Tarablisi Vib isimli gayrimüslimin, gelirini Kudüs'te Deyr i r Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2019, 19(1): 65-80 Rum rahiplerine vakfettiği iki evin, vakıf mütevellisi tarafından Efrenc Katolik DOI: 10.31456/beytulmakdis.573678 rahiplerine satıldığından bahisle satılan iki evin satışının iptal edilerek geri alınmaları hususunda hüküm. (BOA, A. DVNS. AHK. ŞM. d. nr. 8, s. 28, Evâhir i ISLAMICJERUSALEM IN THE EYES OF SALAH AL-DIN: rr A CRITICAL ANALYTICAL STUDY OF THE LIBATION OF THE CITY FROM THE CRUSADERS
Maher Y. ABU-MUNSHAR*
ABSTRACT: Nearly a century after the brutal, and unforgiving, Crusader conquest of Islamicjerusalem, Sultan Salah al-Din succeeded in 1187CE in liberating the city. This seemingly insurmountable feat was accomplished when Salah al-Din succeeded in unifying the diverse racial, ethnic and denominational Muslims into a single, coherent fighting force - under his capable leadership. Consequently, this paper explores the nature of Salah al-Din's headship and the precise strategies he used in team-building, team-management that proved essential in his bid to restore the holy city to the Muslims. Moreover, this paper will examine the striking magnanimity Salah al-Din displayed towards the Christians, and others, in Islamicjerusalem – including their holy sanctuaries.
KEYWORDS: Bayt al-Maqdis, Balian of Ibelin, Hittin, Dome of the Rock, the Holy Sepulchre, Palestine.
INTRODUCTION Salah al-Din or Yusuf Ibn Ayyub was born in 532 AH /1137 CE in the town of Takrit, in modern Iraq (Reston, 2001: 4). Up until that date, Islamicjerusalem was already under the rule of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem for nearly 38 years since 1099 CE (Maalouf, 2006:50). The family considered the birth of Salah al-Din as a bad omen, as he was born on the day in which Mujahid al-Din Bahruz -the ruler of Takrit- instructed Salah al-Din’s father, uncle and the rest of the family to an immediate leave from city (Ibn Kathir, 1978,12: 272). After leaving Takrit, they went to al-Musil and offered their services to its ruler Imad al-Din Zanki. During their time in al-Musil, Salah al-Din’s father, uncle and other family members were appointed to prominent government and military positions under the Zanki dynasty, whose sphere of control extended to Damascus and Aleppo. (Al-Hayik: 33-34). At the age of 14, Salah al-Din began to learn the art of fighting, and soon stood out among the troops of Nur al-Din (Regan,1987:17) (the son and
* Associate Professor of Islamic History, Humanities Department, Qatar University, Qatar, [email protected]. 66 Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2019, 19 (1) fellow Muslims, reported by ‘Imad al by‘Imad reported Muslims, fellow his to speech a In region. of holy this importance of the Muslims reminding as well as territory, unitingMuslim and armies Muslim the consolidating rec to departure as appointment his between and top a priority, as 49 2(2 : 1999, ( lubb, Salah al of mind the in position distinctive very a occupied Islamic erusalem ISLAMICJERUSALEM IN THE EYES OF SALAH AL SALAH OF EYES THE IN ISLAMICJERUSALEM i al However, 19 7: 6 ( egan, youth. the with relations good maintain al covet not to told him caliph Sham. he Salah al caliph in Baghdad, al in Baghdad, caliph and al and 1 . 2000: Shaddad, (Ibn powerful the Shawar, of request men two the campaign, third the In army. under commander uncle his who was Shir uh, served He (116 – AH 564 to ta e attempting al ur al ofsuccessor ‘Imad reform Egypt and to turn it to turn and reform Egypt Salah al in Baghdad. caliphate Abbasid the recognised Din, who al ur of name in the but caliph, as power,not sei ed immediately he CE AH/1171 achieved between the various emirates in al emirates various the between achieved unityal ur the that alsoapparent was It Crusaders. the against lands al that 2 for the significant year Salahal by succeeded was and une pectedly of in the the powerhands was atimids Shir uhas appointed al illed, was Shawar hen Crusaders. the resist Egypt help Cairo,to and becoming the country’s unquestioned ruler (Ibn Shaddad, 2000: 26 2000: Shaddad, (Ibn ruler unquestioned country’s the becoming and Mali al Mali After al ur Maher ABU-MUNSHAR Maher n 577 AH/ 11 1CE. n 577 AH/ deeds fr deeds erusalem forninety controlledhas goingwe happy fortunate the and enemy be are to or Ifblesses od enablingdrive to by how us enemies erusalem, us His out of Sham Sham al Salah year following he Salah a Din was vying with the Crusader ingdom of erusalem, and both were were both and erusalem, of Crusader ingdom the with vying Din was Salih would not be able to shoulder the burden of ingship or defend the the or ingship ofdefend burden the to shoulder not able be Salih would Salih Isma‘il, Salah al SalihIsma‘il, Din as sultan of the combined governments of Egypt, emen and al and emen Egypt, of governments combined of the Din sultan as Din’s sudden death in 569 AH/1174 CE, leaving a 12 a AH/1174 in 569 leaving CE, death sudden Din’s om us. At the same time, the eal of the Muslim rulers to deliver it deliversame to ofus. time, it the eal rulers the Muslim At om the
