UDC 94(476)

The Editorial Board: A. A. Kovalenya (head), G. Ya. Golenchenko, A. I. Grusha, V. V. Danilovich (deputy head), M. G. Zhilinsky, L. Ya. Zemlyakov, G. K. Kisilev, G. V. Korzenko, M. P. Kostyuk, A. M. Litvin, N. V. Smekhovich V. V. Yanovskaya, S. A. Nichiporovich, A. I. Stashkevich, S. P. Samuel, Ya. I. Treshchenok

Translator’s note: this text was translated from Russian into English. All proper names are translated from Russian into English, but place names of are transliterated in brackets from Belarusian into English with taking into account the diacritical marks. All personal names in the text are translated from Russian into English, and Belarusian personal names are transliterated in brackets from Belarusian into English with taking into account the transliteration system by means of letter combinations. The transliteration rules from Belarusian into English are provided in the state standard GOST 7.79-2000 (ISO 9-95).

The book describes the history of Belarus starting from the ancient times till present days, the place, role, contribution and achievements of the Belarusian nation within the European civilization based on the most updated conceptual and methodological approaches to history as well as the public national ideology of the Republic of Belarus. The book aims at a wide audience and all those people interested in the Belarusian history.

ISBN 978-985-08-2272-7 © Design by the Publishing House “Belaruskaya navuka”, 2018 Contents

PREFACE 3 ORIGINS OF THE BELARUSIAN NATION 5 Primitive Society 6 Baltic Tribes and 13 Settling of the Slavic tribal communities in territory of Belarus 17 The Belarusian nationality 19 Origins of the name ‘Belaya Rus’ (Bielaja Ruś) 20 BELARUSIAN LANDS IN THE 11TH – 13TH CENTURIES 23 Kievan Rus in history of the Belarusian lands 24 (Polack) Principality 26 Turov (Turaŭ) Principality 29 Areas and principalities of Belarusian Neman (Nieman) and Sozh (Sož) river regions 33 Social Institutes 34 Formation of landowners’ units 38 Economic Development 38 Sources of national culture formation 45 Pagan religion 52 Christianisation 56 PART OF THE GREAT DUCHY OF AND RZECZPOSPOLITA (2ND HALF OF THE 13TH – 18TH CENTURIES) 59 Belarusian lands in the Great Duchy of Lithuania 60 Struggle against Mongol-Tatars and attacks by the Cri­mean Tatars 66 Struggle against crusaders. Gryunvald (Grunwald) battle 67 GDL Authorities 70 Lyublin Union of 1569 71 Military confrontation with Moscow state 76 Great Northern war 80 Partitions of Rzeczpospolita 82 Class Structure of Society 84 Agriculture. Agrarian reforms 86 404 CONTENTS

City settlements. The Magdeburg right of Belarusian towns and cities 89 Craft manufacturing. Votchina manufactures 92 Trade 93 Culture in the 2nd half of the 13th – 16th centuries 95 Culture in the 17th – 18th centuries 100 Language of the Belarusian people 105 Education system formation 107 Science 109 Spiritual and religious life 115 PART OF THE 125 Change in social structure 126 Political Situation at the End of the18th – the 1st third of the 19th century 128 The War of 1812 130 The revolt of 1830 – 1831 and change in policy of the imperial government 132 The revolt of 1863 – 1864 134 Natives of Belarus in Russian-Turkish War of 1877 – 1878 136 Public movements and political parties 139 Revolution of 1905 – 1907 142 Public life in political reaction context 145 The First World war (WWI) events in the territory of Belarus in 1914 – 1916 146 February revolution of 1917 and the situation in the Russian-German front in Belarus 151 The agriculture in the 1st half of the 19th century 153 Industry and trade in the 1st half of the 19th century 155 Serf emancipation. Agricultural production growth 157 Formation of the capitalist structure of economy and society 159 Culture development 166 Education system 169 Scientific research 173 Situation with faiths 179 BELARUS DURING THE SOVIET PERIOD 183 Idea of Belarusian statehood at the beginning of the 20th Century. 184 October revolution of 1917 and the First World war end 187 Proclamation of the BPR 190 Creation of SSRB 192 405 CONTENTS

