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A Historical and Comparative Analysis of Renunciation and Celibacy in Indian Buddhist Monasticisms

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A Historical and Comparative Analysis of Renunciation and Celibacy in Indian Buddhist Monasticisms Going Against the Grain: A Historical and Comparative Analysis of Renunciation and Celibacy in Indian Buddhist Monasticisms Phramaha Sakda Hemthep Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Master of Philosophy Cardiff School of History, Archeology and Religion Cardiff University August 2014 i Declaration This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed …………………………… (Phramaha Sakda Hemthep) Date ………31/08/2014….…… STATEMENT 1 This dissertation is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MPhil. Signed …………………………… (Phramaha Sakda Hemthep) Date ………31/08/2014….…… STATEMENT 2 This dissertation is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A Bibliography is appended. Signed …………………………… (Phramaha Sakda Hemthep) Date ………31/08/2014….…… STATEMENT 3 I confirm that the electronic copy is identical to the bound copy of the dissertation Signed …………………………… (Phramaha Sakda Hemthep) Date ………31/08/2014….…… STATEMENT 4 I hereby give consent for my dissertation, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed …………………………… (Phramaha Sakda Hemthep) Date ………31/08/2014….…… STATEMENT 5 I hereby give consent for my dissertation, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loans after expiry of a bar on access approved by the Graduate Development Committee. Signed …………………………… (Phramaha Sakda Hemthep) Date ………31/08/2014….…… ii Acknowledgements Given the length of time it has taken me to complete this dissertation, I would like to take this opportunity to record my sense of deepest gratitude to numerous individuals and organizations who supported my study, not all of whom are mentioned here. I am deeply grateful to my great Ācāryas, Phramongkhonthepmunī (Sodh Candasaro), Phrathepyanmahamunī (Chaibul Dhammajayo), Phrabhāvanāviriyakhun (Phadet Dattajeevo), and Khun Yay Mahā- ratana-upāsikā Chandra Khonnokyoong. All of them, over the years, have contributed to my profound understanding of ‘living’ Buddhism. One person in particular deserves special mention. To Venerable Phramaha Dr. Somchai Thanavuddho, I owe a profound debt of gratitude, both scholarly and personal encouragement. I express my gratitude to Professor Peter Harvey who first introduced me to the academic study of Buddhism and I am grateful to him for the broaden vision he nourished in me. The work is conceived amid the rigours of graduate education at Cardiff University under the tutelage of Professor Max Deeg. He has always given greatly of his time and encyclopedic knowledge of Indian Buddhism in particular. He endowed me with the scholarly skills necessary for research and continually shed light for me on this work. I also thank his wife, Mei-Chu, for her help and hospitality. I have the pleasure of thanking the Director of Postgraduate Research for SHARE, Dr. James Hegarty, the Librarians and the staff of Cardiff University for all the facilities given to me in pursuance of this work. In the financial realm, support from the Dhammakāya Foundation and the Dhammakāya Europe International made my study and my stay at Cardiff University not only possible, but pleasurable. And my sincere appreciation extends to Ms. Mananya Pattamasoontorn, Ms. Naowarat Panwilai, Ms. Suchada Thongmalai, Ms. Sirirat Ngamsang and all colleagues who discussed the dissertation with me. The friendship of Phra Sombut Sammapalo, Phra Seri Sirisampanno, Phra Jirasak Jaranasampanno, Phra Kiattisak Kittipanyo, Phra Wittaya Visaratho, Phramaha Wuttichai Wuttichayo and Phramaha Min Puttiwatto makes my monastic life pleasant and full of joy. iii My thanks are due also to Dr. Paul Trafford for his tireless efforts in proofreading the first draft and the useful comments. Ms. Tan Khim Whan instructed me over many years in Chinese language and always encouraged me in my studies. I would like to thank Ms. Sri Robinson, Ms. Mun Farnden, Ms. Poranee James, Ms. Palada O’donoghue and Thai friends in Cardiff for their support, providing me with food and drink for over a year in the United Kingdom. Finally, I thank my family for the teaching, support and unconditional love they have been giving me. iv Abstract This research is concerned with the concept of renunciation and celibacy in Buddhist traditions, and how it has evolved with respect to institutional, social and cultural aspects. The goal of this study is to trace the history of renunciation to Indian contexts and show how the practice of celibacy has evolved in Buddhist Monasticisms. I hypothesise that the practice of celibacy is the most significant concept in maintaining Buddhist communal institutions. It can be used as the moral standard and ethical norm for both Buddhist monks and lay people. It has always existed alongside the growth and ramification of Buddhist sects and sectarian schools. Buddhism arose as one of the reformist śramaṇa traditions that opposed the Vedic sacrificial rituals of Brahmanism. The success of the śramaṇa movements made celibacy a central virtue within the broad