The Ceremony of Confession of : A Study Based on the Records in the book of A Record of the Inner Law Sent Home from the South Seas 《南海寄歸內法傳》

Zhang Jingting, Phramaha Anon Ānando, Asst. Prof. Dr. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Lawrence Y.K. LAU Guizhou Normal University, China Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

A Record of the Inner Law Sent Home from the South Seas was written by an eminent who lived in Chinese Tang dynasty including forty chapters about Buddhist life in the seventh century in the region of India and Malay Archipelago. Such as , the ceremony of chanting, the and so on. The ceremony of confession is one of the chapters of this book. In this chapter, Yijing introduced the ceremony of two kinds of confessions, including the time, regulations, procedure of confession. This study aims at providing an overview of the ceremony of confession the Buddhist life based on the records of the ceremony of confession in A Record of the Inner Law Sent Home from the South Seas《南海寄歸內法傳》of Yijing and the related records in Buddhist Vinayapiṭaka. The results shown that there are different records on the time of in different school’s Vinaya, but all of them are depend on the time of the Summer-Retreat. Yijing’s records on the ceremony of are corresponded with the records in Pāli Vinaya. The advantages of the confession to Buddhism has been discussed as well.

Keywords: Confession, Buddhism, A Record of the Inner Law Sent Home from the South Seas《南海寄歸內法傳》 JIABU | Vol. 12 No.1 (January – June 2019) 255

1. Introduction Buddhism as one of the most ancient religions in the world, has been spread to over the world from the original place and formed into three schools of Mahāyāna, Theravāda and Vajrayāna Buddhism. Now, Buddhism has developed more than 2500 years and some of the life styles has been changed as well. Confession is a very important ceremony of Buddhist Vinaya life, but the research on the confession ceremony is not enough to shown the history and the current situation of confession of Buddhist Vinaya life. There were some differences of confession in different Buddhist school and different Buddhist area with the development of the world. However, the literatures on the ceremony of confession of the Buddhist Vinaya life after is lacked because of rare materials excepts a few of ancient Chinese books. Yijing was an eminent monk (A.D.635-713, B.E.1178-1256) who lived in Chinese Tang dynasty, in the seventh century. In 671, at the age of thirty-seven, Yijing boarded a ship and departed from Guangzhou (a famous commercial port city in the south of ancient China). After that, Yijing spent totally twenty-five years on pilgrimage and study in India and southern seas, he reaching more than thirty countries. Within, he spent ten years studying in and seven years for translating and writing in Sri Vijaya which is the first unified kingdom to dominate much of Malay Archipelago. One of his writings A Record of the Inner Law Sent Home from the South Seas《南海寄歸內法傳》is the rare early historical materials of the history, culture, and religions of India and Malay Archipelago. For example, Buddhist life of Southeast Asia in the seventh century, it said:

There is the country of Srīkṣetra. Further to the southeast from here is the country of Lankasu. Further to the east is the country of Dvārapati. Further to the extreme east is the country of Lin-yi. All these countries greatly venerate the triple gem. There are many men who observe the , and the ascetic practice of -begging is the custom of the in these countries. In the Western Land have seen such monks, who are really different from men of ordinary morality. (Li Rongxi, tr., 2000: 12)

Srīkṣetra is ancient Myanmar, Lankasu involved Kedah of Malaysia and Pattani areas of Thailand, Dvārapati is Ayutthaya areas of Thailand, Lin-yi is middle areas of Vietnam. It can be analyzed that alms round of Buddhism was popular during the seventh century, Buddhism has been deeply rooted in those areas at that time and has a considerable influence on all aspects of social life. 256 JIABU | Vol. 12 No.1 (January – June 2019)

A Record of the Inner Law Sent Home from the South Seas has forty chapters about Buddhist life in the seventh century in the region of India and Malay Archipelago. Such as Vassa, the ceremony of chanting, the ordination and so on. The ceremony of confession is one of topics in this book. In this topic, Yijing introduced the ceremony of two kinds of confessions, includes the time, regulations, procedure of confession. Therefore, this study aims at providing an overview of the ceremony of confession of the Buddhist Vinaya life based on the records of the ceremony of confession in A Record of the Inner Law Sent Home from the South Seas《南海寄歸內法傳》of Yijing and the related records in Buddhist Vinayapiṭaka.