Formation of the Lithuanian-Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic 193 The Polish-Soviet War of 1919 – 1920 195 The second SSRB declaration 198 The western region of Belarus annexed by Poland (1921 – 1939) 199 The Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1921 – 1926 209 Constitutionalisation of the Belarusian statehood 211 Political system of the Soviet Belarus in the 1920-ies. The Belarusisation policy 215 Political system of the BSSR in the 1930 – 1980-ies 217 Belarus in the Second World war (WWII) and the Great Patriotic war 222 Foreign policy activities in the BSSR till 1991 245 On the historical way to the Republic of Belarus 248 When preparing the manuscript the materials from Social and economic transformations “Беларусь: Народ. Государство. Время”, within the interwar period ...... 250 Minsk, “Belarusian Navuka”, 2009, where used. Economy and people’s financial position in the 1940 – 1980-ies 257 Photoss by BelTA, Chernobyl (Čarnobyĺ) disaster and Belarus 264 archives of the Publishing house “Belaruskaya Navuka”, Culture of the Soviet Belarus 268 Institute of history of NAS of Belarus, Education system development 273 publishing house “KAVALER» where used Science in the BSSR 275 Religions in the Soviet Belarus 286 THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS 297 Public Policy Changes in the late 20th – early 21th centuries 298 Presidency institute 301 Foreign policy 304 Economic and social situation in the first half of the 90-ies in the 20th century 325 Economic reforms 328 Social and economic achievements 332 The Belarusian model of social policy 338 The population 342 Overcoming consequences of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident 344 Health system 347 Culture ...... 350 Physical training. Sports. Tourism 360 National education system 364 Science 370 Faiths 387 CONCLUSION 398 406 Origins of the Belarusian Nation Origins of the Belarusian Nation

Primitive society. The Belarusian nation has a long and an- cient history going far into millenia. In the primitive society of Be- larus three periods are identified, including the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages, which received this naming due to raw materials used for production of basic work tools. Scientists identify the ancient Stone Age – a paleolith (lower, middle and late), the middle period is called mesolithic, and the new period – the neolithic age. The anthropogenic period (‘anthropos’-man + ‘genos’-birth), the shortest one in the geological history of the Earth, is char- acterised by frequent cold conditions and changes of the climate and repeated continental glaciations. Glaciers from the Scandina- vian peninsula came to the territory of Belarus 5 times and co­ vered whole or part of its area. The glacial ages turned periodically to interglacial epochs, and within these periods soils were formed, the territory was covered with pine and small-leaved forests, and within warming periods there were even broad-leaved woods gro­ wing in the area. Valid data on initial settling of the territory in the south-east Belarus refer only to the middle paleolith, or Mouste­

Mammoth’s bones (traces of an alleged dwelling) at Berdyzhskaya (Biardyžskaja) late paleolithic settlement. Chechersk (Čačersk) district 6 Origins of the Belarusian Nation

Mammoth’s head. Yurovichi (Juravičy) late paleolith settlement. Kalinkovichi (Kalinkavičy) district rian epoch (100–40 thousand years ago). The most archaic silicon products were found near villages Svetilovichi (Sviacilavičy) of Vetka district, Podluzhye (Padlužža) of Chechersk (Čačersk) district, Obi- dovichi (Abidovičy) of Bykhov (Bychaŭ) district. Neanderthal people (a type of paleoanthopes) were already able to make fire and to build dwellings, they were involved in hunting and gathering. The new stage of the development of Belarus by people refers to the late paleolith (40/35 – 10 thousand years ago) and is related to appearance of people of modern anthropological type – Cro-Mag- noon people, who settled practically the whole territory of Eurasia. The most ancient settlements are found near the villages Yurovichi (Juravičy) of Kalinkovichi (Kalinkavičy) district (26,5 thousand years ago) and Berdyzh (Bierdyž) (Podluzhye) (Padlužža) of Chechersk (Čačersk) district (23,5 thousand years ago). The first inhabitants of Belarus were able to make various silicon and bone tools, build long-term dwellings from large bones of mammoths. At this period the tribal community was formed and strengthened, various forms of primitive art, religious ideas came to existence. About 15 thousand years ago the territory of Belarus became free from Poozerye (Paazer’je) glacier. In the period of late paleo- lith (14 – 10 thousand years ago) we can observe the constant settling of the territory of Belarus by various tribes of reindeer hunters. During the period of Belling warming (12,7–12,3 thousand years ago) the territory of Western Belarus was occupied by the

7 Origins of the Belarusian Nation

tribes of reindeer hunters genetically connected with the Hamburg culture holders. In the period of Alleroid warming (11,8–10,8 thou- sand years ago) Lyngby culture tribes, moving from the west to the east, passed the whole territory of Belarus and stopped on Valdai Hills. About 10,8–10,3 thousand years ago in the west of Belarus the settlements belonging to Valkushan culture became widespread, and then practically within the whole territory in pools of the Neman (Nieman) and the Pripyat (Prypiać) – settlements of Swide- rian culture (over 200 settlements are known) developed. In the southeast in Podneprovye (the Dnieper river area) and Posozhye (the Sozh river area) the Grenier culture population was formed. About 10,3 thousand years ago the modern geological epoch – postglacial period, or holocene, started and is still going on. During the mesolith epoch (8,3–5 thousand years BC) climate warming and forest development of the territory resulted in reindeer moving Settlement to the north, and it demanded from the settlers new considerable of the territory changes in their lifestyle, households social structure. There was of Belarus in the Stone Age a maternity tribal system, tribal and family property appeared, tribes were formed. Gathering and fishing started to play an essential role. In the mesolith period in territory of Belarus the population of Swiderian, Grenier cultures continued to live, and then there ap- peared tribes and relics belonging to Kund, Butov, Kudlaev, Yani­ slav cultures. At the settlements of this period we can see mostly

