineral study program to compile the salsify, prairie-coneflower, and primrose. information produced by the mineral sur­ veys. The tribe's mineral study program is Shrubs and trees generally grow along the scheduled to proceed with mineral studies Wounded Knee Creek and tributary ra­ and development through the end of 1992. vines, with the exception of a few scattered conifers such as ponderosa pine in higher Mineral studies of the Wounded Knee area hilly areas. Thick woody shrub species (in­ were undertaken in summer 1992. Of the cluding skunkbrush, chokecherry, soap­ mineral deposits known in the area, zeolite weed, wild rose, and sagebrush) are dense­ and limestone are minor and of poor ly grouped and make cross-country hiking grade, being soft and brittle. Other mineral difficult. Trees commonly found along the deposits, including clay, sand, and gravel, creek are the plains cottonwood, green ash, have not yet been identified and are likely elm, hackberry, box elder, and several to be of little or no economic value. species of wiJlow.

By the end of 1992 the Oglala Sioux Tribe Rare plant species found in surrounding is scheduled to have completed all mineral areas are the slimleaf scurfpea, and the studies, except for oil and gas. Currently, largeflower townsend-daisy. Neither of the Oglala Sioux Tribe's mining codes are these species is listed as threatened or en­ being revised, and negotiations are being dangered by the state or federal govern­ undertaken with outside companies inter­ ment. No known rare, threatened, or en­ ested in any type of lease or joint venture dangered species exist within the study agreement that can satisfy both parties. area.

27 THE WOUNDED KNEE STUDY AREA

Wildlife lakes, and rivers where waterfowl and shorebirds provide an ample prey base; Wildlife found at Wounded Knee includes none of these habitat types is found at deer, antelope, grouse, beavers, badgers, Wounded Knee. skunks, raccoons, coyotes, foxes, prairie dogs, chipmunks, bats, rabbits, and song­ Prairie dog towns are considered to be birds. Wildlife is most likely to be seen potential habitat for the black-footed ferret. either in the early morning or the late Ferret surveys may be required prior to evening, since many animals find shelter any work involving a prairie dog town or in burrows and brushy areas during the complex greater than 80 acres. Any such day. work would be done in accordance with the Endangered Species Act and in consul­ There are about 25 kinds of reptiles and tation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser­ amphibians in the area, about half of vice. which are considered common. Reptiles include the prairie rattlesnake, bull snake, western plains garter snake, and eastern Viewshed Analysis yellow-bellied racer. Amphibians include the western painted turtle, the plains There has been relatively little develop­ spadefoot toad, boreal chorus frog, north­ ment at Wounded Knee since the massacre ern leopard frog, Rocky Mountain toad, in 1890, with the highest concentration of and Great Plains toad. structures in the community of Wounded Knee; other development consists of More than 200 species of birds have been scattered dwellings and churches within a sighted in the area. Those most commonly predominantly rural landscape. The only seen include the black-billed magpie, west­ other major human imprint has been the ern meadowlark, turkey vulture, grouse, construction of local highways. and golden eagle. The grasslands support much of the birdlife, and many of the Development is easily seen in this open species are sighted in the spring and early landscape. This was the critical factor used summer. in determining how much land should be included in a national memorial in order Threatened or endangered species that to adequately protect the historic scene. have been identified by the South Dakota Fish and Wildlife Department include the Since the mass grave site is the historical bald eagle, peregrine falcon, and black­ focal point of the Wounded Knee site, footed ferret. views in every direction from this point (called the viewshed) were analyzed to The endangered bald eagle is an occasional determine where nonhistorical develop­ winter visitor within Shannon County. ment is most intrusive. This process is Wounded Knee provides no suitable habi­ called a viewshed analysis, and it was tat for the bald eagle as wintering eagles done by on-location mapping and com­ depend on large water bodies and rivers puter-simulated geographic modeling. for feeding on fish and waterfowl. The viewshed from the mass grave is large The endangered peregrine falcon has also but irregular in shape because of the local been recorded in Shannon County as a terrain. It includes some distant views to migrant and occasional winter visitor. For the horizon, while certain closer areas are habitat the peregrine prefers marshes, blocked from view by low ridges or other

28 Natural Resources irregularities in the landscape. Because consisted of an Omaha dance lodge, a there are relatively few trees, there is little school, a Presbyterian church, and at least difference between the winter and summer six additional houses -all of which are viewsheds. unrelated to the massacre. None of these structures has survived. Although the viewshed from the mass grave covers several acres, development Maj. Samuel M. Whitside selected the would not have the same visual impact in community of Wounded Knee for his all areas. Generally, development that is camp on December 26, 1890, for several farther away is less noticeable. Also, an reasons. It was a known point on the road area tilted away from the viewpoint typi­ from the Pine Ridge Agency, and Whitside cally diminishes the visual impact, while believed it was near his objective, the elu­ an area tilted towards the viewpoint accen­ sive Big Foot band. The nearby creek pro­ tuates the visual impact. Development that vided water for his men and animals, and would adversely affect views from the trees provided fuel for cooking. mass grave was determined from a com­ puter-simulated geographic modeling In 1890 barbed wire fences enclosed three program. The model also indicates where small areas that may have been used for development would not intrude on this gardens or stock corrals. Although no view. evidence of them survives, two of the enclosures were important features during The area that is most critical to the protec­ the massacre. The westernmost enclosure tion of the historic landscape was deter­ partially barred the escape route used by mined using the criteria of distance, terrain some of the women and children. Conse­ orientation, and accepted visual features. quently, the escapees were funneled This area, including the proposed national northward between the northeast corner of historic landmark, consists of approximate­ the enclosure and the right flank of Troop ly 1,800 acres. It is not necessary or feasi­ E. When the fighting began Lt. Thomas Q. ble to incorporate the entire viewshed in Donaldson and his men of Troop C re­ order to protect the resources at Wounded treated behind the fenced area of the Knee. southernmost enclosure.

Historic maps indicate that several roads CULTURAL RESOURCES crossed the landmark, but nearly all ves­ tiges of them have disappeared. Historic Landscape South and a short distance east of the A small frontier community existed at burial hill is evidence of a crossing over Wounded Knee in 1890. The village in­ the ravine. It is too far west to match the cluded a post office that was housed in crossing shown on the map drawn by Lt. Louis Mousseau's general store. Mous­ Sydney A. Cloman in 1891 (see the seau's residence, and those of Red Bear, Wounded Knee map for Dec. 29, 1890), but Eagle Bull, Plenty Bear, Six Feathers, and it is in the vicinity of a crossing shown on Fire Lighting, were located nearby. The a version of the same map published six first accounts of the massacre were written years later in james Mooney's monograph in one of these structures, and after the on the Ghost Dance. army departed, some of the wounded found shelter in these houses. The other The granite marker that was erected in structures in the community at the time May 1903 at the mass grave site remains.

29 Wounded 4Nort/J /) Knee South Dakota DSC •Sept.'92 ·WOKN ·20,008 United States Department of the fnterior National Park Service

Bartlett Creek

~ BIA highway ~ County road f:---; o-::[ Dirt road ~ Existing structure IT] Cemetery Existing conditions Current Uses and Landownership

Archeological Resources Diagnostic projectile points for all current­ ly recognized cultural complexes on the Current knowledge of archeological re­ northwestern plains of North America sources associated with Wounded Knee is have been found (Hannus, Nowak and limited by the lack of surveys. The Bureau Winham 1984; Hannus and Winham 1985). of Indian Affairs has completed some In addition to the archeological data base, fieldwork in conjunction with planned a wide range of well-preserved environ­ highway projects. mental data have been recovered, such as pollen, phytolites, diatoms, mollusks, and Richard E. jensen, research anthropologist macro/ microinvertebrates. with the Nebraska State Historical Society, conducted an archeological reconnaissance of Wounded Knee October 17-19, 1989, as CURRENT USES AND part of the national historic landmark LANDOWNERSHIP boundary study. During the reconnais­ sance, square nails and salt-glazed pottery The approximately 1,800-acre study area at were found in the northeast corner of the Wounded Knee is divided into land par­ site, suggesting the possible location of cels that are either tribally owned, allotted, historic structures that had comprised the or deeded (see page 32). This area encom­ community of Wounded Knee. A shallow passes approximately 35 tracts ranging in depression about 30 feet in diameter and 2 size from 10 to 240 acres. feet deep was also identified. This feature closely corresponds to the location of the Mousseau residence, as described in histor­ Existing Uses ic maps and photographs. This kind of fea­ ture can result from a partially filled base­ The majority of lands within the study ment, and Mousseau had noted that his area are currently used for grazing. Exist­ house had a cellar. Archeological testing ing development consists of eight to 10 will be needed to confirm these prelimi­ residential dwellings and mobile homes, nary observa lions. two abandoned small frame dwellings, three churches with cemeteries, one par­ Metal-detecting surveys could shed addi­ tially constructed visitor center, one com­ tional light on troop and Indian move­ mercial site, and several garages and sup­ ments during the morning of December 29, plemental buildings. There are also foun­ 1890. Such studies could also provide spe­ dations of a trading post, a church, and cific information on the occupation of the residences destroyed during the 1973 occu­ site by Indian activists, local militia, and pation of Wounded Knee. Federal Bureau of Investigation agents in 1973. A Catholic cemetery around the mass grave was established early in the 20th Despite the lack of previous surveys, the century and continues in use at this time. potential for a rich continuum of prehistor­ It is enclosed by a chain link fence, and the ic archeological materials is likely at entrance is flanked by brick columns. In Wounded Knee. Research on prehistoric 1975 a Catholic church was constructed human ecology in the nearby White River immediately north of the burial hill, re­ Badlands has produced evidence of human placing the earlier church that was burned presence extending from the Paleo-Indian during the 1973 occupation. An active (Clovis) period through the historic period. Church of God mission consists of a cha-

31 THE WOUNDED KNEE STUDY AREA pel, meeting hall, utility building, mobile Landownership on Reservations homes, and a cemetery. A Presbyterian church building is little used; a cemetery is A large part of the Wounded Knee massa­ also associated with this church. cre site is on deeded land, although the mass grave site is on tribal land (see the The most noticeable modern structure is a Landownership map). There are various circular visitor center being erected by claims to ownership by families of the volunteers from the nearby community of Wounded Knee survivors and possibly Wounded Knee. This facility would pro­ others. An understanding of the policies of vide restrooms and other amenities for the Oglala Sioux Tribe concerning Indian visitors. lands provides a useful foundation for reviewing and considering title issues Public utilities in the area include electrici­ related to both tribal and allotted lands. ty and telephone. Water and sewer are· (All land records for Shannon County are available in the Wounded Knee communi­ recorded in Fall River County.) ty, approximately 0.5 mile northwest of the study area (see the Existing Conditions Many procedural statutes and regulations map). may either directly or indirectly affect title to any tract of Indian land. For example, lands are affected by constraints on the Land Values transfer of a landownership right odnter­ est to another, and by land trust status, Land values for the purpose of this study where land or an interest in land is held in are based on the selling prices of local trust by the United States for an Indian comparable properties, interviews with tribe or an individual. For land held in real estate agents familiar with the area, trust by the U.S. government, the govern­ landownership data, and property accessi­ ment is responsible for ensuring that no bility and productivity information. Local federal action will adversely affect or de­ land values currently range from $40 to stroy the physical assets of those lands. $300 per acre for undeveloped land and $500 to $1,000 per acre for developed land. Tribally Owned Land. Land currently The range of values cited for local grass­ owned by the Oglala Sioux Tribe is con­ land is $40-$125 per acre and $130-$300 sidered to be owned equitably by the tribe per acre for dryland cropland. for all members of the tribe. No tribal member has any inheritable right to any There have been no recent sales of local particular tract of tribal land, nor can any small acreages for rural homesites or com­ tribal member force the partition of tribal mercial sites; however, in nearby areas lands. Tribal real property interests typical­ rural homesites without water have sold ly arise as a result of one of the following for $500 to $800. The highest and best use means: by action of prior governments, by for these properties is as small farms or aboriginal possession, by treaty, by acts of rural residential tracts of various sizes. Congress, by action of executive order, or Four tracts within the study area are by purchase. owned in fee by private entities. The total assessed value for these properties is ap­ Allotted Lands. These lands have been proximately $10,100, with an estimated allotted to individual tribal members and annual property tax of $300. their families for their private use. The allotment is registered in the name of the

32 Wounded Knee South Dakota

~Tribal Jllll Deeded ..Allotted lc::t==l Historic landscape protection area Landownership THE WOUNDED KNEE STUDY AREA principal owners plus heirs. Mineral rights the reservation, and these acquired lands are also conveyed with the allotment. were then opened to homesteaders or Allotted lands may be used for any pur­ otherwise disposed of. pose that does not conflict with tribal land use regulations. For example, the allotment At the conclusion of the 25-year trust peri­ holder may subdivide the parcel, sell min­ od, a fee patent was to be issued in place eral rights, or sell easements to specific of the trust patent. However, a change in property rights. the policy concerning the issuance of fee patents before the 25-year trust period had To sell an allotment outright, the owner expired resulted in fee patents being is­ must have the agreement of all heirs. The sued to individuals where an allottee had tribe has the first right of refusal to buy not applied for a fee patent. This change in the land, and the U.S. government has the policy resulted in large amounts of indi­ second right of refusal. The Oglala Sioux vidually owned land being patented in fee Tribe may buy back allotted land, with the to Indians, who in turn conveyed such approval of the federal government. property to non-Indians. When a fee pat­ ent was issued, the lands became subject The 1887 General Allotment Act estab­ to state and local taxes. Subsequently, lished common procedures for the selec­ many Indian owners lost their lands tion of allotments of reservation lands by through foreclosure for failure to pay the or for individual Indians. The intent of the required taxes. act was to assimilate Indian people into white society and to terminate tribal land­ Individual Indians can sell trust land with ownership. The General Allotment Act the approval of the secretary of the interior provided that the United States would or his representative. If an Indian wants to hold the individual allottee's land in trust extinguish trust title to his or her land and for a period of 25 years, after which the hold fee title (including the responsibility land would be patented in fee to the allot­ of paying taxes), the secretary of the inte­ tee or the heirs. (A fee patent grants title to rior needs to find that the individual is land and the unconditional power to dis­ able to assume financial responsibility. pose of the property as well as the respon­ sibility to pay real estate taxes.) The trust status of allotted land can be terminated for a number of reasons, Allotment acts typically allowed the indi­ among which are the issuance of a fee vidual Indian allottee, or the guardian of a patent covering the land, the issuance of a minor allottee, to select a specific tract of deed to non-trust status, and inheritance land that would then comprise that indi­ by non-Indians or by Indians to whom the vidual's allotment. Upon approval of the government owes no trust responsibilities. allotment by the U.S. government, the individual was issued a trust patent for the Deeded Lands. Deeded lands are privately lands. The trust patent legalized the allot­ held lands identified by the Bureau of tee's selection of land, provided that the Indian Affairs. Indians can buy and hold U.S. government would hold the title to title to land purchased with their own the land until the 25-year trust period had funds. Some deeded lands on the Pine passed. Typically, when allotments had Ridge Reservation are owned by non-Indi­ finally been issued to all eligible tribal an people. members, the federal government pur­ chased the remaining unallotted lands on

34 Current Uses and Landownership

Mineral Rights and Outstanding Leases derground fuel tanks or trash disposal areas. One oi the most important steps in the development oi Indian mineral resources is the determination of the title owner of the Threats to the Wounded Knee Resource lands and resources to be developed. The examination of title to Indian lands is The most imminent threats to the Wound­ unlike the examination of deeded, federal, ed Knee resource are further vandalism to or state lands. The primary difference cultural resources and the potential for stems from the trust status of Indian lands, additional development in areas that and federal restraints on the transfer of a would result in the degradation of the landownership right to another person historic scene or the additional loss of ar­ (alienation). cheological resources. Vandals in the spring of 1992 sprayed black paint on the A mineral estate is held either by the tribe stone monument at the mass grave site. or the allottee unless it has been specifi­ Previous development, including the con­ cally conveyed to another party, which struction of Highways 27 and 28, has dis­ requires the consent of the Bureau of Indi­ turbed the area of the Indian camp, the an Affairs so that it is recorded and docu­ council circle, the army camp, and the dry mented. If there are no mineral leases at ravine where the Lakotas fled. The visitor Wounded Knee, the surface owners also center being constructed by local residents own the subsurface. However, this may or is near the council circle site and was may not be the case for deeded lands. placed without regard for possible impacts Mineral estates for deeded lands can be as on historic or archeological resources. fragmented as for allotted lands. To deter­ mine mineral ownership, a standard title The mass grave and the massacre site search is required. could also be indirectly affected by adja­ cent land uses in the future. As described Information about outstanding grazing in the "Viewshed Analysis" section, land leases cannot be obtained at this time due disturbances are visible for great distances to privacy provisions. in this open terrain, and the construction of a strip mine, a com'mercial complex, or even additional residences could adversely Existing Tribal Zoning Laws affect the scene.

The Oglala Sioux Tribe has no zoning laws Wounded Knee is sacred to the Lakotas, in effect. A draft zoning regulation has who continue to visit the site to honor been introduced to the tribal council, but their ancestors and to leave sacred offer­ no action has been taken. ings. These activities may be subject to disruption by the several thousand visitors who come to the site each year. In addi­ Hazardous Substance Determination tion, the solemn aspects of the site for both Lakotas and visitors are compromised by No hazardous substances are known with­ panhandling and peddling by a few Lako­ in the study area. One area that should be tas. Such activities, although discouraged physically checked is the former trading by some local people, disturb visitors and post complex in case it contains any un- adversely affect the site's sanctity and con­ templative nature.