l 69 CE Salahal CE 69 those parts of it that he now held. wo months later the Abbasid Abbasid the later months wo held. now he that it of parts those Din had little regard foral regard little had Din
over Islamic erusalem from the Crusaders he spent time time spent he Crusaders the from over Islamic erusalem over Egypt. In several campaigns to Egypt between 55 and and 55 between Egypt to campaigns several In Egypt. over Mustadi’ Bi’amrillah (d. 576 AH/11 (d.576 Bi’amrillah Mustadi’ 69 . here is no doubt that he saw the liberation of the city city the of liberation the saw he that doubt isno here 69 . Din an i , who was based in Damascus. i e his father, father, his in Damascus. i e based who was an i , Din
one years, during which time od did not accept any duringaccept which timeone years, not did od year into a powerhouse, restoring the Sunni of the school restoring powerhouse, a into
of Egypt Din performed impressively, outstripping his peers. peers. his outstripping impressively, Din performed Din asserted h Din asserted old commander ( ichards, 2001:41 ( ichards, commander old Din proclaimed himself sultan (ruler of Egypt Egypt of (ruler sultan himself Din proclaimed Din al –
(minister of(minister atimid Caliph the al
effectively its rule its effectively ‘Adid, and on the caliph’s death in 567 in 567 death caliph’s on the and ‘Adid,
Asfahani led the Syrian forces to Egypt at the the at Egypt to forces Syrian the led is right to the succession on grounds grounds on succession the right to is Sham was in d in was Sham Salih’s fiefdom of Aleppo and to to and Aleppo of Salih’s fiefdom Din. It was still 564 AH/1169 CE, (a (a CE, AH/1169 564 still was It Din. . wo months later Shir uh died died Shir uh later wo . months - DIN (n.d: 9 Salahal (n.d:
0 CE formally confirmed confirmed formally CE 0 r, as under the wea underr, the as anger of fragmenting fragmenting of anger in chief of the Syrian Syrian of the chief
and his eventual eventual his and year 45 Din began to Dinto began .
Din said: oldson, al Salih died died Salih Din had had Din ‘Adid in ‘Adid ‘Adid ‘Adid
2 . 2 . Din Din
Islamicjerusalem in the Eyes of Salah Al-Din successor of ‘Imad al Din an i , who was based in Damascus. i e his father, faded away. ime passed, and so did many generations, while the crusaders ur al Din was vying with the Crusader ingdom of erusalem, and both were succeeded in rooting themselves strongly there… attempting to ta e over Egypt. In several campaigns to Egypt between 55 and hus, recovering Islamic erusalem was Salah al Din’s ultimate target. His 564 AH (116 –69 CE Salah al Din performed impressively, outstripping his peers. biographer, Baha’ al Din Ibn Shaddad (2000: 26 heard Salah al Din say: “When He served under his uncle Shir uh, who was commander in chief of the Syrian od enabled me to gain Egypt, I realised that he willed the conquest of the coast army. In the third campaign, the two men led the Syrian forces to Egypt at the (Syrian coast), because he had put the idea in my mind”. It seems that Salah al request of Shawar, the powerful (minister of the atimid Caliph al ‘Adid in Din considered the recovery of Islamic erusalem and the Syrian coast, as well as Cairo, to help Egypt resist the Crusaders. hen Shawar was illed, al ‘Adid his rule over Egypt, to be a divine command that he was obliged to fulfil. hese appointed Shir uh as of Egypt – effectively its ruler, as under the wea two ob ectives were not new they were the common ambition of all Muslims, atimids power was in the hands of the . wo months later Shir uh died and he had grown up with them. But given his position, Salah al Din felt more une pectedly and was succeeded by Salah al Din. It was still 564 AH/1169 CE, (a responsible than other Muslims for achieving these goals because he had the significant year for the 2 year old commander ( ichards, 2001:41 45 . power to do so. Salah