2. The Comparison Study on the Ceremony of Confession

2.1 The Overview of the Ceremony of Confession Wrote by Yijing In this topic, Yijing introduced the ceremony of two kinds of confessions, includes the time, regulations, procedure of Confession. The overview of contents as the follows:

The last day of the summer retreat, which is also the end of the year, should be named pavarana (the day one is free from restraint), when the monks are free to expose the misconduct of one another on the three bases [of having witnessed, having heard about, or having a suspicion of the misdeed], with the intention of absolving others from guilt. The word was formerly translated as zi-zi (自恣). On the night of the fourteenth day, a teacher well versed in scripture must be invited to mount a high seat to recite a Buddhist scripture, while lay devotees and monks gather together like clouds and mist, with lamps burning continually and incense and flowers offered. On the following morning, all of them go out around the village or town and worship the (caityas) devoutly. When it is nearly noontime, they return to the monastery and have their regular meal at midday. In the afternoon, they gather together, each taking a handful of fresh cogon grass, and while stamping their feet on it, they exercise their duty of free criticism. First come the monks and then the nuns, and lastly the three lower grades of the homeless disciples. If it is feared that owing to the large number of people attending the assembly, a long time might be required to complete the function, more members of the assembly should be appointed to hear the confessions. When one is accused of a fault, one should make a confession and ask for absolution according to usage. At this time either the lay disciples offer gifts to the monks, or the monks exchange gifts among themselves. JIABU | Vol. 12 No.1 (January – June 2019) 257

All alms received are brought into the presence of the assembly, and a confessor who possesses the five virtues should ask the presiding monk, “Can these alms be distributed to the members of the community of monks to be placed at their disposal?” The presiding monk says in answer, “Yes!” Then all robes, razors, needles, awls and the like received from the donors are equally distributed to the monks. After the mutual criticism and the distribution of alms, the monks may disperse and each go his own way. This is the completion of the summer retreat. The confession of guilt is to disclose one’s own misdeeds and declare what offenses one has committed in the past, in order to rectify the past and prevent future faults with perfect sincerity and earnest self-reproach. The Uposatha ceremony is conducted once every half month, and one should reflect every morning and evening on what offenses one has committed. Committing any offense of the first group is irremediable, while violation of the rules of the second group requires a quorum of twenty members of the community of monks (to listen to the offender’s confession and absolve him of his guilt). If one has committed a minor offense, one should make a confession to absolve one’s fault before a monk who is not one’s equal. Of the word āpatti- pratideśanā, āpatti means offense, and pratideśanā, confessing before others. It is in the hope of gaining purity that one confesses oneself guilty. On should confess of one’s faults item by item, and then expiation may be expected. A general confession of faults is not allowed by the Vinaya. (Li Rongxi, tr., 2000:83-85)

2.2 The Main Points of the Ceremony of Confession (1) The time of the confession In this topic, there are two kinds of confessions. One of them is named pavarana it is the day one is free from restraint, the time of pavarana starts on the last day of the Rains-retreat. Another one is uposatha, the ceremony of uposatha is conducted once every half month. (2) The regulations of the confession Pavarana: on the night of the fourteenth day in the end of the Rains-retreat, a teacher well versed in scripture must be invited to mount a high seat to recite a Buddhist scripture. Walking around the village and worship the pagodas on the next morning, confession starts in the afternoon. First come the monks and then the nuns, and lastly the three lower grades of the homeless disciples 258 JIABU | Vol. 12 No.1 (January – June 2019)

Uposatha: The Uposatha ceremony is conducted once every half month, and one should reflect every morning and evening on what offenses one has committed. Committing any offense of the first group is irremediable, while violation of the rules of the second group requires a quorum of twenty members of the community of monks (to listen to the offender’s confession and absolve him of his guilt). If one has committed a minor offense, one should make a confession to absolve one’s fault before a monk who is not one’s equal.