8 Origins of the Belarusian Nation only silicon work tools and weapons. Also some pro­ ducts made from horns and bones were found. The final period of the Stone Age – neolith (5 thousand years BC – first quarter of the second millennium BC) is considered by the majority of researchers as time of “neolith revolution”. The neolith is characte­ rised by development of agriculture, cattle breeding or productive farming, occurrence of ceramic crockery, polished and drilled work tools, which means radical changes in households, material and spiritual culture. In Belarus over a thousand long-term settlements with a powerful culture influence are known as well as va­ rious types of constructions; hundreds of thousands of various work silicon tools and weapons, bone and horn products as well as diverse forms of modelled ceramics different from each other in ornaments on them. The territory of Belarus was inhabited by tribes belonging to the Neman, Dnieper-Donetsk, Upper Dnieper, and Narva cultures, the cultures of spherical amphoras, a cord ceramics culture community.­ Ceramics manufacturing (Greek for ‘clay’) began Ceramic arrow heads from in 8 – 6 millennia BC in South-West Asia, in the Mid- late paleolith monuments dle East and in Indonesia. Since the 5th millennium BC the first of Belarus modelled clay pots with vegetative (organic) impurities were started in the territory of Belarus as well. The ancient ceramics provides the most complete chronological, cultural and archaeological, ter- ritorial information. Types, forms, ornaments on clay products are the basic defining marks of the archaeological cultures, and some- times of the ethnic origin of their holders. In the early and middle neolith (5– 4 millennia BC) the si­ milar cultures consti­ tuent of the Eastern Europe cultural popu­ lation unity having a comb-pricked ceram- ics were formed in the territory of Belarus and continued to de- Dissemination of various velop here. The popu- forms of crockery in the territory of Belarus in early lation of Belarus refers and middle neolith 9 Origins of the Belarusian Nation

to ancient Europeoids different from inhabitants of eastern areas – ancestors of Finno-Ugric tribes. In the 3rd millennium BC (late neolith) the impacts of foreign cultures destroyed the unity of comb-pricked ceramics cultures in the territory of Belarus, having affected the formation of cultu­ ral differences in individual areas and the intensive development Fibula from of productive farming. This can refer to penetration of traditions the settlement belonging of infundibular cup culture into the Belarusian Polesye (Paliessie) to shaded ceramics culture from the southwest and the south, the traditions of tripolian cul- in Malyshki (Malyški) of Vileyka (Viliejka) ture to Gomel Polesye (Homieĺ Paliessie) from the south and the district southeast. The population of the western part of Belarus was even stronger influenced by holders of the culture of spherical ampho- ras. The most well-known archaeological complex including settle- ments, ceramic mines and burial sites is situated on banks of the river Ros (Roś) near the rural settlement Krasnoselsky (Čyrvonasieĺs- ki) (Volkovysk (Vaŭkavysk) district). Moving to Central and Eastern Europe to huge open spaces from banks of the Rhine to southern Scandinavia, east Baltic re- gion, the Volga region and the Mid Dnieper river region, including Amphora of cord ceramics culture (Motol in Belarus, of the population belonging to cord ceramics culture – (Matoĺ) village of Ivanovo ancient Indo-Europeans – became the most significant event of the () district) 3rd millennium BC. The processes of cultural mutual relations of the new alien population with the local neolith-era tribes resulted in considerable changes in the late neolith society and in formation of a new lifestyle, new archaeological cultures/groups – Mid-Dnieper, North Belarusian, groups of Polesye (Paliessie) cord ceramics, Ber- shty-Rusakovo, etc. Stone processing developed quite intensive- ly at this time. Original monuments of the 3rd millennium are found in the territory of Krivinsky (Kryvinski) peatbog in Beshenko­ vichi (Biešenkavičy) district (Ostovets (Astavec) village) and Senno (Siena) district (Golovsk (Haloŭsk) village). These archaeological com- plexes with materials belonging to Usvyaty and North Belarusian cultures are unique not only for the territory of Belarus, but also for the whole region of Eastern Europe. They are distinguishing due to the cultural layer of settlements, which preserved organic substan­ Reconstruction of a miner from the burial site ces – wood and various bone products. Their analysis conside­ of cord ceramics culture rably expands the ideas about the material culture and art of that in Krasnoselsk (Čyrvonasieĺsk) silicon mine time. Crockery was represented by circle-bottomed, flat-bottomed