35

------

Ruins of the Catholic Church destroyed during the 1973 occupation.

WOUNDED KNEE - SEPTEMBER 1992

1903 monument.

Mass grave. THE WOUNDED KNEE STUDY AREA

SOCIOECONOMIC CONDITIONS people per square mile, and the state aver­ age is nine people per square mile. Regional Overview Per capita income in the reservation coun­ The region selected for an overview of ties is considerably lower than the state socioeconomic conditions is comprised of average. This underscores the extreme lack five counties- Shannon and Jackson of business and industrial development on counties (which include the Pine Ridge the reservations. As discussed under "Visi­ Reservation), Dewey and Ziebach counties tor Use," tourist travel on reservation lands (which include the Cheyenne River Reser­ is limited, despite the proximity of these vation), and Pennington County (which lands to major tourist flows within the includes Rapid City and provides a com­ region. parison of reservation and non-reservation counties in the region). Generally, between 25% and 45% of the population on the reservations live below Lands within the region are used almost the poverty line, and unemployment is a exclusively for grazing and some dryland significant problem. Shannon County has farming. Towns are small, ranging in size the highest percentage of persons living from a few hundred residents (such as below the poverty line in the United Wounded Knee or Eagle Butte) to a few States. Unemployment is understated in thousand (the town of Pine Ridge has a the statistics due to the large number of population of 5,720). Rapid City, which is people who have ceased looking for work 80 miles northwest of Wounded Knee, is and do not collect unemployment compen­ the largest urban area in the region and sation. has a population of 52,500. Pennington County stands in contrast to The state's population grew slowly during the reservation counties, with a per capita the 1980s (a total growth of 2.5% between income higher than the state average 1980 and 1986; see table 2). Three of the ($10,170). Rapid City is a regional center four counties within the region grew faster for commerce and services, and regional than this, particularly Shannon County, tourism is funneled into the county on I-90 which grew over 12%. Populations in the and routes to and from the Black Hills. reservation counties are small, however, and population densities are only two or Agriculture in the region accounts for a three people per square mile. Pennington level of employment generally higher than County, in contrast, has a density of 28 the state average, and there is a greater

TABLE 2: POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS WOUNDED KNEE STUDY AREA

PERCENT POPULATION CHANGE PER CAPITA BELOW UNEMPLOY· COUNTY/STATE 1986 1980-86 INCOME POVERTY MENT RATE Dewey 5,500 2.1 3,430 23.6 7.9 Jackson 3,400 -2.1 3,683 35.6 4.7 Pennington 76,900 9.3 10,170 12.2 4.6 Shannon 12,800 12.7 3,419 44.7 12.1 Ziebach 2,500 9.2 3,392 43.7 5.6

South Dakota 708,000 2.5 8,553 16.9 4.7

38 Socioeconomic Conditions

TABLE 3: EMPLOYMENT BY SECTOR WOUNDED KNEE STUDY AREA (AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL EMPLOYMENT)

EMPLOYMENT SOUTH SECTOR DEWEY JACKSON PENNINGTON SHANNON ZIEBACH DAKOTA Agriculture 28.0% 31.1% 1.6% 9.6% 53.8% 11.8% Mining 0.0% 0.0% 0.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.7% Construction DO% 4.6% 5.5% 2.8% 6.6% 4.4% Manufacturing 1.8% 0.0% 76% 0.0% 0.0% 8.6% Transportation 7.0% 1.4% 4.5% 2.4% 0.0% 4.3% Wholesale 2.2% 2.9% 4.2% 0.0% 0.0% 5.0% Retail 19.9% 19.2% 18 9% 8.2% 6.4% 17.1% Financial 6.7% 1.8% 6.2% 0.0% 0.0% 6.7% Services 0.0% 18.0% 24.7% 41.9% 10.3% 24.0% Government 33.7% 20.9% 26.1% 35.1% 22.9% 17.3%

reliance on government and government An income profile of the three towns indi­ enterprises. This is particularly pro­ cates that 45% of the households have an nounced in Shannon County, where 35% income below $15,000. The average house­ of all employment is in government, and hold income was $21,947, while the aver­ where private sector employment shows a age per capita income was $4,811. There concentration in services and a lack of are no unemployment statistics specifically trade (see table 3). for the community of Wounded Knee, but unemployment is chronically high.

Pine Ridge Reservation VISITOR USE Manderson, Pine Ridge, and Wounded Knee are the three towns nearest the study Black Hills Area Tourism area. Each of these towns is similar in terms of age distribution, housing units, Western South Dakota is rich in history and income, so the information for all and scenic beauty. I-90 carries tourist traf­ three sites is averaged. fic to destinations throughout the upper Rocky Mountain west (including Yellow­ The 1990 population of Wounded Knee stone, Grand Teton, and Glacier national was 886, Manderson 1,027, and Pine Ridge parks), and it is one of the most heavily 5,720. The median age is 19.7 years. The traveled tourist corridors in the country. greatest portion of the population (13.6%) These travelers stop in the Black Hills and is between the ages of 25 and 34. The the Badlands, where there are one state population is 50.6% male and 49.4% fe­ and four national park system areas. An­ male. nual visitation is over 1 million at four of these parks, with Mount Rushmore, the According to the 1990 census, there are 245 most popular, receiving 2 million visits a housing units in Wounded Knee, 1,528 in year (see table 4). Pine Ridge, and 285 in Manderson. For all three communities 81.6% of the housing Badlands National Park is the closest ma­ units are occupied. The median value of a jor destination to Wounded Knee. The housing unit is $13,468. park features outstanding geologic and paleontologic resources and is easily ac-

39 THE WOUNDED KNEE STUDY AREA

TABLE 4: BLACK HILLS AREA VISITATION

AVERAGE ANNUAL SITE 1980 VISITS 1990 VISITS GROWTH Badlands National Park 964,652 1,338,475 3% Badlands South Unit N/A 13,329 Custer State Park N/A 1,241,023 Jewel Cave National Monument 90,527 137,632 4% Mount Rushmore National Memorial 1,689,827 2,144,724 3% Wind Cave National Park 969,764 1,169,648 2% Wall Drug Store N/A 1,200,000'

* Estimate given by Wall Drug Store personneL

cessible from I-90. The south unit of the ed that from three to seven parties visit the park additionally features the history and site each hour during the six-month peak culture of the Lakota people. The White season. With an average of 2.5 people in River visitor center is the principal visitor each party, this means that between 8,100 contact and interpretive facility in the and 18,900 visitors are now coming to south unit, and it received over 13,000 Wounded Knee annually. visits in 1990 (about 1% of the park's total visitation). The relatively low visitation is due to the distance of the unit from the Visitation Forecasts north unit and poor access, with relatively few paved roads. Towns are small, and Wounded Knee. Future visitation to there are limited services for travelers. Wounded Knee has been estimated based Although use at the south unit between on visitor use at eight sites that have an 1980 and 1984 increased at an average of American Indian or a westward expansion 4% per year, over the last few years use theme. has increased at a rate of about 50% per year. Besides the small visitor center, there Fort Bowie National Historic Site, Arizo­ is a campground. na - Open for 20 years, the site re­ ceived 8,200 visits in 1990. It is 12 miles from I-10 and 125 miles from Existing Wounded Knee Visitation Tucson. The fort was the focal point of U.S. Army operations against Geroni­ The traveling public consistently asks mo and his band of Apaches, and five about Indian culture and history. This is historic structures remain from the especially true of Lakota culture and histo­ period. The state promotes the site at ry, and Wounded Knee is a site of great a low to moderate level. interest. Although Wounded Knee is in a region that attracts many tourists, it is 50 Knife River Indian Village National His­ miles from I-90 (the principal east-west toric Site, North Dakota - Open for 18 summer tourism route). years, the site received 13,200 visits in 1990. It is 40 miles from I-90 and 60 Despite the lack of development, signs, miles from Bismarck. The site inter­ and services, a substantial number of visi­ prets Plains Indian culture and is tors stop at Wounded Knee each year. comprised of earthlodge dwellings, From observations at the site, it is estimat- archeological remains, and a moder-

40 Visitor Use ate-size visitor center. The state pro­ outdoor drama. Only minimal high­ motes the site at a low to moderate way signs are posted. The current level. annual promotion budget is $35,000.

Nez Perce National Historical Park, Ida­ Hubbell Trading Post National Historic ho - Open for 27 years, this site re­ Site, Arizona - Open for 25 years, the ceived 35,000 visits in 1989. It is on site received 185,000 visits in 1990. It U.S. Highway 12, 55 miles off 1-90 and is 40 miles from 1-40 and 50 miles 10 miles from Lewiston. It has a small from Canyon de Chelly National Mon­ visitor center, and both the Nez Perce ument and Petrified Forest National and Lewis and Clark national historic Park. The site interprets the role of the trails, along with Nez Perce culture, trader in Navajo culture, as well as are interpreted. According to the park Navajo history and culture. It is com­ staff, visitation is strongly influenced prised of the historic trading post, an by highway signs. Except for the active trading post, an American artist printing of brochures, promotion is collection, and a visitor center. Promo­ conducted by local businesses, cities, tion of the site is minimal and by and the state. word of mouth; it also attracts atten­ tion because of its proximity to other Big Hole National Battlefield, Montana­ popular national park system areas. Open for 23 years, this site received 50,000 visits in 1989. It is 60 miles Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monu­ from l-15 and l-90, and 100 miles from ment, Montana - The area consists of Missoula. It is comprised of a small a national cemetery established in 1879 visitor center and museum, which and a national monument established interprets the battlefield site and the in 1934. It received 233,000 visits in Nez Perce trail. There are only a few 1990. It is on 1-90, 55 miles from Bil­ highway signs. Except for the printing lings, Montana. The site includes a of brochures, promotion is done pri­ visitor center and museum, and tours marily by the state. of the battlefield are offered. Promo­ tion by the state and general public Horseshoe Bend National Military Park, recognition are high. Alabama - Open for 30 years, the site received 123,000 visits in 1990. It is 50 Visitation at these eight sites is between miles from 1-85 and 75 miles from 8,000 and 233,000, and it is unlikely that Montgomery. The site interprets the visitation at Wounded Knee would vary historic battle site and is comprised of much from these figures. The sites that are a visitor center and museum; tours of most heavily visited tend to be those that the battlefield are also offered. Promo­ have been open longer than 20 years, are tion and highway signing are minimal. marketed quite heavily (either by the site or by a third party such as a state), and lie Cherokee Heritage Center, Oklahoma - in an area enjoying high existing tourism. Open for 23 years, this site in Tahle­ quah, Oklahoma, received 150,000 Of these eight sites, Little Bighorn Battle­ visits in 1989. It is near U.S. Highway field is probably the best site to compare 62 on the edge of the Ozark tourism with Wounded Knee in terms of the nature region. At the end of the Trail of of the event it interprets. Little Bighorn Tears, this site has a large museum, a Battlefield, however, has been open to the living history Indian village, and an public for many years, and it lies almost

41 THE WOUNDED KNEE STUDY AREA directly on I-90. Because Wounded Knee is visited by those interested in regional about 70 miles south of I-90, initial visi­ culture and history, as well as in the tation would probably be less, although events leading up to the Wounded Knee comparable visitation levels could be ex­ massacre. The Bridger I Cherry Creek site is pected in the long term. not in an area of high tourism and is away from all principal travel routes. Based on The Wounded Knee site is already a na­ visitation at comparable sites, between tionally recognized site, although no ef­ 8,000 and 10,000 visits a year are projected. forts are made to publicize it. The state of South Dakota is one of the nation's leading Future Growth. The regional sites refer­ marketers of tourist resources, and the enced above have experienced an annual public has been exposed to the richness of growth of about 3% over the last 10 years. the region's Lakota heritage through such It is expected that this growth level will recent movies such as Dances with Wolves continue, and this rate has been applied to and Thunderheart. both the Wounded Knee and Bridger/ Cherry Creek sites (see table 5). Designating a Wounded Knee National Memorial would provide additional expo­ TABLE 5: TWENTY-YEAR ANNUAL sure for the site as part of the national VISITATION PROJECTIONS park system and through marketing efforts (3% ANNUAL GROWTH) by the state. Present visitation (estimated to be between 8,100 and 18,900 visitors) WOUNDED KNEE LOW ESTIMATE HIGH ESTIMATE could increase 10-fold within five years After 5 Years 80,000 190,000 After 10 Years 92,742 220,262 after development is completed, resulting After 20 Years 124,637 296,014 in visitation levels of between 80,000 and BRIDGER/ 190,000 a year. CHERRY CREEK After 5 Years 8,000 10,000 Bridger/Cherry Creek. While the main After 10 Years 9,274 11,593 focus for visitation would be the Wounded After 20 Years 12,464 15,580 Knee site, a visitor facility and monument at Bridger I Cherry Creek would also be

42 Si Tanka - Big Foot - was known as a man of peace, and what greater gift can we give to him than to make a place where peace could be. -Leonard Little Finger

The land speaks for itself and that's the way it should be left. -Alex White Plume

Don't establish a park here- let them rest in peace. -William Horn Cloud

Something suitable and fitting should be erected in their memo­ ry. A historic place can be created, and it can be positive. -Marie Not Help Him

People want to come and know what really happened at Wounded Knee. They want to know the real story, and a lot of tlze true stories never come out in books. -Claudia Iron Hawk I

I Comments from public meetings on Wounded Knee, June 18-28, 1991.

I l_ ------~---

DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES

The three action alternatives being consid­ pay homage to their relatives killed at ered for the Wounded Knee site would all Wounded Knee and non-Lakota visitors acknowledge the massacre, memorialize coming to see the site of the 1890 massacre the Lakota victims, and interpret the sig­ they have heard or read about. nificance of the site. Each alternative would also address the issues and con­ Management. The site is not now formally cerns listed in the "Purpose of and Need managed. As previously mentioned, the for the Plan" (see page 3). The differences mass grave and adjacent areas are occa­ between alternatives relate primarily to sionally cleaned of accumulated trash by who would manage the area and how re­ various church and community groups. sources would be protected. Additional alternatives may be generated by recom­ Interpretive Themes and the Visitor Expe­ bining various elements of each alterna­ rience. No formal interpretation is con­ tive. ducted at the Wounded Knee site. An interpretive sign near the intersection of In accordance with NPS planning guide­ Highways 27 and 28 identifies the site and lines, and to reflect the range of alterna­ briefly tells of the massacre. Visitors would tives mentioned by the public, an alterna­ probably continue to be able to walk tive that would continue existing condi­ through the cemetery and visit the mass tions is also described. This alternative is grave. referred to as a no-action alternative, and it is the basis for comparing the impacts of Occasionally non-Lakota visitors make alternatives 1, 2, and 3. The alternatives contact with visiting Lakotas or neighbor­ and their impacts are summarized in table ing residents and hear family stories about 6 at the end of this chapter. the massacre. In addition, either through tribal-office arrangements or other word­ Any proposal that would significantly of-mouth arrangements, individual Lakotas affect either the Oglala Sioux Tribe or the may conduct guided tours of the site. Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe could not be put into effect without the approval of the Activities such as panhandling as well as respective tribal governments. peddling would probably continue.

Resource Protection. The massacre site NO-ACTION ALTERNATIVE: CON­ and the mass grave are not protected and TINUED EXISTING CONDITIONS are subject to vandalism, as evidenced by recent black spray painting on the 1903 General Description monument at the grave site. The status of national historic landmark affords a proce­ Under the no-action alternative existing dure to protect resources from adverse conditions at the Wounded Knee site, as federal actions. Otherwise, there are no described in the previous chapter, would procedures to prevent potential develop­ continue. A formal park or memorial ment or to protect the historic landscape or would not be established, and informal archeological resources. patterns of visitation would continue. These patterns include Lakotas coming to

45

L DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES

Facilities and Services. No facilities or Highways 27 and 28 would probably be services of any kind exist at Wounded realigned by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Knee. Local community residents are but they might not be relocated entirely building a visitor center east of the burial out of the historic area (including the na­ hill to provide restrooms and other ameni­ tional historic landmark). Their original ties for visitors. No other development construction affected historic components plans relating to the Wounded Knee site of the Wounded Knee site, and their relo­ are known. cation could continue to intrude on the historic scene and perhaps further impact archeological resources associated with the Impact Analysis 1890 massacre.

Nat ural Resources. Local practices affect­ Sociocultural Environment. Visitors would ing grassland and riparian habitats in the continue to come to the site, and the num­ study area would likely continue in an ber of visitors could increase in the future. unplanned manner, including the growth Because access and parking facilities are of exotic species. The natural attributes of inadequate or lacking, coupled with a lack the site would probably not be restored for of control on where visitors would be able commemorative purposes. to go, visitors would be more likely to in­ trude on the privacy of local residents, as No concerted efforts to protect potential well as on Lakotas showing respect for the populations of two rare plant species (the dead. This impact would be most notice­ slimleaf scurfpea and the large flower able near the mass grave and cemetery townsend-daisy) would be taken. site.