2.3 Comparison Study on the Time of Confession Pavarana. According to Yijing’s record, the time of pavarana starts on the last day of the Rains-retreat. But there are different records in Vinayapiṭaka of different school, it is difficult to make sure the exact date. In the Mahīsasaka-Vinaya《五分律》it said that Monks should practice pavarana on the last day of the third month of the Summer-retreat. But in the Dharmagupta Vinaya《四分律》it said:

After Vassa, or monks have different arguments, after discussing on Abhidhamma and talking, as long as the day is still not bright, monks should practice pavarana. ( Buddhayaśas, tr., CBETA,T22, no. 1428 )

Checking the Vinaya of Sarvāstivāda, the first day, the fourteenth day and the fifteenth of lunar calendar is the day for pavarana. Puṇya-,( tr., CBETA, T23, no. 1435). Checking the Pāli Vinaya of Theravāda Buddhism, pavarana day are the fourteenth day and the fifteenth of lunar calendar. (I. B. Horner, tr., The Book of the Discipline, Vol.4, 163) Although it has different records about pavarana in different Vinayapiṭaka of Buddhist schools, but all of them are depend on the ritual of Vassa. During the Vassa, monks live together and easily to observe each other, though pavarana, they can help each achieve the liberation quicker. At the beginning it needs at least five monks to hold pavarana, with the change of different situations, even only one monk he should to practice pavarana as well. for example, in the Pāli Vinaya of Mahāvagga, it said:

This is a case, monks, where one monk is staying in a certain residence on an Invitation [for pavarana] day…that monk, having made a light, should sit down. if other monks arrive, he may invite together with them [for pavarana], if no other monks arrive, he should determine: “To-day is an Invitation day for me.” If he should not (so) determine, there is an offence of wrong-doing. (I. B. Horner, tr., The Book of the Discipline, Vol.4, 160) JIABU | Vol. 12 No.1 (January – June 2019) 259

Although only one monk staying in a certain residence, he should follow pavarana too, it can be seen that the rule of pavarana is very important for Sangha. It was practiced during the period of Vassa, it also closes to Uposatha. Uposatha. According to the records of Yijing, the Uposatha ceremony is conducted once every half month. But, at the beginning the time of Upostha is unsure, monks practice it even every day, for example, in Dharmagupta-Vinaya《四分律》it said:

佛言：「聽十五日、十四日、十三日，若十日，若九日，若八日，若五日，若 三日，若二日，若日日說。」At that time, monks do not know they should gather on which date [for Uposatha]. The Lord said: “Monks, I allow you hold Uposatha on the fifteenth day, the fourteenth day, the thirteenth day or the tenth day, or the fifth day…or every day.” ( Buddhayaśas, tr., CBETA,T22, no. 1428 )

Monks maybe thought that reading Vinaya is the diligent way for cultivating themselves, so the Buddha allow monks practice freely even every day, it obviously, monks practice it frequently. But afterwards, monks have no enough time and energy to practice it every day, so the time of Uposatha gradually fixed in half-month. it can be analyzed that the time of Uposatha was changed with the time goes by, after a period of practice, the half-monthly Uposatha was finally fixed. According to Pāli Vinay, the formal Uposatha day is on the first day and the fifteenth day, on the day monks get together to recite the .

2.4 Comparison Study of the Ceremony of the Uposatha Uposatha was made by the Buddha, it is the only one confession ceremony which is openly in the Sangha. The Buddha stipulated that when a Buddhist disciple is committing a guilt, he must re-purify his body and mind through revealing and repenting the guilt of themselves or others’. So, how does the ceremony of ceremony was according to Pāli Vinaya? It was recorded in the Vinaya of Mahāvagga:

And thus, monks, should it be recited: The Order should be informed by an experienced, competent monk, saying: “Honored sirs, let the Order listen to me. Today, the fifteenth (day), is an observe (day). If it seems right to the Order, the Order may carry out Observance, it may recite the Patimokkha. What is the Order’s first duty? Let the venerable ones announce entire purity. I will recite the Patimokkha (while) one and all of us present listen properly and pay attention to it. He for whom there may be an offence should reveal it. If there is no offence, you should become 260 JIABU | Vol. 12 No.1 (January – June 2019)

silent. By your becoming silent I shall thus know that the venerable are quite pure. For as there is an answer for each question so it is proclaimed up to the third time in an assembly like this. Whatever monk remembering while it is being proclaimed up to the third time that there is an existent offence and should not reveal it, there comes to be conscious lying for him. Now, conscious lying, venerable ones, is a thing called a stumbling-block by the Lord. Therefore, the existent offence should be revealed by a monk who remembers that he has fallen into an offence and who desires purity; for when it is revealed there comes to be comfort for him.” (I. B. Horner, tr., The Book of the Discipline, Vol.4, 102)