10 Origins of the Belarusian Nation model­led pots of different forms and sizes with many ornaments practically all over the utensils. A fragment of a pot of Usvyaty cul- ture with the image of floating ducks can be mentioned as a unique piece of pottery. With the advent of traditions of the cord ceramics culture community in the territory of Belarus new burial customs became widespread, including collective and individual burials in kurgan (barrow) and soil burial sites, single burial places with a ceremony of cremation or inhumation. The Mid-Dnieper culture with its monuments located in the southeast of Belarus (Upper Dnieper river area) is best studied. Stone drilled axe (late Agriculture and cattle breeding were the main activities of the po­ neolith – Early Bronze Age), Borki (Borki) village pulation belonging to this culture. Along with settlements the sig- of (Pružany) nificant number of kurgan and soil burial sires was discovered. district The funeral tools testify to occurrence of the developed pat­ riarchal society with soldiers and tribal nobility (leaders). The Bronze Age began in the vast area of the European con- tinent at the end of the 3rd – the be- ginning of the 2nd millennium BC and proceeded till the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, and it is one of the major epochs in the history of the primitive society, connected with occurrence and the beginning of me­ tal processing, namely processing and use of copper and bronze. Transition to productive forms of farming and households came to its end in this pe- riod, changes in economic, social and spiritual life continued, dynamics of ethnocultural processes intensified. The concept of the Bronze Age for the territory of Belarus is a little conventional. Copper and bronze products were used a little, which is explained by absence of ore depo­sits and remoteness from the ancient met- allurgical centres (the Alps, the Car­- pathian Mountains, the Caucasus). Most work tools and weapons were Reconstruction of a male suit by made of stone, horns and bones as it was earlier, silicon mining in the research materials Krasnoselsky (Čyrvonasieĺski) mines continued. of the Mid-Dnieper culture

11 Origins of the Belarusian Nation

The first metal products appeared among the holders of the Mid-Dnieper culture in the territory of Upper Dnieper region at the end of the 3rd – the beginning of the 2nd millennia BC. That’s why only since that time and only for the area of south- east Belarus it is possible to mention the beginning of the Bronze Age. In other areas of Belarus the beginning of the Bronze Age refers to the end of the 1st – the beginning of the 2nd quarter of the 2nd millennium BC, when in Western Belarus, in the Pripyat Polesye (Prypiać Paliessie) as well as Central Belarus, Poozerye (Pa­ azier’je) (Lake district) and on Orsha-Mogilev (Orša-Mahilioŭ) plain the tribes belonging to Trzciniec cultural community settled. The Trzciniec population lived in small settlements in valleys of rivers, built dugouts, dwellings, household and religious constructions. Their main activities included cattle farming and agriculture. Their funeral ceremony included either cremation or inhumation in soil burial sites. The Trzciniec crockery was basically represented by tu- lip-like pots with thickened nimbus, having ornaments of drawn lines on the top part. There is an opinion that among the Trzciniec population of Polesye (Paliessie) it is necessary to search for the ori­ gins of ancient Slavs. The late period of the Bronze Age in Belarus (the end of the 2nd millennium BC – 800/700 BC) is the least studied. At this time in Upper Dnieper region and East Polesye (Paliessie) the antiqui- ties Lebedovsky type were widespread, in the west of Belarus there appeared the culture of the shaded ceramics and penetration of Luzicki traditions was observed.

Tools from the Mid-Dnieper culture burial sites. Burial site Prorva-1. Rogachyov (Rahačoŭ) district 12 Origins of the Belarusian Nation

Baltic tribes and Slavs. Archaeological researches show that the Iron Age in the history of Europe is the period of forming various tribal and ethnic unities and groups, which gave foundation to medieval nationalities. It is the final stage of the primitive history (8 – 7 centuries BC – 5 century AD), characterised by occurrence and wide use of iron, production of work tools and weapons from it. In Central Europe this period is subdivided into eras: Hallstatt (the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC), Laten (the 5th century BC – the beginning of AD; it is divided into early, middle and late pe­ Milograd culture pot. Burial site near Dubay riods), Roman time (divided into early and late periods, also shorter (Dubaj) village of periods are sometimes identified – 15 – 20 AD – 350 – 376 AD), (Stolin) district the Migration Period (4 – 5 centuries AD), early (6 – 8 centuries AD). The description of ethnic cultural development of the population of Belarus, its contacts with other regions and participations in the historical events happening all over Europe is provided with taking into account the European periodization. Tribes in southern Belarus (Milograd culture) learnt skills of iron producing and processing in the 2nd quarter of the 1st mil- lennium BC, tribes from other parts of the territory of Belarus did it in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC. It was contri­ buted by available raw materials (lake and marsh ores) and a quite simple technology of iron melting. The main economic activities were agriculture (cutting farming prevailed) and cattle farming as well as fishing, hunting and gathering. In the territory of Belarus throughout the given period a number of archaeological cultures Bronze pendent belonging replacing each other is fixed. These are the Dnieper-Dvina (8 cen- to the Dnieper-Dvina culture from the settlement tury BC – 3–4 centuries AD), the shaded ceramics (8 century BC – of Prudniki (Prudnoki). the endpoint of 4 – 5 centuries AD), Milograd (8 century BC – Miory (Miory) district 2 century BC), Pomorian (4–2 centuries BC), Zarubinets (2 cen- tury BC – 1 century AD), Kievan (2 – 5 centuries AD), Welbar (2 – 4 centuries AD) cultures. They are supplemented by some other local and chronological complexes of monuments of the Iron Age: antiquities of western Baltic tribes of the 5th century BC – the 8th century AD, Luzica and Yukhnovskaya cultures. The holders of the Dnieper-Dvina and the shaded ceramics cultures of Belarus of the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC as of the ethnic origin are usually referred to as the Baltic population. The ethnic origin of Milograd culture is still unclear. The first mentions of the population in the territory of Belarus in written sources refer to the 5th century AD. In description of the tribes of Northern Black Sea coast Herodotus names the tribes which differed from Scythians in their customs and lifestyle. These