Cultural Resources. Threats to historic Visitor Experience. Current impromptu resources at Wounded Knee as a result of interpretive talks can be very interesting to vandalism and uncontrolled development non-Lakota visitors, but they are not com­ would likely continue under this alterna­ prehensive. Opportunities for visitors to tive. For example, the visitor center now learn the whole story of Chief Big Foot's under construction in the middle of the journey from Cheyenne River, as well as Wounded Knee site near the historic coun­ the full meaning of the massacre to the cil circle was placed without regard for Lakota people and culture, would be diffi­ possible impacts on archeological or histo­ cult to offer to all visitors without the ric resources, and no archeological surveys establishment of a Big Foot Trail and relat­ were conducted beforehand. The building ed interpretive media. intrudes on the historic landscape and was erected against the wishes of many Lako­ Some non-Lakota visitors are disappointed tas. to find that there is nothing onsite to com­ memorate the massacre. Other visitors Future construction or modification of who are knowledgeable about the events existing buildings would add more nonhis­ say they experience feelings of awe and toric elements to the landscape and in­ spiritual enhancement towards healing. creasingly detract from the historic appear­ ance of the site. Present commemorative Panhandling and peddling onsite disturb activities undertaken by families of survi­ Lakota and non-Lakota visitors alike and vors could be affected by any additional compromise the solemnity of the site. incompatible development or use. These practices would probably continue.

46 ---·------

Elements Common to Alternatives 1, 2, and 3

Local Economy. The completion of the other monuments that commemorate a locally built visitor center would provide a human tragedy, such as the Vietnam Vet­ focus for visitors coming to the site, and erans Memorial in Washington, D.C. items sold at the center could benefit the local Wounded Knee economy. However, a possible lack of funds to complete the Big Foot National Historic Trail center or to provide staff on a regular basis Feasibility Study makes the status of the project unclear. Under alternatives 1, 2, and 3 congressio­ nal authorization would be sought to ELEMENTS COMMON TO study the feasibility of establishing a Big ALTERNATIVES 1, 2, AND 3 Foot National Historic TraiL A national historic trail is a route that is important Monument to the Victims with respect to American history. Such a trail has significant potential for historical Under alternatives 1, 2, and 3 a monument interpretation and appreciation. The route would be developed to commemorate the Chief Big Foot and his followers took to Wounded Knee tragedy. What happened Wounded Knee may qualify for designa­ at Wounded Knee is significant in history, tion as a national historic trail. and the design of the monument needs to recognize this significance. This Study of The feasibility study would verify the Alternatives does not address how the actual route taken by the Minneconjous, monument would look, not does it discuss and possibly the route taken by Sitting where it should be located specifically; Bull's people after his murder. The study these are highly sensitive issues among the would also help identify the location of Lakota people, and various alternatives Big Foot's camp in the Bridger/Cherry need to be carefully considered by the Creek area and establish its significance. Lakota people to ensure that whatever is The feasibility study would be presented developed is in keeping with the spirit of to Congress, which would then decide Wounded Knee. Therefore, a separate plan whether or not to designate such a trail. should be undertaken once a memorial has been established. One possibility would be If a national historic trail was designated, a to hold a design competition so that a fuJI comprehensive management and use plan range of concepts can be considered. would be prepared. Interpretive markers would be posted along the route, and trail Numerous ideas have been expressed easements from willing landowners would throughout this study process about how be acquired for hiking and horseback rid­ best to commemorate the tragedy. Most of ing, as well as vehicular access. Visitor use the comments emphasize that the monu­ sites along the trail would also be deter­ ment should be Lakota in spirit as well as mined. Operating funds for the trail would in artistic expression, that the names of the come from local, state, and federal agen­ victims and survivors should be displayed, cies. and that the monument should be a place for contemplation and healing. Depending on the design selected, the monument may include elements of architectural form, landscape design, or statuary. The monu­ ment might also draw from examples of

47

L_ DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES

ALTERNATIVE 1: A WOUNDED KNEE Management. Wounded Knee National NATIONAL MEMORIAL- PRESERV­ Memorial would be managed by the Na­ ING THE HISTORIC LANDSCAPE tional Park Service, in close cooperation with the Oglala and Cheyenne River Sioux General Description tribes and in accordance with NPS Man­ agement Policies (NPS 1988). Wounded Knee would be designated a national memorial, and it would be includ­ An advisory commission would be estab­ ed in the national park system under man­ lished by Congress to make recommenda­ agement by the National Park Service. A tions about management activities, inter­ visitor center would be developed to ex­ pretive proposals, and the design of the plain what happened and would include monument. Members of the advisory com­ exhibits and audiovisual presentations. To mission would include representatives recognize that Big Foot and his people from the Oglala and Cheyenne River Sioux came from Cheyenne Rivet; a visitor facili­ tribes, the survivors associations, and the ty and monument would also be estab­ Wounded Knee community, plus repre­ lished in the Bridger/Cherry Creek area at sentatives from the state of South Dakota, a site yet to be determined, possibly near the National Park Service, and the Smith­ the historic location of Big Foot's camp. sonian Institution. Chairmanship of the commission would alternate between the As a sacred area to the Lakota people, the Oglala and Cheyenne River tribes. mass grave and massacre site would be protected in a respectful manner that Interpretive Themes. At Wounded Knee would dignify those who gave their lives. the interpretive story would concentrate on Traditional Lakota religious practices (such the tragic events that occurred at Wound­ as the leaving of offerings and paying ed Knee, and that story would fully por­ homage) would be allowed. The memorial tray the Lakota point of view. All inter­ should be an area of healing for future pretive media, including personal services, generations of both Lakotas and whites. would be provided in both Lakota and The national memorial should include English. The major objective of the inter­ sufficient land area to ensure that required pretive program would be to recognize development would not intrude on other that Wounded Knee is not only the site of uses or activities. the massacre, but that it now should be a site for healing between the Lakota and To contribute to the sanctity of the area, white peoples. commercial activities would be prohibited within the national memorial. Highway 27 Two concepts for how the national me­ would be rerouted around the national morial would look are suggested. One con­ memorial and would intersect Highway 28 cept is to restore the land to its natural outside the historic area. appearance to honor Mother Earth. Mod­ ern structures would be removed or visu­ If requested by the local community, the ally covered, but the mass grave and the National Park Service could offer assis­ 1903 marker would remain. The modern tance to the community of Wounded Knee cemeteries would in all likelihood also to help mitigate any adverse effects of remain, but limits on future burials and increased tourism. Forms of assistance the locations of those burials is an issue might include cooperative planning and that would need to be addressed in future visitor education about Lakota customs. planning for the memorial, which would be done in close coordination with the

48 Wounded 4North 0 lOtiO Knee South Dakota DSC •Sept.'92 •WOKN •20,009 United Stales Department of the h1terior National Park Service

Wounded Knee community

\~I Proposed road realignment Lands to be aquired for the Oglala Sioux Tribe with federal funds and managed by the National Park Service

Alternative 1 Preserving the historic landscape DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES

Lakota people. No interpretive exhibits Upon arrival at Wounded Knee visitors would be placed within the restored area, would be directed to the visitor center for and access to the historic area would be information, orientation, and an overview controlled. of the Lakota story. Visitors wishing to visit the mass grave, the massacre site, and The other concept is to restore Wounded the monument to the Lakota victims, or to Knee to the way it looked at the time of explore the grounds, would be conducted Big Foot's arrival, including the army and individually or on regularly guided tours Indian encampments. Alternatively, mark­ by Lakota guides from the visitor center. ers could be placed to identify important historic locations in the Wounded Knee To recognize that Big Foot and his follow­ area. ers came from Cheyenne River, the visitor facility and monument located near Big At the Bridger/Cherry Creek area a visitor Foot's camp in the Bridger/Cherry Creek facility and monument would be devel­ area could concentrate its interpretive oped to focus on telling the story of Big efforts on telling the story of Big Foot and Foot and the Minneconjou people. The site the Minneconjou people. The events that has not yet been determined. led to the journey to Wounded Knee, in­ cluding the establishment of individual Visitor Experience. All elements of the reservations, the Ghost Dance, and the visitor experience at Wounded Knee arrest and killing of Sitting Bull, could be would be directed to establishing a feeling interpreted from Big Foot's perspective. for the sacred nature of the area and a Both visitor facilities would inform visitors sense of reverence. The visitor facility of other visitor facilities, events, and sites could be developed on a hillside on the to visit on the reservations. periphery of or outside the historic land­ mark, where there would be a panoramic Details of the interpretive stories, specific view of the mass grave and the massacre interpretive themes, and interpretive me­ site. So as not to intrude on the historic dia would be determined in future plan­ scene, it might be possible to build the ning. structure partially underground. Resource Protection. The focus of resource The visitor facility might basically be a protection would be the national historic theater with a very powerful audiovisual landmark and lands seen from the mass presentation. There should be minimal grave. This area comprises a historic land­ exhibits, perhaps selected objects and scape that retains the important natural graphics to create a mood, an electronic features and the gently rolling grasslands topographic map to show the route of Big that characterized the site in December Foot and his people from Cheyenne River, 1890. the point of surrender, and the movement of people at the massacre site. Wayside To determine the specific size and configu­ exhibits on a patio overlooking the site ration of the land area that should be pro­ could show the details of what the site tected at Wounded Knee, the National looked like in December 1890 and the loca­ Park Service used several criteria. Of pri­ tions of the various participants and ac­ mary concern is the 870-acre national his­ tions. A sales area would contain both toric landmark. The landmark's proposed interpretive materials and Lakota-pro­ boundary was determined through histor­ duced art and handicrafts. ical research and documentation to identi-

50

------Altcmati1X 1: A W01mdcd K~1ee National Memorial- Preserving the Historic Landscape fy where specific events occurred. The Facilities would be sensitively placed to proposed boundary includes the hill where preserve the open character of the land­ the mass grave is (which was also the scape and to provide a quiet, respectful location of the Hotchkiss cannons), the setting for the monument. No specific loca­ Indian and soldier encampments, the tions have been identified for these facili­ council circle, and the dry ravines to the ties, and facilities would not necessarily be west that were used as escape routes and developed at a single site. For example, where many Lakota people were killed. maintenance facilities should be far enough from the monument so that rou­ In addition to the national historic land­ tine activities would not intrude on efforts mark, adjacent areas also need to be pro­ to commemorate the victims. Likewise, the tected as part of the historic landscape. residential and utility area should not Based on a viewshed analysis (see page intrude on activities at the visitor center. 28), areas of critical visual sensitivity were Housing for employees could possibly be identified. This area includes approximate­ integrated into the existing community of ly 1,800 acres (see the Alternative 1 map); Wounded Knee. this area would also provide sufficient areas for the development of visitor and The placement of facilities would take into support facilities. If these lands were left consideration federal regulations to protect unprotected, future uses would have the floodplains and wetlands, slope and soil potential to adversely affect the historical limitations, visual sensitivity, and the loca­ character of Wounded Knee. tion of cultural resources (the national historic landmark boundary). A separate In alternative 1 all lands for the national plan would be prepared to specifically memorial would be acquired with federal locate needed facilities. funds for the Oglala Sioux Tribe. Acquisi­ tion and relocation costs are noted in the If it is decided that commercial services "Land Acquisition Costs" section below. (such as retail sales) would be appropriate An agreement with the tribe would grant and necessary within the national memori­ management responsibility for the national al. the tribe would have preferential rights memorial to the National Park Service. In to provide these services. Any commercial consultation with the advisory commis­ services identified as not appropriate sion, the Park Service would then deter­ would have to be located away from the mine specific guidelines for landscape memorial. management. Entrance Fees. Because the national me­ A site has not yet been identified in the morial would commemorate a tragic event Bridger I Cherry Creek area, and resource in American history that is important for protection requirements at this time are all to understand, no entrance fees would unknown. be charged.

Facilities and Services. A small portion of Access. So that the national memorial the lands within the national memorial could be managed as either a natural area would be developed for a monument, or a historic site, Highway 27 would be visitor facility, administrative offices, resi­ relocated and would intersect Highway 28 dential area, maintenance facilities, and outside the historic area (see the Alterna­ utilities (between 55 and 75 acres). tive 1 map). Both highways were con­ structed over the historic location of the

51 DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES

Indian camp, the council circle, the cavalry with the tribe would grant management camp, and the dry ravine area. The reloca­ responsibility for the national memorial to tion work would be undertaken in cooper­ the National Park Service. ation with the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Access to properties that are now served Acquisition costs under alternative 1 by these sections of highway would be would be approximately $825,000, includ­ maintained through alternative routes. ing the purchase of improvements, the relocation of affected landowners, and Access onto the grounds of the historic severance damages. The highest priority area for non-Lakota visitors could be pro­ for acquisition would be areas adjacent to vided by paid seasonal and permanent the mass grave site. Second would be the Lakota interpreters. Such guided tours 55-75 acres required for facility develop­ could include interpretation from over­ ment. The final priority would be the re­ looks or walks through the historic land­ mainder of the 1,800 acres, concentrating scape. first on the national historic landmark area. Training and Employment. A park man­ agement training program would be devel­ The location of facilities in the Bridger I oped for potential Lakota employees at the Cherry Creek area has not been deter­ Oglala Lakota and Cheyenne River Com­ mined; therefore, landownership is un­ munity colleges. Also intern programs known. Lands in the selected area. would would be developed at the park. These be leased to the National Park Service by programs would train Lakotas for employ­ the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe for man­ ment so that they could qualify for site agement. management responsibilities. In addition, preference for hiring would be given to The Uniform Relocation Assistance and Lakotas. Real Property Acquisition Policies Act (Public Law 91-646) provides for uniform Land Acquisition Costs. The total land and equitable treatment of persons dis­ area proposed for the memorial consists of placed from their homes, businesses, or approximately 1,800 acres. This area en­ farms by federal or federally assisted pro­ compasses approximately 35 tracts ranging grams. It also establishes uniform and in size from 10 to 240 acres. Most of the equitable land acquisition policies for fed­ lands are either owned by the Oglala Sioux eral and federally assisted programs. Actu­ Tribe or are allotted to individuals and al purchase prices would be calculated in families for their private use; all or parts of accordance with this act. four tracts are owned in fee by private entities. Relocation costs that would be provided in accordance with PL 91-646 would apply to As previously stated, the National Park the eight to 10 existing residential dwell­ Service would not own any lands; all lands ings and mobile homes that would be for the national memorial would be ac­ removed, plus three churches within the quired with federal funds for the Oglala proposed boundary. These costs would Sioux Tribe. A variety of acquisition meth­ cover relocation assistance and advisory ods could be used, including donation, fee services such as moving expenses, replace­ purchase, and exchange. The tribe could ment housing for homeowners, replace­ also assist in arranging land exchanges for ment housing for renters and others, and landowners or allottees. An agreement

52

------Altanath~e 1: A Wounded Knct> National Memorial- Prt>scrving the Historic Landscape displacement reimbursement for business­ Impact Analysis es, farms, or nonprofit organizations. Natural Resources. At Wounded Knee the Property owners would not be asked to development of facilities (a monument, a move until their property had been ac­ visitor center, maintenance yard, and hous­ quired and relocation assistance in finding ing) plus roads would directly disturb up a suitable replacement property had been to 35 acres of soils and prairie vegetation. offered. Additional cooperative planning efforts are needed with the Oglala Sioux Tribe for the Development Costs. The National Park final scale of development within the na­ Service would develop the visitor facilities tional memorial. At Bridger I Cherry Creek at both Wounded Knee and Bridger I up to 10 acres would be disturbed by road Cherry Creek. and facility construction, and similar coop­ erative planning would be required with Development would include a visitor facil­ the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe. ity and parking area; administrative, main­ tenance, and housing areas; and utilities. Sizes of facilities would be identified dur­ Preliminary development costs for Wound­ ing later detailed planning stages, as well ed Knee are estimated to be approximately as mitigating measures for development on $14.4 million, and for Bridger/Cherry certain soil types. The removal of existing Creek, $4.9 million. Total construction development on lands within the national costs would be approximately $19.3 mil­ memorial would return approximately 7 lion. This estimate does not include costs acres to natural conditions, and rerouting for designing and constructing a monu­ Highway 27 around the memorial would ment to commemorate the victims, devel­ restore approximately 22 acres to natural oping potential trails within the national conditions. (Construction of the new road memorial, placing existing electric and alignment outside the memorial would telephone lines underground, or relocating disturb an estimated 25.2 acres). a portion of Highway 27. Air quality would be temporarily reduced Staffing and Operating Costs. At Wound­ by dust, noise, and engine exhaust during ed Knee 12 full-time positions would be construction periods. Increased visitor use required after five years, plus 6 to 10 part­ over the long term would have minimal time (seasonal) positions. At Bridger I impacts on air quality. Cherry Creek 3 full-time positions would be needed plus 4 to 6 part-time positions. Water for facility development and visitor The intent is that all staff positions would use would be supplied from wells, which eventually be filled by Lakota people. would affect groundwater supplies. The quality of any water from subsurface Estimated staffing and operational costs sources, and required treatment, is un­ (including supplies and materials, amor­ known at this time. tized equipment, and other incidentals) for both Wounded Knee and Bridger/Cherry No development would be sited in flood­ Creek would amount to $950,000 by the plains or wetlands, and no impacts on fifth year. wetlands are anticipated.