It can be analyzed that there are two important contents of Uposatha, they are reciting the Patimokkha and confession. On the day of Uposatha, a venerable elder who keeps the percepts strictly and purely to recite the Patimokkha. All monks who attend the ceremony should listen to every carefully. If one has offence he should reveal and explain it before the public. If one has no offence one should become silent. The Venerable will ask each question three time, the monk who revealed himself will receive comforts which is good for his cultivating. On the contrary, if anyone deliberately conceals his offences and does not regret it, then there is a new offence to him. Confession is so important for Buddhism, even if there is only one monk, there is rule of confession ceremony for himself. For example, in the Vinaya of Mahāvagga it said:

This is a case, monks, where one monk is staying in a certain residence on an Observance day. That monk, having swept that place to which monks return-an attendance hall or a pavilion or the root of a tree…having made ready a seat, a light, should sit down…if other monks do not arrive, that monk should be determined: today is an Observance day for me, if he should not (so) determine, there is an offence of wrong-doing. (I. B. Horner, tr., The Book of the Discipline, Vol.4, 103)

There are the records of one person’s Uposath in the Vianay of Dharmagupta《四分 律》as well, it said: “「有三種人應作布薩：若僧、若眾多人、若一人。」there are three kinds of person should hold Uposatha: Monks, a lot of people, or one person.” ( Buddhayaśas, tr., CBETA,T22, no. 1428 ) According to Yijing’s records, there are different rules on different offence. for example, committing any offense of the first group is irremediable, while violation of the rules of the second group requires a quorum of twenty members of the community of monks…before a monk who is not one’s equal. JIABU | Vol. 12 No.1 (January – June 2019) 261

There are more detailed records of the rules of confession for different levels of Patimokkha in Vinayapiṭaka. The researcher will not discuss here deeply, only showing the overview of the different levels of Patimokkha, taking the example of Pāli Vinaya, there are ten levels of Patimokkha:1 (1) Pārājika. Pārājika are rules resulting in expulsion from the Sangha for life. If a monk breaks any one of the rules he is automatically “defeated” in the holy life and falls from monkhood immediately. He is not allowed to become a monk again in his lifetime. There are four rules of Pārājika. (2) Sanghādisesā. Sanghādisesā are rules requiring an initial and subsequent meeting of the Sangha (communal meetings). If the monk breaks any rule here, he has to undergo a period of probation or discipline after which, if he shows himself to be repentant, he may be reinstated by a Sangha of not less than twenty monks. There are thirteen rules of Sanghādisesā. (3) Nissagiyam pāccitiya. They are mostly concerned with the possessing of items which are disallowed or obtained in disallowable ways. The monk must forfeit the item and then confess his offense to another monk. The thirty (4) Pācittiya. There are ninety-two Pācittiya and they are minor violations which do not entail expulsion or any probationary periods. (5) Patidesaniyā. Patidesaniyā are violations which must be verbally acknowledged. (6) Sekhiyā. There are seventy-five Sekhiyā or rules of training, which are mainly about the deportment of a monk. Concerning behaviors, disciplines, self-restraint and dignity. (7) Aniyata. The Aniyata concerning two indefinite rules when a monk was doubted commit offences of pārājika, Sanghādisesā or Pācittiya, witnesses are required to determine his guilt. Otherwise, it is indefinite. (8) Adhikaranasamathā. Adhikaranasamathā are seven rules for settlement of legal processes that concern monks only. (9) Thullaccaya. It means the offence which will be the obstacles for one’s cultivating. It comes from the pārājika and Sanghādisesā. (10) Dukkata. A dukkaṭa is a minor offence caused by an unskilful behaviors, these offences are very numerous. (Dhammavaro , ed., The Annotation of the Vinaya of Buddhist Bhikkhu, 2008:24-26)

1 法增比丘 (Dhammavaro Bhikkhu), 《上座部比丘戒經與注釋》: The and Annotation of the Vinaya of Theravada Buddhist Bhikkhu (臺北：佛陀教育基金會, 2008), 頁24-26。 262 JIABU | Vol. 12 No.1 (January – June 2019)

There are two hundred and twenty-seven precepts of the Vinaya of Theravāda Buddhist Bhikkhu. Compared with the Dharmagupta Vinaya the most popular Vinaya of the contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism, there are two hundred and fifty precepts of the Dharmagupta Vinaya. The results as the chart shown below:

Chart 1: The Comparison of between the Vinaya of Dharmagupta and Pāli

Category Pārā- Sanghā- Aniyata Nissa- Pācit- Sekhiyā Patide- Adhikaran- Total Vinaya jika disesā giyam tiya aniyā asamathā