13 Origins of the Belarusian Nation

were the tribes of the Neuri, Androphagi and Budini. Researchers connect the Neuris with Milograd culture, the Budinis – with Yukh- novskaya culture, the Androphagis – with the shaded ceramics and Dnieper-Dvina cultures. In the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC there appeared new cultures (Pomorye, West Baltic kurgan cultures) and new ethnic groupings – Laten (Celtic) cultures. In the early Laten period (500 – 210/185 BC) the crisis of pro- ductive economic activities was gradually over, in the territory of Belarus change of settlement places for cutting farming was going on, the role of cattle farming increased due to small-sized livestock and hunting. In the middle and late Laten period (3 – 2 centuries BC – the beginning of 1 century AD) in the areas of southern Be- larus and northern Ukraine Milograd culture was replaced by Zaru- binets culture, which is referred to by researchers as Slavic ethnos. The holders of Zarubinets culture are also related to the tribes of Bastarnae repeatedly mentioned in the antique sources. The Pre-Roman and early Roman periods (turning point of AD – middle of 2 century AD) in material culture of Central and Nor­thern Belarus are characterised by occurrence of the fortified ancient settlements, new types of dwel­ lings, universal iron production and use of iron work tools and wea­pons. On the right bank of the Neman (Nieman) in Belarus the influence of western Baltic tribes continued. In the south of the territory of Belarus Zarubinets culture was replaced by monuments of Rakhny-Pochep type. Written sources of that time (Tacitus in the 1st century AD, Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD, etc.) contain data on tribes and people of the barbarous world – neighbours of the Roman em- pire – , Pannonia, Dacia. The informa- tion about tribes and people living in the territory of Belarus practically disappears. The antique tra- Fibulas of Zarubinets type from the settlement dition keeps data about Borisfena with its sources Khotomel (Chatomeĺ) of in the mountains (some researchers believe that antique authors Stolin Stolin) district considered the mo­dern Berezina river – an inflow of the Dnieper, as the headwaters of the Dnieper – the Borisfena, and the source in the mountains was Minsk Highland). The antique authors’ in- terest in distant countries was connected with the “Amber Way”, where according to Tacitus amber was delivered from the coast of the Baltic sea, from the area of Eists (Ests) to the Roman empire.

14 Origins of the Belarusian Nation

More details in the description of the Baltic people living along the Amber Way and near amber deposits, were provided by Ptolemy. Along with Ests (Prussians) living at the coast of the Baltic sea he mentions Galindians, Sudovians, Careotes and Selonians. The area to the east from the area of settlements belonging to these tribes (including Belarus) was characterised by Ptolemy as a place of re- siding of Fens. The late Roman period (2nd half of the 2 – 4 centuries AD) is characterised in territory of Belarus by difficult ethnic cultural processes. In western Polesye (Paliessie) and the Bug (Buh) river re- gion from the middle of the 2nd century AD burial sites of Welbar culture are discovered. Dissemination of this culture monuments in the areas of east Poland, southwest Belarus, northwest Ukraine shows migration directions of Gothic tribes from lowlands of the Vistula to the Bug river region and farther to the northern Black sea coast. Within the same period (2nd half of the 2nd century AD) the Kievan culture started shape based on late Zarubinets monu- ments of Rakhna-Pochep type. In the northern and central areas of Belarus foreign impacts were identified since the beginning of the 1st millennium AD (ad- vancement of Zarubinets tribes and later of the Kievan culture tribes to the north). The population of Belarusian Viliya (Vilija) river area appeared to be under a strong influence by the Jatvingians. The Dnieper-Dvina culture (the eastern areas of region and Smolensk region) under influence from the south, from the area of the Kievan culture, began to develop into Tushemlinskaya culture. In the Viliya (Vilija) river basin on a turning point of the 4th – 5th centuries AD the holders of the shaded ceramics culture re- placed ancient settlements and kurgan burial sites related to a new culture of the Eastern Lithuanian kurgans. In the 1st half of the 5th century AD there appeared long kurgans in Pskov area and in the north of Belarus, and they are connected with Pskov Kriviches (Kryviches). It is known that the Migration in Europe (375 – 455) led to considerable changes in the territory of the whole region. The Wes­ tern Roman empire seized to exist, there appeared new people and tribes on the historical arena. The first authentic written sour­ces about the Slavs (Antes, Sclavians, Veneds), which can be correla­ ted with certain archaeological cultures refer to this period as well. Funeral tools of 8–9 centuries from the Lands of Belarus were only partially affected by the events, which burial site in Borki of had a huge impact on the European continent, however migration Polotsk (Polack) district