Two rare plant species - the slimleaf scurfpea and the largeflower townsend-

53 DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES daisy- have been sighted at locations future incompatible development. The use around the proposed national memorial. If of commemorative elements would also found onsite, these plant species would be require careful placement to ensure that preserved and maintained throughout the the historic scene was not adversely affect­ national memorial. ed. This is also true of the location of ac­ cess roads, utilities, and facilities. Prairie dog towns in the national memorial would be managed to protect potential If a Big Foot National Historic Trail was habitat for the endangered black-footed established, it would promote the protec­ ferret. The endangered peregrine falcon tion of historic resources related to the and the bald eagle are migratory species Minneconjou and Hunkpapa Lakotas. The that have no suitable habitat in the pro­ National Trails System Act would require posed national memorial, and therefore the preparation of a comprehensive man­ would not be adversely affected. agement plan for the Big Foot Trail, en­ couraging nonfederal landowners to partic­ Cultural Resources. The historic scene at ipate in the planning, protection, and inter­ Wounded Knee has been affected by the pretation of the trail. The trail would also construction of roads and buildings, as provide an element of protection for the well as natural erosion. These factors have resource through recognition of its exact altered visual and archeological informa­ route. Continued use and development of tion associated with the massacre. Specifi­ the trail would require any distinguishable cally, the original roads passing south, and fragile landscape features to be avoid­ east, and west of the mass grave knoll ed, as well as any archeological or topo­ have been realigned, elevated, and paved. graphical features, should they exist. These roadways parallel or in part overlay the major trails that were in use in 1890. Sociocultural Environment. As stated Houses, churches, and a partially com­ repeatedly during the public meetings in pleted visitor center stand on part of the june 1991, there is considerable enduring site, and the historic buildings present in resentment by Lakotas of white society 1890 have long since vanished. and the suppression of their native culture. The fact that it has taken more than 100 Alternative 1 would introduce certain new years for any sort of formal recognition of elements into the historic scene and re­ the massacre underlies a distrust by many move many existing nonhistoric features. Lakotas of the U.S. government. Further­ Two approaches to restoring the site­ more, the Wounded Knee massacre signi­ either to a natural state or to its 1890 ap­ fied the breaking of the sacred hoop of the pearance- would involve the alteration Lakota nation. of existing conditions. In either instance the visible landscape would be enhanced. The establishment of a Wounded Knee Archeological investigations would be re­ National Memorial and fully portraying quired before allowing any ground distur­ the Lakota point of view would have a bance associated with construction or other significant positive impact on the Lakota activities in order to ensure that no arti­ nation. To many Lakotas this would be an facts or historic information was lost. acknowledgement that a terrible wrong had been committed, and it would help Because the national memorial would the healing process for the tribe, as well as include areas visible from the mass grave, improving relations with the white culture. the historic scene would be protected from

54

------Altemath1e 1: A Wounded Knee National Memorial- Preserving the Historic Landscape

Some would consider this a step toward Management Policies. This could reduce the mending the sacred hoop of the Lakotas. subsistence resources of a few families.

A difference of opinion exists as to what Rules and regulations would also curtail actions should be taken at Wounded Knee. the autonomous influence of the Pine Minority groups of Lakota traditionalists Ridge and the Cheyenne River Wounded and Wounded Knee residents and land­ Knee survivors associations. Representa­ owners say that the site should be left tives from these associations would be alone, without any memorial or park being members of the advisory commission, but established, and local groups would take the associations themselves would not be care of the site as they have in the past. able to act independently with respect to the Wounded Knee site, as they have done Others, especially descendants of survi­ in the past. For example, the associations vors, want national recognition of the recently accepted a statue for display at human suffering that occurred, and they Wounded Knee; any future donations of fully support the establishment of a park sculptures would probably require the or memorial. Alternative 1 would meet the approval of the full advisory commission. expectations of the survivors, with park units on both the Pine Ridge and Chey­ Under alternative 1 the greatest amount of enne River reservations. allotted or deeded land would be acquired for the Oglala Sioux Tribe, with the tribe There would be rules and regulations for taking the lead in negotiating land ex­ any park or memorial established at changes or purchases. The lands would Wounded Knee, which would restrict cur­ then be leased to the National Park Service rent uses to some degree. Greater control for management. Many Lakotas, and espe­ of peddling, panhandling, and vandalism cially some Wounded Knee landowners would be a positive impact from the per­ and residents, however, mistrust govern­ spective of most Lakotas. However, in­ ment agencies and oppose any federally creased visitation could take away from created memorial. The primary issue is the the sacredness of the site. fear of giving up more land. A secondary issue is the perceived loss of autonomy in Virtually all Lakotas believe that the his­ the management of local affairs. toric and contemporary graves should remain if a memorial was established at Increased tourism at the national memorial Wounded Knee; the dead should not be would unavoidably bring more people into disturbed. However, Lakota opinion is the Wounded Knee community. This could divided as to whether future burials have a positive impact in terms of provid­ should occur in the cemetery if a memorial ing limited business opportunities and was established. greater income for local residents. How­ ever, increased traffic and visitation would Some hunting of small game and gathering also change local residents' patterns of life. of berries and other plants occurs in the Many residents could resent the potential bushy areas along Wounded Knee Creek. invasion of privacy. The presence of stran­ This practice is part of the community's gers wandering into the community, dis­ subsistence activities. Unless specifically cussions by tourists of Lakota sacred be­ allowed in the enabling legislation, hunt­ liefs, and the use of cameras could prove ing and gathering would be prohibited annoying to Wounded Knee residents. within the park, in accordance with NPS

55

------DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES

Increased tourism could lead to the com­ Establishing Wounded Knee National Me­ mercialization of Lakota material culture. morial as a unit of the national park sys­ Arts and crafts could come to be manufac­ tem would ensure that the site would be tured more for their perceived marketabili­ nationally recognized. Signs would be ty than for traditional aesthetic and func­ posted on roads and highways to direct tional qualities. A local natural/ cultural people to the site. The story of the massa­ history association, operating with guid­ cre would be interpreted for visitors onsite, ance from the park's advisory commission, increasing public understanding of what could establish and help maintain certain happened and why. Fully portraying the standards for arts and crafts. Lakota version of what happened would also educate people about Lakota culture Fully telling the Lakota version of what and history. The site would also be main­ happened at Wounded Knee could be tained, trash picked up, and inappropriate aided under alternative 1 by the National activities controlled. Park Service helping collect oral-history ac­ counts, with professional help from the Local Economy. Between 80,000 and Lakota colleges. These would be docu­ 190,000 visitors a year are projected at the mented by way of audiotapes, videotapes, Wounded Knee site five years after devel­ and transcriptions. Such an effort would opment has been completed. At Bridger I produce an archive of traditional informa­ Cherry Creek between 8,000 and 10,000 tion in Lakota and English that could visitors are projected. prove invaluable towards the preservation and future study of the Lakota language, Jobs for 5 to 10 individuals could be gener­ culture, and landscape features. ated at visitor-related facilities developed outside the memorial (for example, a ser­ Approximately 15 permanent and between vice station and convenience store), which 10 and 16 seasonal positions (five to eight would be in addition to employment pro­ full-time equivalencies) would be required jected for the national memorial. It is ex­ to staff both the Wounded Knee and pected that there would be enough local Bridger I Cherry Creek sites. The intent is business to justify operating these busi­ that most of these positions would be nesses during the nonpeak season (October filled by Lakota persons after professional through April). Other existing businesses training. Some Lakota people voiced a along travel routes to the site would also concern that because unemployment is so benefit from higher tourist volumes. high on the reservations, there could be competition between families for jobs. La­ The construction of park-related facilities kota individuals would have to compete on both the Cheyenne River and Pine fairly among themselves without undue Ridge reservations would result in money political or kinship influence. being spent in the region for materials and labor. Development costs for both sites are Visitor Experience. Currently, visitors currently estimated at $19.3 million. The have a hard time finding the Wounded actual economic benefit resulting from this Knee site because there are no road signs development would depend on how many to provide directions. Those people who construction workers were hired locally do find the site are surprised at how poor­ and on how much material was purchased ly the site is taken care of, and occasionally in the region. visitors are harassed by panhandlers and people selling souvenirs.

56

------Alternative 1: A Wounded Knee National Memorial- Preserving the Historic Landscape

Staffing and park operations would cost A national memorial of this size would approximately $950,000 annually after five provide suitable sites for the development years. This money would continually bene­ of a monument plus visitor, administra­ fit the local economy in terms of revenue tive, and maintenance facilities, which generated for the region in the form of could be located in areas that would not supplies purchased for operations and intrude on the historic setting. Lands with­ maintenance, utility costs, and salaries. in the national memorial would be pur­ chased in fee for the Oglala Sioux Tribe Annual property tax loss as a result of with federal funds, and they would be land acquisition would be less than $300. managed by the National Park Service under an agreement with the tribe. This would retain tribal sovereignty over these Feasibility for Addition reservation lands. The management of the to the National Park System national memorial by the National Park Service would ensure that the area would To be feasible as a new unit of the national be operated in accordance with national park system an area must be of sufficient park system standards. size and appropriate configuration, consid­ ering natural systems or historic settings, Federal land acquisition for the Oglala to ensure long-term protection of resources Sioux Tribe would cost approximately and to accommodate public use, and it $825,000; acquisition costs for a memorial must have potential for efficient adminis­ on the Cheyenne River reservation are tration at a reasonable cost. Important unknown since a site has not been select­ feasibility factors include landownership, ed. Development for both Wounded Knee acquisition costs, access, threats to the and Bridger/Cherry Creek would cost an resource, and staff or development require­ estimated $19.3 million, and costs for an­ ments. nual staffing and operations after five years would be approximately $950,000. The approximately 1,800-acre area identi­ Access would be provided by way of fied for a national memorial includes the Highways 27 and 28 at Pine Ridge and national historic landmark and adjacent South Dakota Highways 34 and 73 at lands that need to be managed to protect Cheyenne River. the integrity of the historic scene, includ­ ing the important natural features and the The major threat to land resources at gently rolling grasslands that characterized Wounded Knee is the potential for devel­ the site in December 1890. The national opment of adjacent lands in ways that memorial would include only those lands would intrude on the lands within view of needed to ensure the long-term protection the mass grave. Commercial or residential of the historic area. The boundary follows, development, or even mineral exploration, as much as possible, ridgelines and exist­ could potentially occur on these properties. ing roads to provide for distinct, definable Unrestricted growth or uncontrolled devel­ edges. All of these features were incorpo­ opment would severely degrade the sa­ rated into the proposed boundary configu­ credness of the site for Lakotas. ration to provide for management eificien­ cy as well as historic integrity. This area is considered to be the smallest area that would be feasible for management as a unit of the national park system.

57

L._- DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES

ALTERNATIVE 2: A WOUNDED KNEE The principal difference between this alter­ NATIONAL MEMORIAL- COOPERA­ native and alternative 1 is how the lands TIVELY MANAGING THE HISTORIC and resources would be managed and pro­ LANDSCAPE tected, as described below.

General Description Management. Under this alternative the National Park Service would directly man­ The concept for a national memorial would age visitor services and facilities, as well as be the same as alternative 1. A monument administrative and maintenance functions. would be erected in honor of the victims, Facilities for these functions would require and the interpretive program would fully between 55 and 75 acres total, and these portray the Lakota point of view. Within lands would be acquired for the Oglala the national memorial either a historic Sioux Tribe and managed by the National scene could be partially recreated or the Park Service under a lease arrangement landscape could be partially returned to with the tribe. natural conditions. Under this alternative the objective of maintaining a historic On the rest of the lands a historic land­ landscape would be accomplished by scape protection area would be estab­ keeping a rural setting without the addi­ lished, consisting of approximately 1,800 tion of more structures. Current visual acres and including the same lands as in effects of existing residences and churches alternative 1. However, no lands in this would be mitigated by using compatible area would be acquired unless owners colors for structures, and by ensuring that wanted to sell to the tribe. The historic grounds were maintained. landscape protection area would be coop­ eratively managed by the Park Service, the The same facilities as described for alter­ Oglala Sioux Tribe, the Wounded Knee native 1 would be constructed - a monu­ community, and local landowners. (This ment, visitor facility, administrative offices, idea is further described in the next section residential area, maintenance facilities, and on "Resource Protection.") utilities. A visitor facility and monument would also be established in the Bridger I Like alternative 1, an advisory commission Cherry Creek area on the Cheyenne River with representatives from the Oglala and Reservation. The tribe would have prefer­ Cheyenne River Sioux tribes would be ential rights to provide any appropriate established by Congress to make recom­ and necessary commercial services within mendations about management activities, the national memorial. As described for interpretive proposals, and the design for alternative 1, Highway 27 would be relo­ the monument to the victims, cated outside the national memorial. Resource Protection. As described for A park management training program alternative 1, the focus of resource protec­ would be established, as well as park in­ tion would be on the national historic tern programs, to train Lakotas to qualify landmark and adjacent lands seen from the for site management responsibilities. mass grave (see the Alternative 2 map). This area is referred to as the historic land­ If requested by local residents, the Nation­ scape protection area. Under alternative 2 al Park Service could offer assistance for landscape protection would be a joint mitigating any adverse effects of increased effort between the Oglala Sioux Tribe and tourism (examples of assistance include the National Park Service. The Park Ser­ cooperative planning and visitor education vice would work with the tribe, the land­ about Lakota customs). owners, and the Wounded Knee communi-

58 E19• Wounded North 0 /000 Knee South Dakota OSC •Sept.'92 •WOKN •20,010 United States Department of the Interior National Park Service

Wounded Knee community

Proposed road realignment :::;;;;;:::::;::::; f2f20J Historic landscape protection area. Present land uses could continue in this area, subject to land use regulations or easements to protect the integrity of the historic scene. For visitor and support facilities, 55-75 acres would be Alternative 2 purchased in fee for the Oglala Sioux Tribe Cooperatively managing and managed by the National Park Service. the historic landscape

I

I L___ DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES ty to establish goals and ways to ensure all lands, which would then be held in that any development or use within the trust for the Oglala Sioux Tribe. historic landscape protection area would preserve the sacred aspects of the Wound­ Entrance Fees. Under this alternative en­ ed Knee site and would not detract from trance fees could be charged to all visitors the meaning or dignity of the national except Sioux tribal members. All fees col­ memorial. lected would be returned to the tribes on a shared basis to help pay for additional The Oglala Sioux Tribe would take the tribal expenses related to the national lead in restricting development in the memorial (for example, road improve­ historic landscape protection area by ments, police and fire protection, and utili­ adopting and stringently enforcing local ties). The enabling legislation would have zoning regulations. Scenic easements could to specifically allow for entrance fees to be also be purchased. A scenic easement is a collected and returned to the tribes. partial purchase of a landowner's or allot­ tee's property rights, which imposes cer­ Access. Access to properties now served tain restrictions on the property holder. by Highways 27 and 28 would be main­ Typically under a scenic easement pur­ tained through alternate routes. chase, the owner continues to use the land, but certain rights are sold (for example, Non-Lakota visitor access onto the the owner would agree not to build any grounds of the historic area could be pro­ more structures on the property). The vided by Lakota guides under contract or landowner would then receive a one-time other special permits from the National payment for selling these development Park Service. As described for alternative rights. 1, such guided tours could include inter­ pretation from overlooks or walks through Local zoning regulations and easements the historic landscape. Visitor access to would control the location and type of use, sites within the historic area would be and they would prevent the development limited to tribally owned lands that were of incompatible land uses within this area. part of the national memorial and that Examples of incompatible uses that would were managed by the National Park Ser­ not be allowed would include commercial vice under a lease arrangement with the operations or vending stands, multi-family tribe. dwellings, buildings with two or more stories, or more than two structures per Land Acquisition and Easement Costs. acre. Residents in this area would also be Land acquisition under this alternative expected to keep their lands free of dis­ would be limited to the 55 to 75 acres carded items (such as cars or appliances). required for the development of visitor, administrative, and maintenance facilities. Land uses within the historic landscape These lands would be acquired with feder­ protection area would be overseen by the al funds for the Oglala Sioux Tribe and advisory commission. The commission would then be leased to the National Park would make land use recommendations to Service for management. the tribal council for enforcement. For the rest of the lands in the historic If land use controls acceptable to both the landscape protection area either they National Park Service and the Oglala Sioux would be retained under present owner­ Tribe were not implemented within a mu­ ship but regulated by local zoning ordi­ tually agreed upon period, the Park Ser­ nances enforced by the tribe (as previously vice would recommend the acquisition of described in the "Resource Protection"

60

------Alternative 2: A Wounded Knee National Memorial- Cooperatively Managing the Historic Landscape section), or an easement could be Relocation costs would also be determined purchased to ensure that present uses in accordance with PL 91-646. Under this would not change in the future. Any pur­ alternative relocation costs would only chases of easements would be made for apply to the 55-75 acres required for visi­ the Oglala Sioux Tribe with federal funds, tor or support facilities. The visitor center and the easements would be managed by (now partly completed by local landown­ the National Park Service under an agree­ ers) and one small frame dwelling would ment with the tribe. Also, landholders be affected. would have the option of selling land to the Oglala Sioux Tribe if they wanted. Impact Analysis This combination of land management options would provide for the protection Natural Resources. Impacts on natural of the historic landscape protection area at resources as a result of developing visitor, Wounded Knee while offering the land­ administrative, and maintenance facilities owners the option to retain their properties plus access roads would be the same as or to sell them in fee or easement to the described for alternative 1, and up to 35 Oglala Sioux Tribe. acres would be directly affected. Existing development could remain on lands within The location of facilities in the Bridger ( the historic landscape protection area, and Cherry Creek area has not been deter­ any existing effects on natural resources mined; therefore, landownership is un­ would continue. The National Park Service known. Lands in the selected area would would work with the Oglala Sioux Tribe to be leased to the National Park Service by develop guidelines that would ensure that the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe for man­ any permitted uses on privately owned agement. lands would not adversely affect natural resources, and that any existing adverse As described for alternative 1, acquisition impacts would be corrected. and easement costs would be determined in accordance with Public Law 91-646, the Cultural Resources. Under alternative 2 Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real cultural resources throughout the historic Property Acquisition Policies Act. Because landscape protection area would be pro­ it is not known under this alternative ex­ tected. Because the majority of lands could actly how many properties might be pur­ continue to be privately owned, the Na­ chased either in fee or easement, total costs tional Park Service would work with the could vary between $50,000 and $335,000 Oglala Sioux Tribe to develop guidelines (for the purchase of easements on all to protect historic and archeological re­ lands). If all landowners and allottees were sources, including previously unknown willing to sell their lands to the Oglala resources that could be uncovered during Sioux Tribe, the cost would be approxi­ construction projects. The highest level of mately $825,000, the same as alternative 1. protection would be given to lands within the national historic landmark. The only priority for acquisition would be the 55-75 acres that would be needed for Impacts related to the establishment of a visitor, administrative, and maintenance Big Foot National Historic Trail would be facilities. In terms of easements that might similar to those described for alternative 1, be needed, the highest priorities would be with the long-term protection of sites relat­ to protect views of the national historic ed to Chief Big Foot, the Minneconjous, landmark and the areas immediately adja­ the Hunkpapas, and other Lakota people. cent to the mass grave.

