View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Apollo A comparative study of Urraca of León-Castilla (d. 1126), Melisende of Jerusalem (d. 1161), and Empress Matilda of England (d. 1167) as royal heiresses Jessica Lynn Koch Emmanuel College This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2018 i Declaration This thesis is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It is not substantially the same as any that I have submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for a degree or diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. I further state that no substantial part of my dissertation has already been submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text It does not exceed the prescribed word limit for the relevant Degree Committee. ii A comparative study of Urraca of León-Castilla (d. 1126), Melisende of Jerusalem (d. 1161), and Empress Matilda of England (d. 1167) as royal heiresses Jessica Lynn Koch Abstract: This dissertation is a comparative study of Urraca of León-Castilla (r. 1109–1126), Melisende of Jerusalem (r. 1131–1153–d. 1161), and the Empress Matilda of England and Normandy (b. 1102–d. 1167). Despite the vast research on aristocratic heiresses and queens consorts, a comparative study of royal heiresses as rulers in their own right does not exist. The few studies that focus on royal heiresses examine individual royal women or are region- specific studies. However, by studying royal heiresses comparatively, greater insight can be gained regarding the challenges women faced in their attempt to gain the throne, the methods they employed to keep power, and the unique variations of rulership that are specific to each queen regnant. In general, medieval society expected royal power would be held by men, but in the absence of a male heir, women, on occasion, held royal office. This study observes how royal heiresses could mostly, but not always, overcome the limitations of their gender to establish a rule in their respective kingdoms. This thesis explores aspects of rulership over five chapters, aimed at understanding how a royal heiress might succeed or fail to gain the throne, keep the throne, and preserve it for future generations. Through the use of a comparative methodology, this thesis provides a fresh discussion of royal heiresses as rulers. It shows that royal heiresses faced different obstacles to their rule than their aristocratic counterparts and, that because of their royal status, they were able to overcome complications that aristocratic heiresses could not. Demonstrations of female power were, in many cases, approved of at the royal level but were condemned at the aristocratic level, as was the case for Melisende of Jerusalem and her younger sister, Alice of Antioch (c. 1110–1136). Studying Urraca of León-Castilla, Melisende of Jerusalem, and the Empress Matilda side-by-side, this thesis also establishes the individual pitfalls of female rulership and identifies the methods each aspiring queen regnant utilized in order to overcome them. iii Acknowledgments Reflecting on the process of writing this dissertation, I am overwhelmed by the generous support I received from so many wonderful people. This dissertation, and my time at the University of Cambridge, would not have been possible without the facilitation and assistance of numerous people. First and foremost, there are not words grand enough to express my gratitude to my supervisor and mentor Elisabeth van Houts. I feel immensely lucky to have been under her tutelage for the last five years. Her constant wisdom, guidance, and patience enabled me to produce a document I am proud of and made it an enjoyable process. I feel privileged to have been a member of the Emmanuel College graduate community and am thankful for the many friendships I made along the way. I owe particular thanks to my dearest friends, Drs. Arthur Westwell and Ekaterina Zabolotnaya, for showing me the true strength of friendship. Finally, I wish to thank my family for their enduring support and belief in my dreams. I am grateful for my sister, Laura, who willingly listened to my many ramblings and acted as my most vocal cheerleader. I am profoundly appreciative for the constant assistance, care, and love from my parents who have gone above and beyond to make sure I am successful. Finally, I have to thank my beloved grandmother, Ruth Eisenmenger Koch, who has supported my education and dreams from the very start. I am always inspired by her lifelong commitment to education and family. I feel very blessed to have reached this milestone and share this success with my family. iv Dedication This dissertation is dedicated in memory of my undergraduate mentor, Professor Jeremy DuQuesnay Adams. I am sincerely grateful to him for introducing me to the study