15 Origins of the Belarusian Nation

of groups of the population from the West and the South resulted in changes in these areas as well. These new cultures significant- ly differed from the cultures of the previous epoch. Unfortified settlements became the basic type of populated areas, agriculture became the main economic activity. In the northern and central parts of Belarus as well as in Pskov and Smolensk regions by active involvement of the Kievan culture Fibula belonging to populations in the middle of the 5th century AD the Bantserovska- the Kievan culture from Taymanovo (Tajmanava) ya and Tushemlinskaya cultures (5–8 centuries AD) were formed of Bykhov (Bychaŭ) and they were very close to each other in peculiarities of the mate- district rial culture. Tushemlinskaya culture in Smolensk region developed as a result of settling the eastern part of the Dnieper-Dvina an- tique area by the holders of Zarubinets and Kievan cultures coming from the south. The same-period Kolochinskaya culture of East Belarus originates from the monuments of the Kievan culture in Mogilev (Mahilioŭ) Dnieper river area. The Prague culture (Prague- Korchak), undoubtedly, the Slavic one, is localised in the southwest of Belarus (5 – 7 centuries AD). Crescent of the Kievan Historical processes in the territory of Belarus in the Iron Age culture with emarginated enamel from Taymanovo and early Middle Ages developed within the same trends as in com- (Tajmanava) in Bykhov mon European ones. Numerous archaeological materials provide (Bychaŭ)district valid proofs that its population had wide contacts and relations not only with certain territories, but also had a cultural impact of more distant areas and ethnic groups. The number of factors points to dissemination of some elements of the European culture of the

Treasure of 7–8 centuries from the ancient urban settlement Klishin (Klišyn) of Krupki district

16 Origins of the Belarusian Nation

“gothic” community of antiquities in the southwest of Belarus. The archaeological materials dated back to 2–8 centuries found in Mogilev (Mahilioŭ) Dnieper river region and the antiquities from the territory of Ukraine and Russia demonstrate the common na- ture of development of material and spiritual culture of the Eas­ tern Slavic nations. In Belarusian Polesye (Paliessie) as a result of excavations the cultural household set dated back in the middle of the 4th century AD was found, and it is older in comparison with the antiquities belonging to the Slavs of the Prague culture of Euro­pe. It allows us to assume that in this area there took place a formation and initial settling processes of the early Slavs known from the written sources as “Sclavenes”. Similar processes in Eas­ tern Europe in the Iron Age and early Middle Ages, their compa- rability with pan-European events allow us to consider the material Bracelets of 7 century and spiritual heritage of the Belarusian nation as a Western civili- from the ancient urban settlement Vezhki zation component. (Viežki) of Dubrovno Settling of the Slavic tribal communities in territory of (Dubroŭna) district Belarus. The earliest mentioning of the settling of the Slavs in Eastern Europe, coming from the Danube region is provided in the work “Tale of Bygone Days”. The groupings, having settled in the territory of Belarus, were stable communities of tribes of the Kriviches-Polachans (Kryviches-Palachans) (Polotsk (Polack) area dwellers), Dregoviches (Dryhaviches), and Radimiches (Radzimiches). They were at the stage of statehood formation and were mentioned in the chronicle as “princedoms” (principalities) with the local tribal nobility as heads, or princes. The Kriviches-Polochans (Kryviches-Palachans). The chronicles allow us to state that the Kriviches (Kryviches) occupied Pots of Kolochinskaya a considerable area of Eastern Europe in the Upper Dnieper re- culture from the settlement gions, the Western Dvina (Zachodniaja Dzvina) and the Volga, in the of Vezhki (Viežki) of Dubrovno (Dubroŭna) south of Chudskoye lake. Their occurrence was a result of assi­ district milation by newcoming Slavs of the local Baltic and West Finnish tribes. The characteristic early burial monuments by the Kriviches (Kryviches) were long kurgans. The Kriviches (Kryviches) antiquities are connected with Pskov long kurgans, which appeared in the era of great Migration of Europe. In the funeral ceremony of the ear- ly Kriviches (Kryviches) Slavic features are connected with crema- tion and the pots of the peculiar form. At the end of the 10th – the beginning of the 11th centuries there appeared round kurgans with a funeral ceremony of a transitive type, or inhumation. In the 9th century the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks” started to function coming from the north to the south through the territory