Dharma- 4 13 2 30 90 100 4 7 250 gupta

Pāli 4 13 2 30 92 75 4 7 227

3. Discussions on the Advantages of Confession

In Buddhism, confession can be done every day, monks can reveal offence and confess at once after committing. The Uposatha day is for “the cleansing of the defiled mind,” this day resulting in Sangha’s inner calm and joy. On the other hand, on this day, the lay followers make a conscious effort to keep the or the . It is a day for them to listen to the Buddha’s teachings and practice meditation. It obviously, Confession plays a very important role in Buddhism, what are the advantages of this ancient tradition? First, confession is good for the cultivating of Sangha members. Moral is the foundation of the threefold train. It is said in the Majjhima-Nikāya:

Even so, your reverence, purity of moral habit is purpose as far as purity of mind; purity of mind is of purpose as far as purity of ; purity of view is of purpose as far as purity through crossing over doubt…purity arising from knowledge and insight is of purpose as far as utter nibbāna without attachment. your reverence, the Brahma-faring under the Lord is lived for the purpose of utter nibbāna without attachment. (I. B. Horner, tr., The Middle Length Sayings, Vol.1, 150) JIABU | Vol. 12 No.1 (January – June 2019) 263

It can be analyzed that the purity of moral habit is the basic foundation of liberation, it helps monks attaint the purity of mind which is easier for them to cultivate themselves. Patimokkha is the beginning of all wholesome behaviors, just as the records in the Vinaya of Mahāvagga said: “Patimokkha is the beginning, is the head, it is the foremost of states that are good, therefore it is called Patimokkha.” Therefore, follow the Patimokkha means follow the pure moral habits and pure mind, if one violated Patimokkha, confession can help him to purify his moral habit again. So, based on the pure moral habits one can practice the more completely. Second, confession helps the Sangha groups becomes more and more harmonious. Monks will modify their unwholesome behaviors through confession, and then they can get on well with each other easily. Third, confession is good for management of Sangha and monastery. For example, the four pārājika are rules resulting in expulsion from the Sangha for life. If a monk breaks any one of the rules he is automatically “defeated” in the holy life and falls from monkhood immediately. He is not allowed to become a monk again in his lifetime. It is good for increasing the purity of Sangha, the bad persons will be expelled and the good persons stay. Therefore, confession is a good way to purity the Sangha, and good for the management of the monastery. Fourth, confession helps Buddha’s teaching and Brahma-life persisted. just the venerable Sariputta said to the lord Buddha in the Vinaya of Suttavibhaṅga:

Then the venerable Sariputta…held out his joined palms in salutation to the lord, said to the lord: “Lord, it is the right time, at which the lord should make known the course of training for disciples and should appoint the Patimokkha, in order that this Brahma-life persist.” (I. B. Horner, tr., The Book of the Discipline, Vol.4, 103)

Monks follow the Patimokkha makes the Brahma-life forever, confession is a good way to observe the moral behavior of themselves. and is also a good way to pass the Buddha’s teaching down. On the other hand, the good moral of Sangha will increase the lay people’s confidences to the three gems, therefore, they would like to keep learning and spread the Buddha’s teaching. 264 JIABU | Vol. 12 No.1 (January – June 2019)

4. Conclusion

Yijing introduced the regulation of confession of Buddhist as a chapter of his book of A Record of the Inner Law Sent Home from the South Seas《南海寄歸內法傳》.Including the ceremony of two kinds of confessions, Pavarana and Uposatha, includes the time, regulations, procedure of confession. The results of the comparison study shown that there are different records on the time of Pavarana in different school’s Vinaya, but all of them are depend on the time of the Summer-Retreat. besides, Yijing’s records ceremony of Uposatha are very similar with the records in Pāli Vinaya as well. The results of the discussion shown that there are four main advantages of confession for Buddhism. First, confession is good for the cultivating of Sangha members. Second, confession helps the Sangha groups becomes more and more harmonious. Third, confession is good for management of Sangha and monastery. Fourth, confession helps Buddha’s teaching and Brahma-life persisted. On the other hand, the book of A Record of the Inner Law Sent Home from the South Seas concerning many other aspects of Buddhist Vinaya life as well except the topic on the regulation ceremony. Therefore, it is meaningful for the people who interests in the Buddhist Sangha life studies to pay more attentions on this invaluable book. JIABU | Vol. 12 No.1 (January – June 2019) 265

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