61 DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES

Sociocultural Environment. Impacts on Feasibility for Addition Lakotas would be generally the same as to the National Park System described under alternative 1. However, under this alternative the National Park To be feasible for addition to the national Service would only directly manage park system, land use regulations would between 55 and 75 acres, and local land­ have to be strong enough to ensure the owners and the Wounded Knee communi­ long-term protection of lands within the ty would have more influence in the de­ historic landscape protection area, particu­ velopment of land use regulations to pro­ larly the national historic landmark. tect the meaning and dignity of the national memorial. Consequently, Wound­ Between 55 and 75 acres would need to be ed Knee residents and landowners might owned in fee by the Oglala Sioux Tribe prefer alternative 2 over alterative 1 be­ and leased to the National Park Service so cause it would offer greater flexibility for visitor, administrative, and maintenance individuals to remain on their lands and to facilities could be developed. Areas for this use them for compatible purposes. Some future development would need to con­ local residents would still object to the sider the locations of floodplains and wet­ creation of a national memorial. lands, slope and soil limitations, visual sensitivity, and the location of cultural Under alternative 2 the three churches on resources. To provide a suitable setting for site would be permitted to remain, which interpreting the massacre, these facilities would cause less disruption for the congre­ should be dispersed so that administrative gations. The continued presence of the and maintenance activities would not in­ churches would reflect a continuing spiri­ trude on the visitor experience or the site's tual context for the site and would serve sacred qualities. as additional ways for visitors to learn more of the history of the Wounded Knee If land use controls for the historic land­ community. If the churches were kept scape protection area that were acceptable open during visitor hours, they would to both the Oglala Sioux Tribe and the become additional places for meditation National Park Service were not imple­ and contemplation. mented within a mutually agreed upon period, then the Park Service would rec­ Visitor Experience. The visitor experience ommend the acquisition of all lands, which under alternative 2 would be similar to would then be held in trust for the Oglala that described under alternative 1. How­ Sioux Tribe. ever, continued private uses of lands with­ in the historic landscape protection area Acquisition costs for land in fee or for would mean that the landscape would not easements would range between $50,000 be restored to either an entirely natural or and $825,000 (for full fee purchase). Ade­ historic setting. These uses could be seen quate access is provided by Highways 27 as intrusions by some visitors; however, and 28 at Wounded Knee and by South this impact would be offset by providing Dakota Highways 34 and 73 at Bridger I an interpretive program for visitors and by Cherry Creek. formally memorializing the victims of the massacre. As described under alternative 1, the major threat to the land resources at Wounded Local Economy. Impacts on the local econ­ Knee is the possibility of future develop­ omy and visitor use would be similar to ment near the historic area that would alternative 1. adversely affect the historic scene.

62

------Alternative 3: An Oglala/Cheyenne Riper Sioux Tribal Park

ALTERNATIVE 3: AN OGLALA/ park. The tribes could also decide not to CHEYENNE RIVER SIOUX TRIBAL seek affiliated status. PARK Under this alternative the tribes could also General Description establish an advisory group to make rec­ ommendations about parkwide manage­ The purpose of this alternative would be ment. However, the membership could be to foster a deeper understanding of Lakota slightly different because of the expanded history and culture by creating a joint scope of the park. Members could include tribal park. The focus of the park would representatives from the Oglala and Chey­ still be the events at Wounded Knee, and a enne River Sioux tribes, the Oglala Sioux monument would be established to com­ Tribe Parks and Recreation Authority, and memorate the Lakota victims. However, affected landholders. the park area would be expanded so that the events of December 29, 1890, could be Interpretive Context. The primary purpose put in a broader context of Lakota cultural of interpretation would be to foster a deep­ history. er understanding of Lakota history and culture, and to help mend the sacred hoop The park could consist of areas at of the Lakotas through education. The Wounded Knee and Bridger I Cherry interpretive program would be from the Creek, plus the south unit of Badlands Lakota point of view, and all interpretive National Park, which includes Stronghold media, including personal services, could Table - one of the last Ghost Dance sites. be provided in both Lakota and English. The south unit would be returned to the Oglala Sioux Tribe (this area is now man­ The story of the massacre of Lakota people aged by the National Park Service under a at Wounded Knee on December 29, 1890, cooperative agreement with the tribe). The could be placed in the larger context of the physical link that would tie all units of the diverse interactions and gradually chang­ tribal park together would be the Big Foot ing relationships between the Lakota and Trail, from Cheyenne River to Wounded white societies during the 19th century­ Knee. the establishment of individual reserva­ tions, the breaking of treaties, the Ghost Management. The park would be man­ Dance, Sitting Bull's death, Big Foot's aged by the Oglala and Cheyenne River journey to Wounded Knee, and the massa­ Sioux tribes, and each tribe would manage cre. An effort could also be made to inter­ its own lands. The tribal park could be pret the history and changing culture of designated as an NPS affiliated area if ade­ the Lakota people from 1891 to the pres­ quate protection of the national historic ent. While the larger story of the cultural landmark could be guaranteed; and if the context would also be addressed in the tribes established and continued standards first two alternatives, this approach would of maintenance, operations, public service, be most strongly emphasized under alter­ and financial accountability consistent with native 3. requirements for national park system units. Wounded Knee could be recognized not only as the site of the massacre, but as a Affiliated status could make available site for healing between the Lakota and planning and design assistance, and possi­ white societies. The primary interpretive bly some construction funds. However, the theme could be the breaking and mending National Park Service would not be in­ of the sacred hoop of the Lakota nation. volved in day-to-day management of the

63 DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES

Visitor Experience. To generate an under­ primarily by story telling along the trail standing of and appreciation for the histo­ and around campfires in the evenings. All ry and culture of the Lakotas, each of the interpretation would be provided by La­ units (Wounded Knee, Bridger I Cherry kotas. Creek, the south unit of Badlands, and the Big Foot Trail) could provide a different Resource Protection. The Oglala and aspect of the story. For example, while Cheyenne River Sioux tribes would deter­ Wounded Knee and Bridger I Cherry Creek mine which lands would be included in could provide the same type of visitor the park. In order for the park to be affili­ experience as outlined in alternatives 1 and ated with the national park system, some 2, the south unit could be developed to sort of formal protection for the national concentrate on Lakota history and culture historic landmark at Wounded Knee and the role of the Ghost Dance. A Lakota would be required. cultural center could be developed, with a inix of interpretive media ranging from The south unit of Badlands National Park audiovisual programs, to museum exhibits, (approximately 133,300 acres) could revert to live performances and demonstrations. to management by the Oglala Sioux Tribe. This would be a prime location to tell people about the sacred hoop, the period Facilities and Services. Each tribe would from white contact to 1889-90, and the construct a visitor facility and a monument period from 1891 to the present. to the victims.

An increasingly popular form of tourism is The existing White River visitor center in low-impact eco-tourism, where visitors are Badlands National Park could continue to given the opportunity to have a unique be used until replaced by a permanent experience by immersing themselves in facility, with the option to develop a sec­ another culture. The success of these en­ ond visitor facility at Stronghold Table or deavors depends on an overriding concern Fog Creek. for the social well-being, economic devel­ opment, and protection of natural and Other facilities - administrative offices, cultural resources. Typically, eco-tours maintenance facilities, housing for park have few customers, each of whom pays a employees, and utilities- would also be large fee for a unique experience. required.

Under this alternative Lakota guides could The tribes would decide which types of offer rides along portions of the Big Foot commercial services would be appropriate Trail or they could provide eco-tour oppor­ within the park area. If the park was affili­ tunities for small numbers of visitors on ated with the national park system, such the south unit of Badlands National Park. services would have to be consistent with Rides along the Big Foot Trail could vary the requirements for affiliated status. from a week-long trip from Bridger I Cherry Creek to Wounded Knee, a three­ Entrance Fees. Entrance fees would be de­ day trip from the Badlands south unit to cided by the tribes. Wounded Knee, and even a one-day trip from the Porcupine Butte surrender site. Access. Local highways could be improved All participants would travel by historic with assistance from the state and the means (horseback, wagon, or walking), Bureau of Indian Affairs. sleep in tipis (provided at each campsite but erected by the participants), and eat Training and Employment. A park man­ traditional foods. Interpretation would be agement training program could be pro-

64 Altentative 3: An Oglala/Cheyenne River Sioux Tribal Park vided through the Oglala Lakota and designation of a Big Foot National Historic Cheyenne River Community colleges. The Trail by Congress would help focus addi­ National Park Service could provide assis­ tional interest on the tribal park. tance initially in setting up these pro­ grams. Employment policies for the tribal park would be jointly decided by the Og­ Impact Analysis lala and Cheyenne River Sioux tribes. The goal would be to have all positions filled Natural Resources. For the tribal park to by Lakota personneL be affiliated with the national park system, the National Park Service would need to Acquisition, Development, and Operating be assured that impacts on natural resourc­ Costs. Land acquisition would be the re­ es would not be significant. If federal sponsibility of the tribal governments, who funds were used for development, then could seek grants or other assistance from impacts of development would need to be private organizations or Congress. The evaluated in compliance with the require­ park's advisory commission could also ments of the National Environmental Poli­ assist in fund-raising efforts. cy Act.

Funding sources for constructing the visi­ Cultural Resources. The protection of tor facilities, monuments, and support cultural resources and historic areas would facilities (for example, administrative and be up to the tribes. If the tribal park was maintenance facilities) could include grants affiliated with the national park system, from private foundations and corporations, protection of cultural resources would a congressional appropriation, and fund­ have to comply with the provisions of the raising activities sponsored by the advisory National Historic Preservation Act, as commission. The National Park Service amended. would offer design and construction assis­ tance. Impacts related to the establishment of a Big Foot National Historic Trail would be Annual operations. could be financed in similar to those described for alternative 1, various ways. One option would be an with the long-term protection of sites tied annual congressional appropriation that to Chief Big Foot and the people who would gradually decline over a 10-year joined his band. period to a minimum set leveL Another option would be to establish a foundation Sociocultural Environment. Impacts of a with money from a one-time appropriation tribally operated memorial at Wounded by Congress and from other sources. The Knee would probably be similar to those money would be invested, with the income described under alternative 2. However, from investments being used for opera­ the management of the various park units tions. Annual operating funds could be by the Oglala and Cheyenne River Sioux further supplemented by concessioner tribes would be more acceptable to many profits and commission fund-raising ef­ Lakotas who distrust the federal govern­ forts. Eco-tours could be a source of park ment and management regulations. revenues if horses, tipis, food, etc., were provided by a park concessioner for a fee. All interpretation would be from the La­ kota point of view, and the tribes would The status of the tribal park as an affiliated determine the interpretive message to be area of the national park system would conveyed. Under this alternative the also increase opportunities for national Wounded Knee massacre would continue promotion and marketing. The potential to be one of the primary interpretive

65 DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES themes, but Lakota culture would also be An eco-tour enterprise offering trips from interpreted by means of a cultural center one day to several days to a select clientele or eco-tours that would immerse visitors in could be started. Options include rides the Lakota culture. Such an interpretive along portions of the Big Foot Trail, or a program could foster a greater sense of multiday camping trip on the south unit of pride among Lakotas in their heritage. Badlands National Park.

Communities on both reservations could A major concern about a tribal park is best practice local autonomy under this guaranteed funding while the park is be­ alternative, with local initiatives tied to the ginning operations, without which it Big Foot National Historic Trail. The prin­ would be difficult for the park to succeed cipal limitation would be finding adequate financially. Funding options would need to and continuous sources of funding. How­ be carefully investigated. ever, some community residents on both reservations, especially many at Wounded Knee itself, would probably prefer this Feasibility for Affiliation situation. Some at Cheyenne River would with the National Park System like a living memorial at Cherry Creek or Eagle Butte in the form of a cultural/ Criteria for evaluating areas for formal community center that would cater to the affiliation with the national park system educational needs of the young people as are included in the "Report on Criteria for well as to the needs of the elderly. Affiliated Areas" (NPS 1990), which was presented to Congress. The report recom­ Visitor Experience. For people wanting to mends that the title of affiliated area be learn about the Lakota culture in-depth, used for a select group of nationally signif­ this alternative would provide the greatest icant areas that have a formal cooperative range of opportunities. Visitors could tailor relationship with the National Park Ser­ their experience to their level of interest, vice. Congress has not yet acted on the ranging from a visit of a few hours at recommendations of this report. Wounded Knee to a multi-day ride along the Big Foot Trail with Lakota guides. A site could be affiliated with the national park system if it meets the criteria for If the tribal park was affiliated with the national significance, if the resources could national park system, the National Park be most efficiently and effectively man­ Service would have to be assured that aged by a cooperative arrangement with standards of maintenance, operations, pub­ the National Park Service instead of direct lic service, and financial accountability operation as a unit of the national park were consistent with requirements applica­ system, and if the National Park Service ble to national park system units. This in had some continuing responsibility for turn would assure visitors of experiences technical or financial assistance and over­ comparable to those available at national sight of the area's management. Either park system areas. Congress or the secretary of the interior could determine whether or not a site Local Economy. Visitor projections for qualified for affiliation. Wounded Knee and Bridger I Cherry Creek would probably be similar to alternative 1. For a tribal park to be affiliated with the Visitor projections for the Badlands south national park system, some sort of formal unit are unknown. protection for the national historic land­ mark would be required. Also, the park should meet certain basic operational stan-

66 Other Altematives Considered dards to ensure the quality of visitor ser­ Another alternative was a park area that vices and resource management. A coop­ would be initiated, funded, and managed erative agreement for affiliation should ad­ by the community of Wounded Knee. This dress issues such as the following: alternative was rejected because the local community does not currently have the planning and technical assistance managerial skills or financial assets to take liability and insurance for facilities a leadership role in developing and man­ and employees aging a park area. Also, the Lakota team volunteer-in-parks status for staff members felt any park would require some fee rates and collection policies degree of ongoing federal assistance. Fur­ hours and days of operation thermore, the tribal council would have to review and approval of annual bud­ approve any form of local control. gets use of the NPS logo on signs and An alternative to develop a park managed literature wholly by the Cheyenne River Tribe was standards for concession operations considered, and the bodies in the mass content and scope of interpretive pro­ grave would be moved to Cheyenne River. grams However, the Cheyenne River tribal repre­ review and approval of sales items sentatives said they would only pursue the limits on uses of appropriated funds reburial of the victims as a last resort, and for lobbying they would prefer to work with the Oglala accessibility for disabled visitors Sioux Tribe to develop a suitable memori­ al. Also, some sort of development or Affiliated status would be subject to peri­ monument would be needed at Wounded odic review for consistency with estab­ Knee because visitors would continue to lished standards, and Congress or the come to the site of the massacre. secretary could discontinue affiliated status based on NPS recommendations. Another alternative to establish a park ad­ ministered solely by the Oglala Sioux Tribe It should be recognized that funding for was also considered. However, the Oglala affiliated areas must compete with other tribal representatives felt it was only prop­ priorities for existing units of the national er to consider the desires of the Cheyenne park system. River people in establishing a park or me­ morial since their ancestors were the pri­ mary massacre victims. Any park must be OTHER ALTERNATIVES CONSIDERED a joint undertaking.

The study team also reviewed several The possibility of making Wounded Knee other alternatives. As previously stated, a a unit of Badlands National Park was dis­ no-action alternative (where no memorial cussed. However, this option would di­ or park would be established) has been minish the significance of the Wounded analyzed, in accordance with NPS policies Knee site, which deserves to be nationally and to reflect a full range of alternatives. recognized in its own right. Also, funding However, the Lakota team members have could be a problem because Wounded rejected this as a viable alternative because Knee would have to compete with other to them it is time that the massacre be ack­ sites in Badlands for funding. nowledged and the event commemorated.