of medieval history. His passion and generosity of spirit have guided me throughout this PhD and I am eternally grateful for his early support of my academic career. v Table of Contents Declaration i Abstract ii Acknowledgments iii Dedication iv Introduction 1 One Gaining the Throne and Marriage 22 i. Paternal selection of husband 22 ii. Diplomacy 29 iii. Marriage negotiations and contracts 38 iv. Marriage of aristocratic heiresses 47 Conclusion 51 Two Ruling with Husbands 53 i. Impact of the selection of spouse 53 ii. Conflicts and problems 62 iii. Teamwork and sharing power 74 Conclusion 83 Three Ruling Alone 85 i. Collaboration with male deputies and archbishops 86 ii. Dynastic legitimacy 100 iii. Conflict during sole rule 106 iv. The independent authority of aristocratic heiresses 113 Conclusion 115 Four Ruling with Sons 117 i. Coronations and investiture ceremonies 117 ii. Sharing power and conflict 125 iii. Former queens regnant as regents 138 iv. Aristocratic heiresses and queen-mothers with their sons 146 Conclusion 148 Five Queens regnant as Queens Consort 150 i. Patronage and exploitation of monasteries and churches 151 ii. Dynastic memory 161 iii. Jerusalem-related acts 169 iv. Urban development 178 vi Conclusion 183 Conclusion 184 Appendix A 193 Appendix B 194 Bibliography 198 1 Introduction Aim of thesis: Urraca of León-Castilla (r. 1109–1126), Melisende of Jerusalem (r. 1131–1153), and the Empress Matilda of England and Normandy (b. 1102–d. 1167) were three medieval royal women who, as royal heiresses, pushed the boundaries of gender to demonstrate an alternate form of rulership unique to their own set of circumstances. The aim of this thesis is to address the gap of historical research on royal heiresses. Although individual studies exist on Urraca, Melisende, and Matilda, no study currently features a comparative analysis of the three heiresses collectively. Thus, in order to add to the understanding of medieval rulership, this work argues that a study of female rulership can help to appreciate how, in the central Middle Ages, monarchical rules could or could not be applied to men and women equally. The historiography shows the tendency of modern scholars to reflect on these queens exclusively within the context of their individual kingdoms. It is my hope that, by examining the three heiresses, each from the distinct geographical regions of Northern Spain, the Holy Land, and the Anglo-Norman realm, the comparative method can shed new insights on the field of queenship and female inheritance. This methodology examines themes that connect the three women, regardless of their geographical and cultural separations. Chris Wickham has explored the advantages and disadvantages of such an approach.1 He has stated, ‘no historical explanation can be regarded as convincing without some attempt at comparative testing; everything else is provisional’.2 Nevertheless, there are problems inherent with such a methodology. Differentiation in documentation and data, historiographical variations, and overwhelming options regarding what to compare constitute three such problems. However, this approach to history is the most effective for this study, which is restricted to royal heiresses of the twelfth century. This research explores a variety of themes to gain deeper understanding of queens regnant and heiresses. By studying royal heiresses comparatively, the comparative approach also offers greater insight regarding the challenges women faced in their attempts to gain the throne, the methods they employed to keep power, and the unique variations of rulership specific to each of the queens regnant. Despite the fact that the medieval world expected that royal authority would be held by men, in the absence of a male heir, on occasion women held royal office. 1 C. Wickham, ‘Problems in Doing Comparative History’, in P. Skinner, ed., Challenging the Boundaries of Medieval History: The Legacy of Timothy Reuter (Turnhout, 2009), pp. 2–28. 2 Wickham, ‘Problems in Doing Comparative History’, p. 7. 2 This study observes how royal heiresses could mostly, but not always, overcome the limitations of their gender to establish themselves as rulers in their respective kingdoms. While Urraca and Melisende succeeded to the thrones of their respective kingdoms, Matilda remained an aspiring queen regnant. The twelfth century stands out for the presence of royal heiresses, perhaps in part because of the relatively young dynasties in the Anglo- Norman realm and the kingdom of Jerusalem. The kingdom of León-Castilla could trace its royal roots slightly further back, but this frontier land experienced constantly fluctuating borders and dynastic conflict. In all three kingdoms, the importance of dynastic continuity enabled female heiresses to make claims to royal rule.