American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 2 (4): 382-387, 2007 ISSN 1818-6769 © IDOSI Publications, 2007 Olea europaea L. A Botanical Contribution to Culture Sophia Rhizopoulou National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Department of Biology, Section of Botany, Panepistimioupoli, Athens 157 84, Greece Abstract: One of the oldest known cultivated plant species is Olea europaea L., the olive tree. The wild olive tree is an evergreen, long-lived species, wide-spread as a native plant in the Mediterranean province. This sacred tree of the goddess Athena is intimately linked with the civilizations which developed around the shores of the Mediterranean and makes a starting point for mythological and symbolic forms, as well as for tradition, cultivation, diet, health and culture. In modern times, the olive has spread widely over the world. Key words: Olea • etymology • origin • cultivation • culture INTRODUCTION Table 1: Classification of Olea ewopaea Superdivi&on Speimatophyta-seed plants Olea europaea L. (Fig. 1 & Table 1) belongs to a Division Magnohophyta-flowenng plants genus of about 20-25 species in the family Oleaceae [1-3] Class Magn olio psi da- dicotyledons and it is one of the earliest cultivated plants. The olive Subclass Astendae- tree is an evergreen, slow-growing species, tolerant to Order Scrophulanale- drought stress and extremely long-lived, with a life Family Oleaceae- olive family expectancy of about 500 years. It is indicative that Genus Olea- olive Species Olea europaea L. -olive Theophrastus, 24 centuries ago, wrote: 'Perhaps we may say that the longest-lived tree is that which in all ways, is able to persist, as does the olive by its trunk, by its power of developing sidegrowth and by the fact its roots are so hard to destroy' [4, book IV. 13.5]. The most ancient traces of Olea are fossilised leaves, found on the island of Santorini in the Aegean Archipelago, dating back 50,000- 60,000 years [5, 6]. Olive cultivation originated in a valley of the river Jordan in the Eastern Mediterranean area [7] and has a history as long as that of western civilization [8,9]. Fig. 1: Olea europaea L., of the Linnean herbarium Sophocles (5th century BC) wrote a hymn to the olive (microfiche No: IDC 4.3, Department of tree, for his last play Oedipus at Colonos (401 BC): Phanerogamic Botany Swedish Museum of Natural History) • There is a plant unheard of in the fabulous land of Asia, The purpose of this study is to foster greater • unknown to Doric earth - a thing immortal; understanding of the botanical, historical and philological • gift of a goddess, beyond the control of hands, evidence for the origin and the distribution of the olive • tough, self-renewing, an enduring wealth, tree, 'the queen of all trees' according to Columella (Libri • passing through generations De Re Rustica, 42 AD). • the invincible grey-leafed olive. • Aged survivor of all vicissitudes, Botanical ancestor of Olea: The botanical ancestor of • it knows protection of the all-seeing eye of Zeus, the cultivated Olea europaea L. is believed to be a group • whose sunlight always regards it, of wild olives traditionally called oleaster olives. Over • and of grey-eyed Athena. large areas in the Mediterranean province, oleasters thrive as a constituent of maquis formations, within a Corresponding Author: Dr. Sophia Rhizopoulou, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Department of Biology, Section of Botany, Panepistimioupoli, Athens 157 84, Greece 382 Am-Euras. J. Agnc. &, Environ. Sci., 2 (4): 382-387, 2007 climatic region that has been defined by Koppen [10], as the olive climate [11-13]. Wild olive trees have been treated by some botanists as an independent species, i.e. Olea oleaster Hoffrn. & Link., but because of their close morphological and genetic affinities to the cultivated tree, most researchers dealing with Fig. 2: Olea, in Linear B (i.e. the first Greek writing Mediterranean plants today regard oleaster as the wild system) used between 14th and 12th century BC. race of the cultivated species and place it within Olea europaea L., either as a subspecies [subsp. oleaster (Hoffrn. & Link) Hegi], or as a variety [var. sylvestris South Africa. Olea europaea is now considered as an (Mill.) Lehr. = var. oleaster (Hoffm. & Link.) DC.] [2]. edible, medicinal and useful plant for a healthier world. Theophrastus (371-286 BC) stated that the wild olive tree It is noteworthy that olive oil contains 14.8% saturated differs from the cultivated olive in having spiny lower fat and 85.2% unsaturated fat [28] and it is valued as an branches [14, book V.12.8] and small leaves and drupes important item of diet [29]. Virgin olive oil, identified by its [4, book 1.14.2 & book II.2.12]. Cultivated and wild olive delicate and unique aroma [30], is