67 TABlE 6: SUMMARY OF AlTERNATIVES

No-ACTION AL- ALTERNATIVE 1: A WOUNDED AlTERNATIVE 2: A WouNDED TERNATIVE: CON- KNEE NATIONAL MEMORIAL - KNEE NATIONAL MEMORIAL - ALTERNATIVE 3: AN OGLALA/ TINUED EXISTING PROTECTING THE HISTORIC COOPERATIVELY MANAGING CHEYENNE RIVER SIOUX CONDITIONS LANDSCAPE THE HISTORIC LANDSCAPE TRIBAL PARJ< DESCRIPTION OF ALTERNATrVES Common Provide monuments to commemorate the Wounded Knee massacre- one at Wounded Knee Elements on the Pine Ridge Reservation, and one at Bridger/Cherry Creek on the Cheyenne River Reser~ vahon. Conduct a feasibility study to establish a Big Foot National Historic Trail. Alternative Continue existing Establish a national memorial Same as alternative 1 except Establish an Oglala/Cheyenne Concepts conditions with- as part of the national park allow most existing uses with- River Sioux tribal park con- out the establish- system, and remove incom- in the area identified as the s.ist.ing of areas at Wounded ment of a park or patible existing df'velopment. historic landscape protection Knee, Bridger/Cherry Creek, ml'morial; allow Protect the Wounded Knee site area to continue, and provide and possibly the south unit of existing visHor in a respectful manner to dig- for cooperative management of Badlands National Park; con- use patterns to nify both the victims and the these uses. ned units by means of the Big continue. survivors. Foot Trail. Interpret the mas- sacre in the broader context of Lakota cultural history. Paten- tially affiliate the tribal park with the national park system. . Manage- No formal site Manage the national memorial Cooperatively manage the Continue tribal management ment management. in accordance with NPS man- lands identified as a historic of park lands, possibly with agement policies, in close co- landscape protection area by an advisory group to recom~ operation with the Oglala the National Park Service, the mend parkwide management Sioux Tribe. Establish an advi- Oglala Sioux Tribe, the actions. Jf desired, seek affill- sory commission to make Wounded Knee community, ated status with the national recommendations about man- and local landowners, with park system, dependent on agement activities, interpretive advice on land uses from an national historic landmark proposals, and the monument advisory commission. NPS protection plus standards of design. management of visitor, admin- maintenance, operations, istrative, and maintenance public service, and financial facilities (55-75 acres). accountability. . Interpre- No formal inter- Focus interpretation on the Same as alternative 1, except Focus interpretation on the tive pretation; possi- massacre, which would fully there would be only partial Wounded Knee massacre plus Themes bility for informal portray the Lakota perspective; restoration of a natural or his- Lakota culture and history. talks between provide interpretation in both to ric scene. Provide all interpretation non-Lakota visi- Lakota and English. Either re- from a Lakota perspective, tors and local store Wounded Knee to a with programs in both Lakota residents or other natural appearance (with the and English. lakota visitors, as removal of modern structures) we!! as occasional or to a historic appearance guided tours ar- (Dec. 29, 1890). ranged by the tribe, . Visitor No planned visi- Emphasize the sacred nature Same as alternative 1. Broaden the visitor experience Experience tor experience. of the area and a sense of by interpreting one element of reverence. Tell visitors about the story at each park site. the massacre at a visitor center Possibly offer trail rides on and provide Lakota guides to the Big Foot Trail and eco- conduct non-Lakota visitors tours at the south unit of Bad· onto the grounds. lands.

68 ------

NO-ACTION AL- ALTERNATIVE 1: A WOUNDED ALTERNATIVE 2: A WOUNDED TERNATlVE: CON- KNEE NATIONAL MEMORIAL- KNEE NATIONAL MEMORIAL- ALTERNATIVE 3: AN OGLALA/ TINUED EXISTING PROTECTING THE HISTORIC COOPERATIVELY MANAGING CHEYENNE RIVER SIOUX CONDITIONS LANDSCAPE THE HISTORIC LANDSCAI'E TRIBAl PARK

Resource No formal protec- At Wounded Knee protect ap- Protect most of the 1,800 acres Tribes to determine the level Protection tion of natural proximately 1,800 acres as a designated as a national me- of resource protection. For and cultural re- national memorial, including moria! through cooperative affiliation with the national sources other than the national historic landmark management (National Park park system, guarantee long- protection of na- and critical areas seen from Service, Oglala Sioux Tribe, term protection of the nation- tiona! historic the mass grave; protect re- Wounded Knee community, a! historic landmark. landmark lands sources in accordance with and local landowners). Coop- from adverse fed- NPS managemmt policies. Ac- eratively develop local zoning era! actions. quire all lands with federal regulations, which would be funds for the Oglalct Sioux adopted and enforced by the Tribe and manage under an tribal council to protect histor- agreement with the tribe. ic resources; also buy scenic easements to protect the rural character. Use techniques such as compatible colors on struc- tures to reduce current visual effects. 1f land use controls acceptable to both the Park Service and the tribe were not I adopted within a certain peri- I ad, recommend acquisition of all lands for the tribe.

. Facilities No visitor facili- Facilities~ a monument, visi- Same as alternative 1. Facilities similar to altcrna- and Ser- ties unless the tor facility, administrative tives 1 and 2, with Jdditional vices locJlly built visi- offices, residential area, main- facilities at the south unit of tor center was tenance facilities, and utilities. Badlands. I completed and Place facilities so as not to I put into opera- intrude on the sacred setting Tribes to determine appropri- tion. of the site (specific locations ate commercial services pro- determined through later plan- vided in the park; if affiliated I ning). with the national park system, ensure services consistent Commercial services ~ if de- with affiliated status re- termined to be appropriate quirements. and necessary within the na- tiona1 memorial, grant prefer- entia! rights to the tribe to pro~ vide these services. . Entrance None None Charge entrance fees for all To be determined by the Fees visitors except Sioux tribal tribes. members. Return fees to the tribes on a shared basis to pay for additional tribal expenses related to the national memo- rial (e.g., police and fire pro- tection, utilities).

I 69 LI No-ACTION AL- ALTERNATIVE 1: A WOUNDED AlTERNATIVE 2: A WOUNDED TERNATIVE: CON- KNEE NATIONAl MEMORIAL - KNEE NATIONAL MtMORlAl - ALTERNATIVE 3: AN OGLALA/ TINUED EXISTING PROTECTING THE HISTORIC COOPERATIVElY MANAGING CHEYENNE RIVER SIOUX CoNDITIONS LANDSCAPE THE HISTORIC LANDSCAPE TRIBAL PARK

. Access No change from Relocate Highway 27 outside Allow non-Lakota visitor ac- Improve local highways with existing condi- the national memorial, along cess onto the historic grounds assistance of the state and the tions. with the Highway 28 intersec- only with Lakota guldes under Bureau of Indian Affairs. tion. Allow non-Lakota visitor contract or special permits access onto the historic from the National Park Ser- grounds only with paid Lakota vice. Provide access to all interpreters. properties in the historic land- scape protection area. Allow no visitor access on privately owned lands. I . Training None Develop a park management Same as alternative 1. Develop a park management and Em- training program for potential training program at the Og- ployment Lakota employees at the Og- lala Lakota and Cheyenne !ala Lakota and Cheyenne Riv- River Community colleges, er Community colleges, plus with initial assistance from an intern program at the p<1rk. the National Park Service. Tribes to decide employment policies. . Land Ac- None Wounded Knee: Estimated Wounded Knee: For easement Land acquisition costs, if any, quisition cost to purchase approxi~ purchases, between $50,000 unknown. Costs mately 1,800 acres for the and $335,000; for full land Oglala Sioux Tribe - acquisition, up to $825,000. $825,000 {including im- Bridger/Cherry Creek: Cost provements, relocation of unknown. affected landowners, and severance damages). Bridger/Cherry Creek: Cost unknown. . Develop- None Wounded Knee: $14.4 million Same as alternative 1. Probably similar to alterna- ment Bridger/ tives 1 and 2 for the Wound- Costs Cherry Creek: 4.9 million ed Knee and BddgerI Cherry Creek sites; additional costs Total $19.3 million for development at the Bad- lands south unit. . Staffing None Wounded Knee: 12 full-time Same as alternative 1. Probably simUar to alterna- and Oper- positions, plus 6 to 10 part- tives 1 and 2, plus manage- ating Costs time (seasonal) positions. ment and operation costs for Bridger I Cherry Creek: 3 full- the Badlands south unit. time positions, plus 4 to 6 part-time positions. Total annual staffing/ oper~ ating costs for Wounded Knee and Bridger/Cherry Creek: $950,000.

70 ------

No~ACTION AL- ALTERNATIVE 1: A WOUNDED ALTERNATIVE 2.: A WOUNDED TERNATIVE: CON- KNEE NATIONAL MEMORIAL- KNEE NATIONAL MEMORIAL- ALTERNATIVE 3: AN OGLALA/ TINUED EXISTING PROTECTING THE HISTORIC COOPERATIVELY MANAGING CHEYENNE RIVER SiOUX CONDITIONS lANDSCAPE THE HISTORIC LANDSCAPE TRIBAL PARK Impacts Natural Potential for fu- Direct disturbance of up to 35 Same as alternative 1, plus Extent of impacts on natural Resources tun: development acres of soils and vegetation continued existing impacts on resources the responsibility of or land uses to for road and facility develop- privately owned lands, the tribes. For affiliation with affect grassland ment at Wounded Knee, and the national park system, and riparian habi- up to 10 acres at Bridger/ some guarantee that impacts tats. Cherry Creek. No significant would not be significant. natural resources affected. Cultural Potential impacts Protection and enhancement of Same as alternative 1, except Protection of cultural sites Resources from vandalism the historic and natural scene some intrusions on the historic and resources up to the tribes. and uncontrolled by removing nonhistoric fea- scene as a result of continued Long-term protection of the development. lm- tures. Protection of archeolog- private uses within the historic national historic landmark re- pacts on the his- ical resources from inadvertent landscape protection area. quired if the park was affiliat- toric scene from loss. Protection of resources ed with the national park sys- existing develop- associated with the Big Foot tem. ment (including Trail. local visitor cen- ter) plus potential future develop- ment. Sociocultural Negative effect on Positive effect on the Lakota Same as alternative 1, except Tribal management and great- Environment local community nation from estublishing a na- possibly more support from er local autonomy probably from increased tiona] memorial and fully por- the local community because more acceptable to many numbers of visi- traying the Lakota perspective; of greater involvement in the tribal members, particularly tors without potentially better relatiof\s be- management of local land those who object to any feder- planned services tween the Lakota and white uses. al involvement. Opportunity or facilities to societies. Some local residents for an interpretive program to accommodate concerned about "outside" in- foster a great sense of cultural their needs. terference in their affairs. pride for the tribes. Visitor No coordinated Wounded Knee easier to find Same as alternative 1, except Best opportunity for people Experience interpretive pro- for visitors because of road the quJlity of the experience wanting to learn about the gram for visitors. signs. More complete interpre- potentially affected by con- Lakota culture in depth. Negative effects tation of what happened in tinuing certain existing uses from peddling 1890. Site maintained to na- and not fully restoring a natu~ and panhandling. tiona! park system standards. raJ or historic landscape. Local Wounded Knee: Wounded Knee: Between Same as alternative I. Visitor projections for Economy Between 8,100 80,000 and 190,000 visitors Wounded Knee and Bridger I and 18,900 an- five years after development Cherry Creek probably simi- nual visitors. was completed, lar to alternatives 1 and 2; Bridge/Cherry Bridger/Cherry Creek: Be- visitor projections for Bad- Creek: None tween 8,000 and 10,000 visi- lands south unit unknown. No economic ef- tors in five years. Potential for development of feet unless the Some local economic develop- a profitable eco-tour business. locally built visi~ ment opportunities due to tor center at visitation. One-time local bene- Wounded Knee fit from construction (depend- was completed ing on the amount of hiring and became oper- and purchasing of supplies ational, in which locally). Annual benefit from case any sales staffing and operating expen- could benefit the ditures. Property tax loss less local community. than $300 annually.

71 CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION

PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT Public Meetings- June 1991

The study team for this project includes From june 18 to june 28, 1991, nine public representatives from the Cheyenne River meetings were held in South Dakota to Sioux Tribe, the Oglala Sioux Tribe, the gather ideas about how the Wounded National Park Service, and the state of Knee site could be protected and managed. South Dakota (see the list of team mem­ Four meetings were held on the Pine bers as well as consultants at the end of Ridge Reservation and two meetings on this document). the Cheyenne River Reservation, along with meetings in Rapid City, Pierre, and An important aspect of the study has been Sioux Falls. Nearly 230 people came to to listen to the desires and concerns of the these meetings, and about 80 people spoke Lakota people on what would be suitable about what they thought should be done. from their perspective, and also to evalu­ ate Lakota cultural and socioeconomic The public comments were summarized in concerns. The team's public involvement the team's first newsletter, The Wounded program consisted of holding formal pub­ Knee Update/Cankpe Opi Wonahun, Septem­ lic meetings, conducting initial ethno­ ber 1991. graphic interviews, convening a Lakota cultural review panel, commissioning a rapid ethnographic assessment and anoth­ Initial Ethnographic Interviewing - er anthropological evaluation, and analyz­ August 1991 ing newsletter responses. Because the public meetings were lightly Ethnographic interviewing contributed attended, the team decided that informal significantly to the study's public involve­ ethnographic interviewing of Lakota indi­ ment program, and the team acted on viduals in their homes or other places of ethnographic insights as they emerged their choice would be productive and through the process. The team became culturally appropriate. As a result, NPS especially sensitive to the viewpoints of anthropologist Larry Van Horn spent two various Wounded Knee community resi­ and one-half weeks in August 1991 inter­ dents and other Lakota groups, including viewing individuals on the Cheyenne those of the elders. Throughout this pro­ River and Pine Ridge reservations. A total cess the team has received comments and of 57 interviews were conducted, with input from 429 people. The public involve­ questions ranging from whether a park/ ment is described below. The National memorial should be established and what Park Service has also prepared a report would be a suitable monument, to the entitled, "Public Involvement with the desirability of establishing a Big Foot Na­ Lakota People: A Summary of Results for tional Historic Trail, to family stories that the Wounded Knee Study of Alternatives," have been handed down from survivors of a copy of which is available on request the massacre and what the site itself from the National Park Service, Denver means in terms of family history and La­ Service Center, DSC-TCE, P.O. Box 25287, kota history. Individuals were also asked Denver, CO 80225-0287. what overriding message should be con­ veyed to the average non-Lakota visitor.

72

------Public Interest and Support

The Lakota Cultural Review Preliminary Alternatives - March 1992 Panel- November 1991 Two preliminary alternatives were devel­ A Lakota cultural review panel was con­ oped by the study team in Pierre, South vened in Denver, Colorado, on November Dakota, September 16-19, 1991. Subse­ 1 and 2, 1991, to evaluate preliminary quent refinements to the first alternative in alternatives and interpretive concepts for response to Lakota concerns about the area cultural appropriateness and to suggest to be managed by the federal government potential sociocultural and socioeconomic resulted in the development of another impacts related to the alternatives. In addi­ alternative. The alternatives were present­ tion to four team members, three native ed to the public in the second newsletter, Lakota cultural experts with training in which was distributed in March 1992, and anthropology and history attended, along a total of 809 copies were mailed out to with four anthropologists with extensive people on the mailing list. (People were field experience among the Lakotas (see invited to sign up for the mailing list at all list of consultants at the end of this docu­ public meetings held by the study team, as ment). well as during interviews and radio pro­ grams. The news also spread by word of mouth and through distribution of the first Rapid Ethnographk Assessment­ newsletter.) November-December 1991 The newsletter included a mailback ques­ Anthropologists Marla and William Pow­ tionnaire. Seven questions were asked, ers were contracted to conduct additional ranging from how the historic landscape at ethnographic interviewing on the Pine Wounded Knee should be preserved for Ridge and Cheyenne River reservations future generations, to whether any of the during November and December 1991. The alternatives would preserve Wounded Powerses are anthropologists with over 50 Knee the way the reader would like to see years experience together working with it done, to what is the most important Lakotas on the Pine Ridge Reservation, message about Wounded Knee to tell to and they have written several books about visitors. Lakota culture. They employed a method of cultural anthropology called rapid A total of 77 comments were received ethnographic assessment. during the public response period, which ended on May 15, 1992. Public responses A total of 207 Lakotas were interviewed in to the newsletter are summarized in ap­ their homes and community facilities, both pendix B. The three alternatives presented individually and in small groups. Inter­ in the newsletter, with additional views were also held at the Wounded refinements, are also presented and ana­ Knee massacre site and at larger communi­ lyzed in this Study of Alternatives. ty meetings called by the people them­ selves for the purpose of discussing the alternatives. Their report is entitled "Rapid Cultural Evaluation Ethnographic Assessment: Wounded Knee of Alternatives - March 1992 Alternatives Study." Anthropologist Beatrice Medicine, a Lakota person from the Standing Rock Reserva­ tion and the author of numerous scientific articles for professional journals, was con-

73 CONSULTATION AND COORDlNATJON tracted to evaluate the draft alternatives as For example, local Wounded Knee officials presented in the second newsletter in Anita Ecoffey and Patrick Tom Clifford terms of their Lakota cultural appropriate­ want to pursue local initiatives, with no ness. federal presence and no change in the status of land.

PUBLIC INTEREST AND SUPPORT The Si Tanka Tiwahe or Big Foot's Family (an organization of descendants of Chief The two survivors associations - the Big Foot) is also on record as opposing a Cheyenne River Wounded Knee Survivors federal park at Wounded Knee. This orga­ Association and the Pine Ridge Wounded nization feels that the wishes of certain Knee Survivors Association - have been traditional elders should be recognized to working on legislation for the last seven keep any memorialization of the Wounded years to establish a national historical park Knee site in the hands of the actual lineal and memorial. This bill was introduced in descendants of the victims and survivors. both the U.S. Senate (S. 3213) and the House of Representatives (H.R. 5856) on Governor George S. Mickelson of South August 12, 1992 (see page 6). Dakota is a strong supporter of a Wounded Knee park/ memorial. He has The governments of the Cheyenne River met with the new president of the Oglala Sioux Tribe and the Oglala Sioux Tribe Sioux Tribe, John Yellow Bird Steele, to have both passed resolutions favoring the discuss Lakota concerns and opportunities survivors' bill for establishing a park/ for such a park. memorial at Wounded Knee. Officials of the local Wounded Knee Within the community of Wounded Knee churches (Church of God, Presbyterian, there is some support for the establishment and Catholic) were consulted about the of a national memorial or park, as well as possible establishment of a national memo­ strong opposition among residents and rial. The congregations are generally op­ landowners who do not want to give up posed to any relocation. any land or interests for such a purpose.