17 Origins of the Belarusian Nation

of Smolensk region and through skid roads on the river Luchesa (Lučesa) in Vitebsk Dvina (Viciebsk Dzvina) region. Here the earliest coin treasures from the Arab countries and Scandinavian things were found. For Polotsk (Polack) and Smolensk Kriviches (Kryviches) the 10th – 12th centuries were characterised by the ethnic identifying type of ornaments – bracelet-like wire tem- poral rings with tied ends. The Polochans (Palachans) (Polotsk (Po- lack) area dwellers) are a group of the Kriviches (Kryviches) tribes with the centre in Polotsk (Polack) located on the river with the same name, flowing into the Western Dvina in its western part in the territory of Belarus. Later inhabitants of Polotsk (Polack) or the whole Polotsk (Polack) land were called the Polochans (Palachans). Dregoviches (Dryhaviches). The Dregoviches (Dryhavi­ches) as well as the Kriviches (Kryviches) are mentioned in the written sources (“Tale of Bygone Days” by Konstantin Bagryanorodny) among other East Slavic tribes occupying extensive areas of Eas­ tern Europe. In the settling areas of the Dregoviches (Dryhaviches) between the Pripyat (Prypiać) and the Dvina (Dzvina) there were nu- merous archaeological monuments found, including kurgan burial sites, ancient settlements, ancient town-type settlements. The study of these relics provided an opportunity to determine the area of settling of the Dregoviches (Dryhaviches). In the 10th century the Dregoviches (Dryhaviches) settled in the north to the border on the areas of the Kriviches (Kryviches) in Orsha (Orša) Dnieper river re- gion and the part of the river Berezina (Biarezina), which was also The Dregoviches’ tools. 10–11 centuries Kurgan occupied by the Kriviches (Kryviches). burial places Anusino The Dregoviches (Dryhaviches) as well as all other East Slavic (Anusina) (Dzerzhinsk (Dziaržynsk) distrcit), tribes, as the chronicle author wrote, had their own customs and Izbishche (Izbišča) laws. The Dregoviches (Dryhaviches) as well as the Kriviches (Kryvi- (Logoysk (Lahojsk) district), Pashkovichi ches) belonged to the number of the most developed East Slavic (Paškovičy) (Minsk tribes and had their “princedoms”. The legendary prince of the district) Dregoviches (Dryhaviches) Prince Tur is well-known. The funeral ceremony consisted of cremation first and then inhumation in kur- gans of hemispherical form with a small ditch at the bottom. Big metal beads decorated with soldering hard-grained balls were an ethnic identifying female attire. Radimiches (Radzimiches). The chronicle says that the Radimiches (Radzimiches) came from the west, got their name af- ter their leader Radim (Radzim) and settled in the Sozh (Sož) river region. When mentioning the year 885 it was said that the Radimi- ches (Radzimiches) paid tribute first to Khazars, then to the Kievan Prince Oleg (Aleh). They had their military structures and the tribal

18 Origins of the Belarusian Nation

Silver pendents of 10–11 centuries from the kurgan burial site Izbishche (Izbišča) of Logoysk (Lahojsk) district leaders. At the end of the 10th century the Radimiches (Radzimiches) were finally included in Kievan Rus. The area of settlements of the Radimiches (Radzimiches) covered the territory between the Dnieper and the Desna along the banks of the Sozh (Sož) and its inflows. In the north the border on the Kriviches lies within the mid-Sozh (mid-Sož) area, the Northerners lived in the southeast from the Radimiches (Radzimiches), the Dregoviches (Dryhaviches) lived in the west. Early burials were carried out with the on-site ceremony of cremation (sometimes in a cutwood hut). Since the 11th century there appeared a ceremony of inhumation in hut-like places, chucks and coffins. Seven-beam temporal rings are the eth- nic identifying female attire of the Radimiches (Radzimiches). Along with the Slavic tribes, the territory of Belarus was inha­ bited by the Baltic tribes of Jatvingians (“Sudovians”, or “Sudins”, “Dejnovs”), and . The medieval Jatvingians are one of the groups of the West Baltic tribes. The Belarusian nationality. The beginning of the Belarusian nationality formation started in the period of the unions of tribes and foundation of the first statehood forms in the territory of Be- larus. The last stage of Slavic assimilation of the Baltic tribes in Belarusian lands passed within the frameworks of the established Old Russian statehood and actively developing language and cul- ture giving the fundamentals of the future three Slavic nationalities: the , the , and the .

