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The Political Economy of the Film Industry in Tanzania: from Socialism to An

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The Political Economy of the Film Industry in Tanzania: from Socialism to An The Political Economy of the Film Industry in Tanzania: From Socialism to an Open Market Economy, 1961–2010 By C2010 Mona Ngusekela Mwakalinga Submitted to the graduate degree program in Film and Media Studies and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Chairperson _____________________ Tamara Falicov __________________________ Michael Baskett __________________________ Catherine Preston __________________________ Peter Ukpokodu ___________________________ Garth Myers Date Defended: i The Dissertation Committee for Mona Ngusekela Mwakalinga certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: The Political Economy of the Film Industry in Tanzania: From Socialism to an Open Market Economy, 1961–2010 Chairperson ________________________ Tamara Falicov Date Approved: ii Acknowledgments Writing a dissertation requires a support system that is there for you throughout the laborious and exciting journey of planning, analyzing, and writing. I could not have accomplished this study without the unconditional support of my chair, Dr. Tamara Falicov. Her passion for the academy has inspired me to become a better scholar and person. My acknowledgment also goes to my committee members, Dr. Michael Baskett, Dr. Peter Ukpokodu, Dr. Catherine Preston, and Dr. Garth Myers, for their insightful and valuable suggestions, which have made this study what it is. My life in the United States and specifically at the University of Kansas would not have been worthwhile without my friends who went out of their way to make my life as a graduate student bearable. Brian Faucette, Baerbel Goebel, Julius Fackler, and Mary Beth Wilson’s love and friendship held me when at times I thought I could not move forward. My thanks also go to Ron Wilson for his generous support in proofreading my work. I’m grateful for the financial support I received from the Fulbright Association, the University of Kansas, and the University of Dar es Salaam, which enabled me to undertake and accomplish the study in a timely manner. My acknowledgment also goes to my numerous interviewees—filmmakers, distributors, and government cultural officials—who were willing to share their experiences, data, and files. Their information has been the pillar of this study. Most importantly, I would not have survived without the unconditional love and support of my friend, comrade, and husband, Ngwa’za Kamata. He inspires me to always quest for knowledge and to remain principled. His love has been my constant. I dedicate this work to my parents Kagunda Lufingo and Uswege Mwakalinga, whose love has been my strength and motivation. iii Abstract This study examines the film industry in Tanzania from the 1960s to 2010 and assesses how government policies, legislation, and cultural institutions have impacted filmmaking in Tanzania. By employing a critical political economy theoretical framework, the study explores succeeding administrations, from President Julius Kambarage Nyerere (1961–1985) to President Mrisho Jakaya Kikwete (2005–present), and reveals cultural mechanisms governments use in controlling the film industry. Through the use of archival information, interviews, and participant observation, the study reveals that despite the social, cultural, economic, political, and ideological shifts that Tanzania has experienced in moving from socialism to capitalism, each administration, using different mechanisms, has retained a strong hold on the film industry. These administrations in advancing their power and legitimacy established cultural institutions and film policies that saw to it that only government-sanctioned images and cultural values were projected to its citizenry. This study reveals that government institutions such as the Government Film Unit (GFU), the Tanzania Film Company (TFC), the Audio Visual Institute (AVI), the National Film Censorship Board (NFCB), the Film and Stage Play Act of 1976, the Cultural Policy, the Cultural Trust Fund, the Copyright Law of 1999, the Copyright Society of Tanzania (COSOTA), and the Zanzibar International Film Festival (ZIFF) were established as mechanisms to control local cultural products as well as the intrusion of foreign cultural products. The policies, legislation, and cultural institutions gave the government the power to influence the opinion of its citizens by dictating what cultural images and identities were permissible. By examining how policies, institutions, and legislation impacted the film industry, an understanding of how governments manipulate and control the cultural/film sector is critically highlighted and addressed in the hope that an alternative, more diversified perspective will emerge. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgments Abstract Chapter One: Introduction 1 Chapter Two: The New Nation: Consolidation, Nation Building, and Film 30 Chapter Three: Rukhsa: Everything Goes? Transition to Neo-Liberal Policy and Film 62 Chapter Four: Uwazi na Ukweli? (Transparency and Truth): Accelerated Neo-liberalism and the Emergence of Diasporic and Video Films 93 Chapter Five: Firming Up Neo-liberalism: Ari Mpya, Nguvu Mpya, na Kasi Mpya and the Transregional/Transnational Video Film Industry 132 Conclusion 176 Bibliography 191 Appendices Names of Interviewees 204 The Cultural Policy Document 210 Video Film Posters 221 v Chapter One Introduction This study explores the film industry in Tanzania from the 1960s to 2010 and assesses how government policies, legislation, and cultural institutions have been used as mechanism of cultural control and thus shaped and impacted filmmaking in Tanzania. An examination of how different administrations, from President Julius Kambarage Nyerere in 1961 to President Mrisho Jakaya Kikwete in 2010, have perceived film production and thus the film industry as a challenge to the neo-liberal narrative of globalization that sees governments as obsolete is made and a critical political economy analytical framework is employed for examining the tools governments use and continue to use in establishing and sustaining their dominance and relevance in the cultural sector. This study examines the social, economic, political, and cultural transformation of Tanzania and discusses how those different paradigms interpenetrate and influence the Tanzanian film industry and further assesses to what extent and with what mechanisms the government controls the film industry. The study reveals complex, antagonistic, and sometime contradictory relations existing between the government and its filmmaking citizens and how that relationship has ushered in alternative modes of film production and exhibition. The Social, Economic, and Political Landscape of Tanzania Like many of Africa’s developing nations, Tanzania attained its political independence in 1961, and like many of the newly formed Third World countries it struggled to form a unified nation. In the endeavor to construct this nation, the newly elected Tanganyika African National Unity (TANU) government under the leadership of President Nyerere established the Ministry of National Culture and Youth in 1962. In his inaugural speech to the parliament on December 10, 1 1962, the president laid out the mission of the ministry: “Culture is the essence and spirit of any nation. Of the crimes of colonialism there is no worse than the attempt to make us believe we had no indigenous culture of our own. So I have set up this new Ministry to help us regain our pride in our culture, I want to seek out the best of the traditions and customs of all our tribes and make them part of our national culture (Nyerere, 1962: 4). In the endeavor to realize a national culture and identity, President Nyerere suppressed all political parties, civil societies, trade unions, and ethnic associations under the pretense that indulging in diverse and multiple organizations would “introduce elements of disunity and retard development” (Shivji, 2006: 37). To further and officially flush out dissidents in 1963, Nyerere announced that Tanganyika would become a one-party state (Coulson 1986: 137); in 1964 Tanganyika and Zanzibar united to form the United Republic of Tanzania; and in 1965 the TANU party declared itself the de facto party, officially making Tanzania a single-party state. In 1967, the government further cemented its authority by officially announcing a socialist manifesto entitled “Socialism and Self-Reliance,” otherwise known as Ujamaa in Kiswahili, which declared socialism as the state ideology and highlighted the steps the nation would take to implement its social, economic, and political development programs. With the socialist ideology thus established, the government became the sole guarantor of the citizen’s general well-being. The government thus had the power to construct and control the thinking pattern of its citizen. According to Jeffery Klaeh, a government gains its power through “ideological conditions that encourage people to believe in their legitimacy and acquiesce to their authority” (2010: 12). The power to narrate and block other narratives from emerging became the preoccupation of the TANU government, and this was cemented through the adoption of the socialism and self- reliance manifesto. 2 Ngumbele-Mwiru notes that the building of socialism can only be ensured when the peasants and workers, by the instruments of their government and cooperatives, control the major means of production and distribution (quoted in Cliffe, 1973: 53). In short, the Tanzanian state,
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