74 APPENDIX A: ASSISTANCE AVAILABLE THROUGH EXISTING PROGRAMS

FEDERAL fication, protection, and interpretive programs. Assistance is provided through the Division of National Park Service Planning and Assistance, Rocky Mountain Regional Office. Historic Preservation Fund Grants to Indian Tribes. The Interagency Resources Division of Assistance is also provided in bikepath and the NPS Washington Office administers a di­ trail planning and management. The Land and rect grants program to Indian tribes. This pro­ Water Conservation Fund program supports gram is authorized by section 101 of the Na­ recreation through both financial and technical tional Historic Preservation Act, which autho­ support. NPS affiliation is not required for rizes the secretary of the interior to "make assistance. grants or loans or both under this section to Indian tribes ... lor the preservation of their cultural heritage." During fiscal year 1992 the Other Federal Agencies grants program awarded approximately $1 mil­ lion to Indian tribes for a variety of preserva­ Other federal agencies might be able to partici­ tion projects. Individual grants range from pate in this effort, even if the area is designat­ $5,000 to $50,000. ed as an affiliate. For example, the Bureau of Indian Affairs would need to be involved if Cultural Resource Training Initiative. In 1992 planning, preservation, and interpretation in­ the NPS Preservation Assistance Division in cluded sites within the lands and roadways it the Washington Office began a cultural re­ manages. Some technical and financial support source training initiative. Funded at $500,000 could be available from the bureau as well. annually, the program targets "technicians, The bureau may be able to participate in the paraprofessionals, and professionals working inventory and evaluation of related resources to preserve cultural resources in both the pub­ outside the national historic landmark lic and private sectors." Training activities that boundaries. could be funded include workshops, confer­ ences, the development of course curricula, videotapes, and handbooks. TRIBAL GOVERNMENT

National Historic Landmark Studies. The NPS The financial resources of the tribal govern­ History Division. of the Washington Office ments of the Lakota Sioux are limited. How­ could conduct additional national historic land­ ever the tribal governments may be able to do­ mark studies of the Stronghold and the Big nate lands or enter into cooperative agreements Foot Trail. Such studies would provide a more to help preserve and manage the lands associ­ comprehensive story of Wounded Knee, as ated with Wounded Knee and the Big Foot well as a basis for developing interpretive and Trail. The Oglala Sioux Tribal Council in 1976 preservation plans. Additional assistance could entered into a memorandum of understanding be provided by the Rocky Mountain Regional with the National Park Service to manage the Office's Division of National Preservation Pro­ south unit of Badlands National Park, which grams. includes the Stronghold.

National Trails System. The National Trails System Act (PL 90-543; 16 USC 1241 et seq. as STATE OF SOUTH DAKOTA amended through PL 100-559, October 29, 1988) provides congressional funding for the The State Historic Preservation Office can pro­ designation and management of national his­ vide Historic Preservation Fund grants to local toric trails. The Big Foot Trail may meet the governments, institutions, and individuals to criteria for designation. The act includes identi- assist with preservation planning, with sur-

75 APPENDIXES veying and inventorying, and with acquiring and funding sources. Their participation, and and developing historic resources. The state is that of other cities and counties that may be­ the source of most "how-to" assistance for come associated with this effort, is critical for preservation projects. The South Dakota State the continued success of the project. Historic Preservation Office has been very active in stimulating preservation and econom­ Local and state governments, organizations, ic development of Wounded Knee, and it has and individuals may receive awards through funded two feasibility studies in conjunction the Take Pride in America program for accom­ with the South Dakota Department of Tourism. plishments in promoting the stewardship of The Department of Education and Cultural natural and cultural resources. Affairs within the Department of Education, as well as the Governor's Office of Indian Affairs and Office of Economic Development, can also PRIVATE ENTERPRISE, ORGANIZATIONS, offer limited financial and technical support. AND INDIVIDUALS

Tbc National Trust for Historic Preservation CITIES AND COUNTIES administers several small grant programs. Critical issues fund grants are matching grants Loca1 preservation and recreation programs of between $10,000 and $50,000 that arc made can provide a foundation for much of the work for historic preservation projects with national needed to accomplish any plan that will be implications. Preservation services grants are developed, and the plan must be compatible between $2,000 and $5,000 and are awarded for with related local plans. The community of interpretation, planning, and the development Wounded Knee has demonstrated their ability of protection strategies. to use local expertise to tap technical assistance

76 APPENDIX B: SUMMARY OF PUBLIC RESPONSES TO THE PRELIMINARY ALTERNATIVES

The second issue of The Wormded Knee Update I Cankpe Opi Wonahun was distributed in March 1992, and a total of 809 copies were mailed out to people on the mailing list. The newsletter contained a mailback questionnaire to give people a way to comment about the three alternatives, in addition to sharing their thoughts about how the historic landscape at Wounded Knee should be protected and what message is the most important to tell people. A total of 77 comments were received dur­ ing the response period, which ended on May 15, 1992. This represents a 9.5% return rate. Of the 77 questionnaires returned, 27 (35%) were postmarked in South Dakota, 18 (24%) in Nebraska, and 19 (25%) in sixteen other states (including Arizona, Massachusetts, Washington, Maine, and Flori­ da); 12 (16%) had no postmark. Based on the zip code of the postmark and/or the contents of a response, 19 replies (25%) were assumed to be from Lakota people. The team also received 123 postcards from members of the Oglala Sioux Tribe who oppose the draft congressional bill intro­ duced on behalf of the survivors. The questionnaire responses are summarized below.

Question 1: How would you like to see the historic landscape at Wounded Knee preserved for future genern­ tioHs?

The responses fell into the following categories, arranged in descending order of frequency:

Category Number of Ideas Expressed Percentage Establish a natural landscape 24 20% Provide facilities like a visitor center to show respect 23 19% Restore the site to a historic 1890 landscape (three said to provide tipis, tents, and Hotchkiss guns) 17 14% Leave the site alone; do nothing in terms of a park/ memorial 15 12% Designate a Big Foot trail 8 6% Establish an NPS-Lakota "co-partnership" for joint management under all three alternatives (the amount of land and the number of subunits of a park/ memorial would become the variables) 8 6% No response 7 5% Protect a 360' viewshed 7 5% Allow access to the core area only with Lakota guides 6 4% Establish a memorial only on a small parcel of land 2 2% Establish permanent educational programs and workshops on both reservations as the memorial 2 2% Have only historical field markers on the site as the memorial 2 2% Decide what should be done by a referendum of the Cheyenne River and Oglala Sioux tribes 1 1% Establish walking trails in the historic area among spots where the tragic events happened 1 1% No comment (so indicated) _l ____llc Total 124 100%

77 APPENDIXES

Some respondents stated more than one idea or opinion, so altogether 124 ideas were ex­ pressed. The frequency of responses per category is given as a percentage of this total. One respondent in the leave-the-site-alone category warned, "Tell the visitors to leave our people alone ... [and you]leave it alone. If you continue, Wounded Knee J1I will start, just like the [19]73 Wounded Knee takeover."

Question 2: Do you think it is important to protect the lands surrounding the mass grave site so that future uses would not detract from the meaning of the memorial?

Fifty-four respondents (70%) answered yes; 13 (17%) said no; and 10 (13%) did not answer.

Question 3: Do you tl1ink any of the alternatives described in this newsletter would preserve Wounded Knee the way you would like to see it done?

Category Number of Res12ondents Percentage Alternative 1 21 27% Alternative 3 21 27% No Response 16 21% Alternative 2 14 !8% None (so indicated) ...2 _1.& Total 77 100%

Of the 19 respondents assumed to be Lakota, seven chose alternative 3 (38% ); five, alternative 1 (26% ); five, alternative 2 (26% ); one, the category "none" (5% ); and one, no answer (5% ).

Question 4: What would you change in alternatiue 1 to improve it'

Twenty-eight people (36%) made the following suggestions (the suggestions for this alterna­ tive, as well as for alternatives 2 and 3 [questions 5 and 6 in the newsletter], are paraphrased and consolidated):

Expand the park area to include Bridger, Cherry Creek, and the Big Foot Trail, as de­ scribed for the concept of a tribal park (alternative 3). Also, emphasize the historical linkage of Wounded Knee with the Cheyenne River areas of Bridger and Cherry Creek.

Provide for park security and protection with plenty of law enforcement.

Do not reroute Highway 27 because of the people who use it and live along it (three responses). One respondent added that any development around the park should be decided by the Lakota people and not any other entities.

Concentrate on interpretation - telling what really happened at Wounded Knee with all the sad cruelty that the incident brought out. Interpret the site from both Lakota and white peoples' points of view. Produce a Jiving history program about the tragedy.

Restrict any development to areas outside the park boundaries with the possible excep­ tion of a visitor center, which could be inside the park but only along the edge of the historic area.

Have a "drive-around" road surrounding the historic area as well as nature trails.

78 ------

Appendix B: Summary of Public Responses to the Preliminary A!ternafipes

Reduce the amount of land to be operated as a park. Another person said reduce the historic landscape protection area to that of the historic landmark.

Erect a memorial bearing the names of all the victims and survivors with their band affiliation- Minneconjou, Hunkpapa, Oglala, and so forth.

Provide educational grants and scholarships for the young from a trust fund that would ensure that they learned the Lakota culture, history, and language.

Develop a park but have less NPS control and more sharing with the Lakota people in its management.

Have the National Park Service establish a park and run it initially, but gradually (per­ haps within five years) turn it over for Lakotas to manage. Two respondents wanted "more Lakota involvement," without specifying how that might be accomplished.

Make sure the advisory commission is equally balanced by different types of represen­ tation; no one tribe or group should be able to dominate the commission.

Provide for a rotating chairperson of the advisory commission among all of the partici­ pating entities.

Establish a parking lot in addition to the one for a visitor center.

Allow only foot access to the historic area.

Specific comments included the following: "Lakota [persons] should have preference [in hir­ ing,] but [in the spirit of healing] it is not necessary to have a 100% Lakota staff." "Equal opportunity policies [should also prevail] regardless of race ... and ensure that fully quali­ fied NPS personnel are assigned to key positions." One person said there should be "a formal written and spoken apology for the events that occurred there [at Wounded Knee] by the president [of the United States] and appropriate military personnel ... (such as] the chairper­ son of the Joint Chiefs of Staff."

Question 5: What would you change in alternative 2 to improve it?

A total of 25 people (32%) made the following suggestions:

Do not have an entrance fee (nine responses). One of these commented that national monuments should be open and free to all Americans. Another said there should be an entrance fee for all visitors, or else no fee at all. Three said that a minimal fee would be acceptable if necessary, and two others said that only donations should be collected and that schoolchildren and senior citizens on field trips should be admitted with no request for a donation.

Provide adequate funds to manage the historic buffer zone.

Do not reroute Highway 27 because it would disrupt the community (three responses).

Provide for any acquisition of land by the Oglala Sioux Tribe.

Provide for operation of the park by the Oglala Sioux Tribe, with NPS affiliation.

79

------APPENDIXES

Make all interpretation subject to Lakota approval and editing.

Protect the core historic area as a park but no other, larger area.

Include the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe in the management of the buffer zone for historic preservation.

Examples of specific comments: "Management of the park should be left to the Lakota peo­ ple, and backed by the NPS." "Why not let the Sioux manage it instead of the National Park Service?" "The National Park Service should help start the memorial and run it until the tribes have people trained in this field [of park operations]." "Prohibit all commercial enter- prises

Question 6: What would you char~ge in alternative 3 to improve it?

Twenty-nine people (38%) made the following suggestions:

Increase the funding base and include definite federal involvement. There should be no 10-year limit on congressional funding under alternative 3 as mentioned in the newslet­ ter. Alternative 3 should be funded by the federal government. (A total of seven re­ spondents commented about this topic.)

Establish a park with NPS assistance and gradually turn it over to the two tribes to operate, beginning with something like alternative 2 and then turning it into the inter­ tribal park of alternative 3 (six responses).

Ensure that the mass grave and other graves at Wounded Knee remain in place and are not disturbed, and that the remains are not taken back to Cheyenne River.

Design development with Lakota themes; any buildings should have Lakota designs.

Provide a museum away from the massacre site to interpret "the lives of the Lakota people" and "the Lakota point of view."

Be careful about trying to change the current Oglala Sioux Tribe's agreement about the south unit of Badlands National Park. Less income to the tribe could be the result if the south unit becomes a unit of a new intertribal park. The south unit of Badlands Na­ tional Park should not be part of alternative 3 or an intertribal park, said another re­ spondent.

Strengthen tribal leadership on the advisory commission. The tribes should have the majority vote over the National Park Service and the U. S. Forest Service.

Provide training programs for Lakotas in park management, and spell out in alterna­ tive 3. One respondent said that strong NPS involvement would be critical to train Lakotas to run the park under alternative 3.

Do not set up a game range. (Alternative 3 suggested a game range on the south unit of Badlands as one means to help finance park operations.)

Make NPS technical assistance available and spell out in alternative 3.

80

------Appc11dix B: Summary of Public Responses to the Preliminary Alternatives

Limit commercialization and commercial services the way the other two alternatives do.

Coordinate interpretation at all park sites. In an intertribal park, it would be important to have cooperation among all interpretive sites. The facilities would need to be compa­ rable to NPS standards.

Eliminate NPS site affiliation because under alternative 3 "it should be a strong Lakota park on its own."

Specific comments included the following: The Wounded Knee site "must be recognized through proper cooperation and funding among the two tribes and the NPS." "Although intriguing, an intertribal park may be very difficult to establish and manage. Intertribal coop­ eration should be fostered in other ways, such as through a Big Foot trail." However, another person commented, "A joint Oglala/Cheyenne River Tribal Park, as proposed in alternative three, provides the best way of realizing my vision of the Wounded Knee Memorial. ... This memorial would provide both the silence necessary to hear and the space necessary to come together.... The Big Foot National Historic Trail is the strongest aspect of all the proposed alternatives, and I feel has the most potential in fulfilling the goals the memorial repre- sents .... This could be best accomplished by having the National Park Service work in part­ nership with the Lakota people to develop the Memorial, providing training and support in the construction, management, and maintenance of all facilities .... The Lakota people must be the ones responsible for the site if it is truly going to represent a new era in the U.S. government's relation to the first peoples."

Question 7: The story of what happened at Wounded Knee would be told from the Lakota point of view. What do you think is the most important message to tell to visitors?

Of the 62 people (80.5%) who responded to this questions, some 132 ideas were expressed:

Category Number of Ideas Expressed Percentage Sequence of events 26 20% Innocent people suffered 20 15% Lakota culture is worthy of respect 15 11% No response 15 11% Healing by recognizing humanity in common 13 10% How Lakotas feel today about what happened 13 10% Tell both sides of the story 12 9% U.S. Government must recognize the tragedy 10 8% Lakota culture is in harmony with nature 6 5% Such a tragedy should never happen again ___1 ~ Total 132 100%

The sequence-of-events category includes stated references to the Ghost Dance and the assas­ sination of Sitting Bull as well as the details of Big Foot's trek and the massacre that fol­ lowed. One respondent suggested a method to gather information for interpretation, which is to videotape the elders "telling their accounts" and with their permission show certain por­ tions to visitors.

81 APPENDIX C: ALTERNATIVE INTERPRETIVE CONCEPTS

To understand the story of the massacre of Lakota people at Wounded Knee, the tragic events of December 29, 1890, should be placed in the larger context of the long-term interactions of the La­ kota and white societies. The first recorded contact was between the Lewis and Clark expedition and the Teton Sioux in 1804. Relationships between the two peoples were essentially friendly and mutually helpful until the early 1840s, when settlers wagon trains started traveling the transconti­ nental trails. Even with the wagon trains trespassing on the Lakota's homeland, the relationships remained basically friendly, with only occasional random acts of violence by individuals on both sides until1854. From 1854 until the massacre of Big Foot's band in 1890 was a period of open hostilities, varying from all out war to periods of uneasy peace.

At the planning meeting in Pierre, South Dakota (September 1991), two basic approaches to inter­ pret the story of the Wounded Knee massacre were discussed:

(1) Tell the story from both the Lakota and the white points of view and let the visitors de­ cide, based on the evidence, where to place the blame.

(2) Tell the story from the Lakota point of view, recognizing that the white view has been widely written about and published for the past 100 years, while the Lakota version is very poorly known.

Four basic interpretive concepts were evaluated:

(1) A historic site- Deal with the park as a traditional NPS historic site covering the period of the significant event (i.e., a few days in December 1890). The site would be restored to its appearance on December 29, 1890, and a full range of interpretive media (audiovi­ sual programs, exhibits, waysides, publications, and personal services) would be devel­ oped to tell the story.

(2) A Lakota sacred site- Create a Lakota sacred site and restore the site to its original natu­ ral appearance in honor of Mother Earth. The site would be a contemplative site; the only modern aspects would be the mass grave and the new monument to the Lakota victims. The period interpreted would cover the events of 1889-90, with the emphasis being on the massacre itself. This would involve moving the modern churches and cem­ eteries from the site. All interpretation would be provided offsite in a visitor center, with only personal services offered by Lakota interpreters on the site itself.