19 Origins of the Belarusian Nation

In the 2nd half of the 13th – 15th centuries the areas of Belarus and Ukraine were included in the Great Duchy of Lithuania, and thus they were isolated from the areas of northeast and northwest Rus. The Belarusian ethnic group developed on the basis of the Slavic population with dialect features of the Old , which within the framework of cultural and political isolation from a great bulk of other eastern Slavs started to develop independent- ly. The Old was used as an official language in the Great Duchy of Lithuania, which, undoubtedly, promoted the Dnieper-Dvina-Neman Slavic group to record as a unique eth- nic language. Ethnologists and linguists identify two groups of the basic dialects, including the Northern Belarusian and the South- ern Belarusian accents. The ethnic name “Belarusians” is related to the territory’s name “Belaya Rus” (Bielaja Ruś) (‘White Rus’). This name became meaningful from the ethnic point of view only in the 16 century, the name of the ethnic group was used much later. Origins of the name ‘Belaya Rus’ (Bielaja Ruś). The historical names of people and the state – “Belarusians”, “Belarus” – have a long history. For the first time the name “Belaya Rus” (White Rus) was mentioned by the authors of the “Dublin Manuscript” (Ireland) and dated back the 2nd half of the 13th century. In the 14th–16th centuries the concept of “Belaya Rus” (Bielaja Ruś) (White Rus), “Belarus”, “Belarusians” were evolutionary fixed. At the end Women in Belarusian national costumes

20 Origins of the Belarusian Nation of the 15th century the concept “Be- laya Rus” (White Rus) (geographi- cally and ethnically) was associated with the lands of Polotsk (Polack) area, which were parts of the Great Duchy of Lithuania. In the 1st half of the 16th century the Polish histo- rian M. Kromer in his works “His- tory of ” (1555) and “Poland” (1575) was the first to use the term “Belaya Rus” (Bielaja Ruś) only re- lated to the territory of modern Belarus. Then M. Stryjkovsky in his “Chronicle” (1582) was one of the first to introduce a scientific eth- nonym “Belarusians” in the meaning Headset of a matchmaker. close to the contemporary one. After signing the Lublin (1569) and Middle of 20 century. especially the Brest (1596) Uniate agreements the part of the po­ Kobrin () district pulation residing in Vitebsk (Viciebsk) and Mogilev (Mahilioŭ) re- gions loyal to Orthodoxy, began to call themselves “Belorustsy”, “Belarusians”.­ In the official documents of the 17th century such terms and concepts as “the Belarusian Orthodox Diocese”, “a Be- larusian bishop”. For the first time these terms and concepts were noted in 1623 in the documents of Warsaw Sejm, then in 1675 – in legal acts by King Jan Sobessky, fixed in articles of the “Eternal Peace” signed in 1686 by Rzeczpospolita and Russia. The terms “Belarusians” and “Belarus” got their official international political and legal status at the end of the 18th – the beginning of the 19th centuries. In 1796 Catherine II united Polotsk (Polack) and Mogilev (Mahilioŭ) pro­ vinces into one province area with the capital in Vitebsk (Viciebsk); this province – the only one in Russia – had the national and ethnic identity because it got the name “Byelorusskaya”. By the end of the 19th – to the beginning of the 20th centuries the term “Belarus”­ included Vitebsk (Viciebsk), Mogilev (Mahilioŭ), Minsk, Grodno (Hrodna), Vilnya (Vilnia) provinces of Russia, where mostly Bela­ rusians lived. After the terms “Belarusians”, “Belarus” became of- ficial they took deep roots in consciousness of the local population. The etymology of the epithet “belaya” (“white”) in the word combination “Belaya Rus” (White Rus) has more literal interpreta- tion than scientific. The epithet “white” in the 13th – 18th centuries was a full synonym of such words as “great”, “sacred”, “free”, “in-

21 Origins of the Belarusian Nation

Bread and salt of hospitality! dependent”. Assigning the epithet “white” to Polotsk (Polack) Rus started since the 2nd half of the 13th century, and it gave founda- tions for Russia’s historians to relate this term to freedom and inde- pendence of Polotsk (Polack) land, which had never been enslaved by the Tatar-Mongols. The epithet “white” was related to the part of territory of An- cient Rus due to the cultural historical tradition followed by the local. The white colour in cult symbols of the Belarusians is a part of their cultural archetype. In Polotsk (Polack) Principality and the Great Duchy of Lithuania it associated with such concepts as moral and spiritual cleanliness, sanctity, intent to self-improvement, truth- fulness, love of the Motherland, loyalty to the ancestors’ traditions, willingness to defend the Fatherland, friendliness, hospitality, toler- ance to other religions and faiths. This cultural behavioural arche- type (mentality) had visible material symbols that could be seen in white clothes of priests, princes, ruling nobility. Since the 13th – 14th centuries it was always used in ceremonial elegant clothes of the Belarusians in general, and in the 19th – 20th centuries it became one of brightest symbols of the Belarusian nation.

22 Belarusian Lands in the 11th – 13th Centuries Belarusian Lands in the 11th – 13th Centuries

Kievan Rus in history of the Belarusian lands. One of the largest states in medieval Europe – Kievan Rus – was founded in 882 when under the rule of Prince Oleg (Aleh), 2 early state for- mations of Eastern Europe – the northern one with the centre in Novgorod and the southern one with the centre in Kiev – were united. Kiev became the capital of the new state. Till the 3rd quar-

Ancient Rus in the 9th – the beginning of the 11th centuries 24