spectrum of Indian religions, even that of the Brahmaṇism. The value placed on celibacy resulted in Brahmanism having to adapt and reinterpret celibate and renunciatory values. Although the early Mahāyāna shows new forms of religious practice oriented around devotion to bodhisattvas, there is no evidence that Mahāyāna attempted to denigrate the monastic life. However, as Mahāyāna evolved fully, it became strongly critical of the arhat ideal of the Śrāvakayāna. With the development of the new teaching of upāya ‘skill in means’, Mahāyāna undertook the greatest degree of doctrinal adaptation, which may be seen as to deviate considerably from earlier Nikāya Buddhism. Consequently, the bodhisattvas are permitted to violate the monastic vow of celibacy. The root of monasticism was thus threatened. This was connected with the emergence of married monks in Kāśmir followed by Nepal. In Japan, although Buddhism was faced with the same phenomenon, clerical marriage obviously lies in the ideology of mappō, a belief in the decline of the Buddhist doctrine. v Contents Declaration i Acknowledgements ii Abstract iv Contents v List of Abbreviations vii Chapter 1: Background and Introduction 1 1.1 Objectives of Research and Significance to the Field 1 1.2 Research Background and Relevant Literature 2 1.2.1 Asceticism and Monasticism: General Orientation 2 1.2.2 Buddhist Asceticism and Monasticism 9 1.2.3 Buddhist Celibacy in Transition 17 1.3 Summary of the Chapters 27 Chapter 2: Celibacy in its Historical Western Context 29 2.1 Definition of Celibacy, Abstinence and Chastity 29 2.2 Celibacy in the Pre-Christian Era 32 2.3 Celibacy in the New Testament 35 2.4 Celibacy in the Early Christian Church 37 2.5 Celibacy in the Medieval Christianity 39 2.6 Celibacy in the Protestant Reformation 41 Chapter 3: The Ideal of Renunciation in the Indian Context 43 3.1 Renouncer Tradition and Ascetic Practice 43 3.2 Renunciatory Ideology: The Conflict in Value in the Upaniṣads 49 3.3. The Householder-Renouncer Opposition in the Āśrama System 54 Chapter 4: Renunciation and Brahmacarya in Early Buddhism 62 4.1 The Śramaṇa Tradition: Heterodoxy and Dissent in Early India 62 4.2 The Buddha and the Great Renunciation 66 4.3 Brahmacarya: the Origin and Its Meanings 76 4.4 The Ideal of Brahmacarya in the Buddhist Context 81 4.5 Sexuality, Celibacy and Monastic Discipline 84 vi Chapter 5: The Reassessment of Celibacy and the Rise of 96 Mahāyāna Buddhism 5.1 The Emergence of the ‘Lay Bodhisattva’ in Early Mahāyāna 96 5.2 Bodhisattva’s Ethics and Attitude toward Renunciation 109 5.3 ‘Skill in Means’ and Compassionate Non-Celibacy 116 5.4 Monastic Decline in Kaśmīr and Nepal: A Reflection of 123 the Crisis of Celibacy Chapter 6: Conclusions 130 Bibliography 135 vii List of Abbreviations AB. Aitareya Brāhmaṇa AN. Aṅguttara Nikāya ĀpDh. Āpastamba Dharmasūtra Asl. Aṭṭhasālinī AV. Atharvaveda BṛhU. Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad ChU. Chāndogya Upaniṣad Dhp. Dhammapada DN. Dīgha Nikāya Jā. Jātaka KauṣU. Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad Manu. Manusmṛti Miln. Milindapañha MN. Majjhima Nikāya MuU. Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad Mvu. Mahāvastu P. Pāli PTS. Pāli Text Society RV. Ṛgveda ŚB. Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa SBhV. Saṅghabhedavastu Skanda. Skanda Purāṇa Skt. Sanskrit SN. Samyutta Nikāya Sn. Suttanipāta Śs. Śikṣāsamuccaya ŚU. Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad TU. Taittirīya Upaniṣad ThA. Thera-Therīgāthā Aṭṭhakathā Thag. Theragāthā Thig. Therīgāthā TS. Taittirīya Saṃhita Ud. Udāna Vin. Vinaya Piṭaka Vism. Visuddhimagga 1 Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Objectives of Research and Its Significance This research is primarily concerned with the concept of renunciation and celibacy in the Buddhist tradition and how it has evolved with respect to institutional, social and cultural aspects. In this investigation, I will trace the origins of the development of Buddhist thought and the theory of world renunciation and monastic practices in Buddhist history, including Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism. The research has the following objectives: (1) To trace the origin and history of Buddhist renunciation and practice of celibacy in early Buddhism and investigate the reasons for celibacy and the attitudes toward sexuality from Buddhist perspectives. (2) To explore the adoption, adaptation and transformation of the ideal of celibacy in different Buddhist schools. (3) To comprehend the adaptive nature of the religion and evaluate a changing perspective on such an ideal and tradition in its relation to religious identity-formation. In comparison with other topics of Buddhist monastic life, there is little scholarship in English on the Buddhist celibacy practice. The pioneers started their work on Buddhist monasticism during the last few decades of the 19th century and worked on relatively scant secondary resources. Among the more successful and recognised of these were Max Müller, Monier Monier-Williams, Hermann Oldenberg, Thomas Rhys Davids, Mrs. Rhys Davids, Edward J. Thomas, Miss I.B. Horner, Nalinaksha Dutt, Sukumar Dutt and Gregory Schopen.
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