(3) A bi-culturnl site - Establish a bi-cultural site that would deal with the Wounded Knee massacre as a result of a long period of interaction between the Lakota people and the white culture. This would involve a partial restoration of the site to its 1890 appearance (removal of most modern roads and buildings except for the churches and cemeteries). Agreements would be worked out with the churches to have them remain open during visitor hours as places for meditation. The interpretive story would be based on the theme of "people of the same land." The similarities and differences of the two cultures as they evolved in South Dakota between 1800 and 1890 would be presented.

(4) A henli11g site- Develop a site dedicated to the education of both the Lakota and white societies so they can learn to deal with each other based on the understanding of and acceptance of each other's culture and values. This approach would involve interpreting the history and culture of the Lakota people from their earliest days in South Dakota to the present.

Elements of all these concepts arc represented in the alternatives considered in this document.

82 ------·------·------

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1890 Fifty-ninth Annunl Report of the Commis­ DeMallie, Raymond j ., ed. sioner of Indinn Affnirs, 1890. "Report of 1984 The Sixth Grandfather: Black Elk's Pine Ridge Agency," by H. D. Teachings Given to John G. Neihardt. Gallagher. Washington, DC: Govern­ Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ment Printing Office.

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Greene, Jerome A. Hedren, Paul L., ed. 1970 ''The Sioux Land Commission of 1889: 1991 The Great Sioux War, 1876-77: The Best Prelude to Wounded Knee." South Da­ from Montana, The Magazine of Western kota History 1 (Winter): 41-72. History. Helena: Montana Historical Society Press. 1992 Review of Eyewitness at Wounded Knee, by Richard E. Jensen, R. Eli Paul, and Hoover, Herbert T. john E. Carter. In Nebraska History 73 1989 "The Sioux Agreement of 1889 and Its (Summer): 102-03. Aftermath." South Dakota History 19 (Spring): 56-94. Gresham, john C. 1891 "The Story of Wounded Knee." Harper's Huntzicker, William E. Weekly, February 7, 106-07. 1990 "The 'Sioux Outbreak' in the Illus­ trated Press." South Dakota History 20 Grobsmith, Elizabeth S. (Winter): 299-322. 1981 Lakota of the Rosebud: A Contemporary Ethnography. New York: Holt, Rinehart Indian Rights Association and Winston, Publishers. 1891 Ninth Annual Report of the Executive Committee of the Indian Rights Associa­ Hall, Philip S. tion, 1891. Philadelphia: Indian Rights 1991 To Have This Land: The Nature of Indian/ Association. White Relations, South Dakota, 1888-1891. Vermillion: University of South Dakota jensen, Richard E. Press. 1990 "Big Foot's Followers at Wounded Knee." Nebraska History 71, no. 4: Hannus, L. Adrien, ). M. Butterbrodt, E.). 194-212. Lueck, T. R. Nowak, and E. M. White 1989 "An Archeological Survey of Selected jensen, Richard E., and R. Eli Paul Areas within Fog Creek, Babby Butte 1990 "Draft National Register of Historic Canyon and Lower Cain Creek in Places Registration Form: Wounded Shannon and Pennington Counties, Knee National Historic Landmark." South Dakota." White River Badlands Prepared for the National Park Ser­ Regional Research Project Report, vol. vice. Lincoln, Nebraska State Histori­ 7. Submitted to the South Dakota His­ cal Society. torical Preservation Center, Vermi11ion, SO. Archeology Laboratory, Augustana jensen, Richard E., R. Eli Paul, and john E. College, Sioux Falls, SO. Carter 1991 Eyewitness at Wounded Knee. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

84 Bibliography johnson, Barry C. McDermott, john D. 1977 "Tragedy at White Horse Creek: Ed­ 1990 "Wounded Knee: Centennial Voices." wardS. Godfrey's Unpublished Ac­ South Dakota History 20 (Winter): count of an Incident near Wounded 245-98. Knee." In The Brand Book. London: The English Westerners' Society. McGregor, )ames H. 1972 The Wounded Knee Massacre. Reprint. josephy, Alvin M., Jr., Trudy Thomas, jeanne Rapid City, SO: Fenwyn Press Books. Eder, and George P. Horse Capture 1990 Wounded Knee: Lest We Forget. Cody, 1987 The Wounded Knee Massacre from the WY: Buffalo Bill Historical Center. Viewpoint of the Sioux. 9th edition. Rapid City, SO: Fenske Printing, Inc. Kehoe, Alice Beck 1989 The Ghost Dance: Ethnohistory and Revi­ Medicine, Beatrice talization. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1982 "Oscar Howe and The Sioux." In Os­ and Winston, Publishers. car Howe: A Retrospective Exhibition. Edited by Frederick). Dockstader, Kelley, William Fitch 15-16. Tulsa, OK: Thomas Gilcrease 1971 Pine Ridge 1890: An Eye Witness Account Museum Association, Thomas Gil­ of the Events Surrounding the Fighting at crease Institute of American History Wounded Knee. Edited by Alexander and Art. Kelley and Pierre Bovis. San Francisco: Pierre Bovis. 1991 "The Historic Role Women Played in Warfare." In Wounded Knee Remem­ Lee, Robert bered, 1890-1990: A Lakota Times Spe­ 1991 "Warriors in Ranks: American Indian cial Supplement (Rapid City, South Units in the Regular Army, 1891-1897." Dakota), January 8: 30. South Dakota History 21 (Fall): 263-316. 1992 "Cultural Review of the Wounded Lindberg, Christer Knee Alternatives Study." Prepared 1990 "Foreigners in Action at Wounded for the National Park Service. On file Knee." Nebraska History 71 (Winter): at the Denver Service Center. 170-81. Metcalf, George Lueck, Edward)., and). M. Butterbrodt 1960 "Tragedy at Wounded Knee." In Great 1984 "Cultural Resources Surveys at Pass Western Indian Fights. Edited by B. W. Creek, Nelson Butte, Babby Butte, Allred, Jeff C. Dykes, Frank Good­ Squaw-Humper Creek and Cuny Table wyn, and D. Harper Simms, 307-17. in jackson (Washabaugh) and Shannon Washington, DC: Potomac Corral of Counties, South Dakota." White River The Westerners. Reprint, 1966, Lin­ Badlands Regional Research Project coln: University of Nebraska Press, Report, val. 3. Submitted to the South Bison Books. Dakota Historical Preservation Center, Vermillion, SO. Archeology Laboratory, Miller, David Humphreys Augustana College, Sioux Falls, SO. 1959 Ghost Dance. New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, Publishers. Reprint, 1985, Mattes, Merrill ). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1960 "The Enigma of Wounded Knee." Plains Bison Books. Anthropologist 5 (May): 1-11. Mooney, James McCormick, Major L. S. 1896 "The Ghost-Dance Religion and the 1975 "Wounded Knee and the Drexel Mis­ Sioux Outbreak of 1890." Bureau of sion Fights." By Valor and Arms: The American Ethnology, Annual Report 14: journal of American Military History 1 645-1136. Washington, DC: Smithso­ Oanuary): 3-15. nian Institution.

85 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Moorehead, Warren K. Parks, Douglas R., Margot Liberty, and Andrea 1891 "Ghost-Dances in the West." The Illus­ Ferenci trated American (January 17): 327-33. 1980 "Peoples of the Plains."· In Anthropolo­ gy on the Great Plains. Edited by W. Moses, L. G. Raymond Wood and Margot Liberty, 1984 The Indian Man: A Biography of ]ames 284-95. Lincoln: University of Nebras­ Mooney. Urbana: University of Illinois ka Press. Press. Piper, Alexander R. Murdock, George Peter 1977 "Extracts from Letters Written by 1967 Ethnographic Atlas. Pittsburgh: Univer­ Lieutenant Alexander R. Piper, Eighth sity of Pittsburgh Press. Infantry, at Pine Ridge Agency, South Dakota, to his Wife, Marie Cozzens National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Piper, at Fort Robinson, Nebraska, Interior during the Sioux Campaign, 1890- 1952 "Report on the Historical Investigation 1891." Vol. 10: The Unpublished Papers of the Wounded Knee Battlefield Site, of the Order of the Indian Wars, edited Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, South by john M. Carroll, 11-13. New Dakota," by Merrill ). Mattes. Omaha, Brunswick, Nj: Privately published. NE, Region Two. Powers, Marla N. 1965 "Special Site Report: Wounded Knee 1986 Oglala Women: Myth, Ritual, and Reali­ Battlefield, South Dakota." Omaha, NE, ty. Chicago: University of Chicago Midwest Regional Office. Press.

1987 History and Prehistory in the National Powers, W11liam K. Park System and the National Historic 1977 Oglala Religion. Lincoln: University of Landmarks Program. Washington, DC. Nebraska Press. Reprint, 1982. Lin­ coln: University of Nebraska Press, 1988 Management Policies. Washington, DC. Bison Books.

1990 "Report on Criteria for Affiliated 1982 Yuwipi: Vision and Experience in Oglala Areas." Submitted to the Committee on Ritual. Lincoln: University of Nebras­ Interior and Insular Affairs, U.S. House ka Press. Reprint, 1984. University of of Representatives, and the Committee Nebraska Press, Bison Books. on Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate, pursuant to Public Law 1992 Review: Eyewitness at Wounded Knee, 100-336. Washington, DC. by Richard E. jensen, R. Eli Paul, and john E. Carter. South Dakota History 22 1992 "Public Involvement with the Lakota (Summer): 200-01. People: A Summary of Results for the Wounded Knee Study of Alternatives." Powers, William K., and Marla N. Powers On file at the Denver Service Center. 1992 "Rapid Ethnographic Assessment: Wounded Knee Alternatives Study, Neihardt, john G. February 28, 1992." 4 vols. Prepared 1932 Black Elk Speaks: Being the Life Story of a for the National Park Service. On file Holy Man of the Ogalala Sioux. New at the Denver Service Center. York: William Morrow and Company. Sievers, Michael A. Olson, james C. 1975 "The Historiography of 'The Bloody 1965 Red Cloud and the Sioux Problem. Lin­ Field ... That Kept the Secret of the coln: University of Nebraska Press. Everlasting Word': Wounded Knee." South Dakota History 6 (Winter): 33-54. Overholt, Thomas W. 1974 "The Ghost Dance of 1890 and the Pro­ phetic Process." Ethnohistory 21 (Win­ ter): 51-52.

86 Bibliography

Smith, Rex Alan U.S. Army, U.S. War Department 1975 Moon of Poppin;.; Trees: The Tragedy at 1891 Reports and Correspondence Relating to Wounded Knee and the End of the Indian the Army Investigations of the Battle of Wars. New York: Reader's Digest Press. Wounded Knee and to the Sioux Cam­ Reprint, 1981. Lincoln: University of paign of 1890-1891. National Archives, Nebraska Press, Bison Books. Washington, DC, microfilm publica­ tion M983. Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. 1892 Annual Report of the Secretary of War, Department of the Interior 1891. Washington, DC: Government 1991 Soil Survey of Shannon County, South Printing Office. Dakota, by E. Robert Redeke. Prepared in cooperation with the South Dakota Utley, Robert M. Agricultural Experiment Station. 1963 The Last Days of the Sioux Nation. Yale Western Americana Series, Number 3. Stewart, Orner C. New Haven: Yale University Press. 1980 "The Ghost Dance." In Anthropology on the Great Plains. Edited by W. Raymond 1984 The Indian Frontier of the American Wood and Margot Liberty, 179-87. Lin­ West, 1846-1890. Albuquerque: Uni­ coln: University of Nebraska Press. versity of New Mexico Press.

Stoffle, Richard W., Cheryle A. Last, and Michael Utley, Robert M., and Wilcomb E. Washburn j. Evans 1977 The American Heritage History of the 1979 "Reservation-Based Tourism: Implica­ Indian Wars. New York: American tions of Tourist Attitudes for Native Heritage Publishing Company. American Economic Development." Human Organization 38 (Fall): 300-306. Utter, jack 1991 Wounded Knee and the Ghost Dance Sword, George Tragedy. Lake Ann, Ml: National 1892 "The Story of the Ghost Dance." The Woodlands Publishing Company. Folk-Lorist 1 (July): 28-36. Walker, james R. Thorton, Russell 1982 Lakota Society. Edited by Raymond). 1987 American Indian Holocaust and Survival: DeMallie. Lincoln: University of Ne­ A Population History Since 1492. Nor­ braska Press. man: University of Oklahoma Press. Wells, Philip U.S. Congress, Senate 1948 "Ninety-six Years Among the Indians 1891 Executive Documents of the Senate of the of the Northwest." North Dakota His­ United States for the Second Session of the tory 15:85-312. Fifty-first Congress. "Executive DoC\1- ment No. 9." Washington, DC: Govern­ Wilson, Norma Clark ment Printing Office. 1990 "Wounded Knee in Literature." Insti­ tute of American Studies, University of 1892 Executive Documents of the Senate of the South Dakota, Bulletin Winter: 6-10. United States for the First Session of the Fifty-second Congress. "Executive Docu­ Wvss, Patrick H., et a!. ment No. 58." Washington, DC: Gov­ '1990 "Cankpe Taopi [sic]: Wounded Knee ernment Printing Office. Feasibility Study, November 15, 1990." Prepared for the South Dakota Histor­ U.S. Congress, Senate, Select Committee on Indi­ ic Preservation Center, Vermillion, an Affairs South Dakota. Rapid City, SD: Wyss 1991 "Hearing on the Proposed Wounded Associates, Inc. Knee Park and Memorial." 102nd Cong., 1st sess., S. Hrg. 102-93.

87 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Collections

Charles W. Allen Collection, Nebraska State His­ torical Society Archives, Lincoln, NE.

Frank D. Baldwin Collection, Huntington Li­ brary, San Marino, CA.

James McLaughlin Collection, Robinson Muse­ um, Pierre, SD.

Eli S. Ricker Collection, Nebraska State Histor­ ical Society Archives, Lincoln, NE.

88 STUDY TEAM AND CONSULTANTS

STUDY TEAM CONSULTANTS

Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe

Florence Arpan, Cheyenne River Wounded Knee Iyonne Garreau, Director, Nutrition Center for Survivors Association, alternate tean1 member the Elderly Burdell Blue Arm, President, Cheyenne River Raymond Uses the Knife, Tribal Council Wounded Knee Survivors Association member Terry Fiddler, Tribal Council member Melvin Garreau, former Chairman, Tribal Council; former team member Oglala Sioux Tribe

Duane Brewer, Director of Tourism, former Oglala Sioux Tribe Tribal Council member Emma Iron Plume Clifford, Parks and Recre­ Leonard Little Finger, Director, Public Health ation Board member Service Indian Hospital Paul Little, former Tribal Council member Marie Not Help Him, Oglala Sioux Tribe Water Walter Little Moon, Wounded Knee resident Board member and businessman James A. Lone Elk, guide and interpreter

National Park Service National Park Service Nola Chavez, Landscape Architect, Denver Ser­ vice Center Muriel K. Crespi, Ph.D., Senior Cultural An­ Vernon Dave Dame, Interpretive Planner, Har­ thropologist, Washington Office pers Ferry Center Jerome A. Greene, Supervisory Historian, Den­ Kathleen Gavan, Landscape Architect, Denver ver Service Center Service Center David E. Ruppert, Ph.D., Regional Cultural Allen R. Hagood, Team Captain, Denver Service Anthropologist, Rocky Mountain Regional Center Office John W. Hoesterey, Economist, Denver Service Joseph W. Zarki, Chief of Interpretation, Bad­ Center lands National Park Gregory D. Kendrick, Historian, Rocky Moun­ tain Regional Office Irvin L. Mortenson, Superintendent, Badlands Lakota Cultural Review Consultants National Park Lawrence F. Van Horn, Ph.D., Cultural Anthro­ Ben Black Bear, Jr., Director, Buechel Memorial pologist, Denver Service Center Lakota Museum (Saint Francis, SD) Sam Eagle Staff, late President, Cheyenne River Wounded Knee Survivors Association State of South Dakota Calvin Jumping Bull, Professor, Lakota Studies Program, Oglala Lakota College (Kyle, SO) Paul M. Putz, Director, Historic Preservation Luis S. Kemnitzer, Ph.D., Professor, Depart­ Center ment of Anthropology, San Francisco State Dee Dee Raap, Operations Manager, Department University of Tourism Beatrice Medicine, Ph.D., Retired Professor of Francis Whitebird, Commissioner of Indian Anthropology (Wakpala, SO) Affairs, Office of the Governor Marla N. Powers, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Anthropology, Seton Hall University

89 STUDY TEAM AND CONSULTANTS

William K. Powers, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Anthropology, Rutgers University R. D. Theisz, Ph.D., Professor, Department of English and Native American Studies Pro­ gram, Black Hills State University

Other Consultants

L. Adrien Hannus, Ph.D., Director, Laboratory of Archeology; Professor, Department of Art and Anthropology, Augustana College (Sioux Falls, SD) Richard E. Jensen, Research Anthropologist, Ne­ braska State Historical Society

90 As the nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior nas responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural and cultural resources. This includes fostering wise use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The department assesses our energy and mineral resources and works to ensure that their development is in the best interests of all our people. The department also promotes the goals of the Take Pride in America campaign by encouraging stewardship and citizen responsibility for the public lands and promoting citizen participation in their care. The department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in island territories under U.S. administration.

Publication services were provided by David Hesker, visual information specialist, and Greg Sorensen, writer I editor, of the Branch of Publications and Graphic Design, Denver Service Center. NPS D-2 December 1992

@ Printed on Recycled Paper United States Department of the Interior •National Park Service