highly appreciated by trees possess similar characteristics and it is difficult to consumers, because it is consumed in its crude form distinguish stands of wild olive trees [15-17]. According without any refining process. to archaeological evidence, Olea was cultivated in Crete and Syria, as long ago as 2,500 BC [18, 19]. Genetic Etymology of Olea: The first word for Olea appeared in studies support the hypothesis that olive domestication Linear B (Fig. 2), on clay tablets found in Greece dated to occurred in many locations in the Mediterranean basin the 13th century BC [31, 32]. The word olive and all the [20]. More recent work indicates that there must have surviving forms are derived from the Greek word elaa been a period of 'pre-domestication cultivation' in which (s/lcta), according to Theophrastus) and elam ( sAoua) the wild ancestors of domestic species were intentionally [33]. Thus, we have alev in Gothic, olia in old cultivated [21, 22]. The dimensions of carbonised stones Scandinavian, eel (oil) in Anglo-Saxon, olei (61) in old of Olea europeaea have proved to be an invaluable High German andofea, oliva, oleum, olivum in Latin [34]. parameter that can be used to distinguish between wild The Semitic word zeit for Olea is encountered in the and cultivated varieties [ 23-25]. Arabic zenboudje (wild olive) and zitoun (cultivated Olea europaea is a hermaphrodite tree that blossoms olive), in the Andalousian azenbucha, in the Portuguese in spring; two kinds of small, fragrant, cream-coloured zambugeiro, in the word zayit in Israel and zuitin in flowers produce pollen, the species being largely wind Morocco; it is interesting to note that among the Tuaregs pollinated, though, most olive varieties are self-fertile. The the wild olive is called aleo [32]. fruit of the olive tree is a drupe that usually changes It would seem that a relationship in definition colour from green to purple or nearly black, when fully between the word for oil (eleon) and the word for mercy ripe in late autumn and the oil is expressed by the fleshy (eleos) in Greek, might be due to a false etymology [35]. pericarp. Pliny (23-76 AD) refers to Historia Naturalis However, in dramatic masterpiece-texts such as Oedipus (XE.14, XE.60, XV.1-7, XXm.34-60) fifteen varieties of Rex of Sophocles (434 BC) a person who came in olives and the usefulness of olive oil. The varieties supplication, seeking mercy and understanding from his known to the modern farmer are numerous, because follow-men, when he had committed a grave offence, olive trees have been exclusively cross-pollinated. The holds olive branches in his hands. In Eumenides of cultivars vary considerably in size, shape, oil content and Aeschylus (5th century BC), the soothsayer Pythia of the flavour and molecular markers have been used to classify Delphi oracle announces 'I see a man with bloody them [26, 27]. hands seated at the Navel, postured in the suppliant's The cultivation of olive trees has been expanded to seat, holding a fresh stem of olive'. Olive trees were Egypt, France Iberia, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Morocco and closely planted in Delphi valley from very ancient times. Tunis. Olive trees have been introduced to Chile, the In the Shakespeare's TwelfthNight of (1.5.204) 'I bring no Caribbean, Peru, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and finally, overture of war, no taxation of homage, I hold the olive in the 17th century, to California. The olive tree has in my hand: my words are as full of peace as matter'. also been introduced into Chinese agriculture and it Therefore, it is likely that olive branch has been a symbol grows vigorously in South Australia and some parts of of peace and of the reconciliation of man with man. 383 Am-Euras. J.Agric. & Environ. Sci., 2 (4): 382-387, 2007 In this spirit, olive branches appear in the flag of the Epidaurians). In fact, Theophrastus writes that olive- United Nations Organization and have became a symbol wood is more apt than other woods to produce shoots of longevity, purification, strength, prosperity, wisdom, even when lying idle or made into manufactured victory and peace. It is well known that in the Olympic articles; this it often does, if it obtains moisture and lies in games, the winners were crowned with wreaths made of a damp place [4, book V.9.8]. The olive tree long stood on olive branches [36]. the Acropolis and, though destroyed in the Persian invasion (480 BC), sprouted again from its root [41]. To Olea in the (early) civilizedmediterranean province: the long-lived character of olea, both cultivated and Olea europaea appears in the Bible and in the Qur'an, as wild witness is born also by the tales handed down in the most sacred, most revered and most adored tree, mythology, as the olive at Athens [4, book IV.13.2).