al Din had little regard for al ‘Adid, and on the caliph’s death in 567 After the death of ur al Din in Damascus in 569 AH /May 1174 CE, leaving AH/1171 CE he immediately sei ed power, not as caliph, but in the name of ur al a 12 year old son with no institutional procedure for succession, the political Din, who recognised the Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad. Salah al Din began to situation was very dangerous the Sultanate could not be governed by a young reform Egypt and to turn it into a powerhouse, restoring the Sunni school of child. A struggle for succession between its most powerful commanders and becoming the country’s unquestioned ruler (Ibn Shaddad, 2000: 26 2 . threatened the stability of the region and plunged al Sham into a civil war that After ur al Din’s sudden death in 569 AH/1174 CE, leaving a 12 year old son, al destroyed all that ur al Din had achieved. Salah al Din received many invitations Mali al Salih Isma‘il, Salah al Din asserted his right to the succession on grounds from commanders, religious leaders and Muslim thin ers as ing him to come to that al Salih would not be able to shoulder the burden of ingship or defend the al Sham to resolve the situation. ‘Imad al Din al Asfahani wrote informing him of lands against the Crusaders. It was also apparent that the unity ur al Din had the situation in al Sham, the danger that this posed to the Muslim nation, and achieved between the various emirates in al Sham was in danger of fragmenting urging him to intervene to prevent the country being fragmented by power (Ibn Shaddad, 2000: 1 . struggles (Da ani Shi ail, 199 : 1 0 . ive months after the death of ur al Din, he following year Salah al Din proclaimed himself sultan (ruler of Egypt Salah al Din set off for al Sham. According to Ibn Shaddad (2000: 49 51 :: and al Sham those parts of it that he now held. wo months later the Abbasid hen Salah al Din received confirmation of ur al Din’s death, and as he was caliph in Baghdad, al Mustadi’ Bi’amrillah (d. 576 AH/11 0 CE formally confirmed aware that his son was a child unable to shoulder the burdens of ingship and Salah al Din as sultan of the combined governments of Egypt, emen and al incapable of ta ing on the defence of the lands against God’s enemies, he Sham. he caliph told him not to covet al Salih’s fiefdom of Aleppo and to made his preparation to march to Syria, since it was the cornerstone of maintain good relations with the youth. ( egan, 19 7: 6 However, al Salih died Muslim territory … Salah al Din arrived in Syria demanding that he himself in 577 AH/ 11 1CE. should ta e on al Salih’s guardianship, direct his affairs and set straight what had gone awry. Salah al Din reached Damascus, without having renounced allegiance, and entered the city after a peaceful handover on uesday, the last ISLAMICJERUSALEM IN THE EYES OF SALAH AL-DIN day of Rabi‘ al a i 570 AH (27 ovember 1174 CE , and he too over the Islamic erusalem occupied a very distinctive position in the mind of Salah al Din citadel. ( lubb, 1999, 2(2 : 49 69 . here is no doubt that he saw the liberation of the city as a top priority, and between his appointment as and his eventual It seems that Salah al Din was certain that what he did was an essential step departure to recover Islamic erusalem from the Crusaders he spent time towards recovering Islamic erusalem. He realised that uniting Muslim ran s and consolidating the Muslim armies and uniting Muslim territory, as well as saving ur al Din’s kingdom would allow the Crusaders further south to be reminding Muslims of the importance of this holy region. In a speech to his effectively resisted, and would ensure that he would not be attac ed from the fellow Muslims, reported by ‘Imad al Din al Asfahani (n.d: 9 Salah al Din said: rear. If od blesses us by enabling us to drive His enemies out of erusalem, how he profound significance of Islamic erusalem to Salah al Din was shown fortunate and happy we are going to be or the enemy has controlled after he conquered the city, in the care he too over the sermon to be preached erusalem for ninety one years, during which time od did not accept any in the al Aqsa mosque on the first Friday after the city’s liberation. He invited the
deeds from us. At the same time, the eal of the Muslim rulers to deliver it Beytülmakdis Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2019, 19 (1) 67 68 Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2019, 19 (1) Damascus at market slave the in sold were ittin at taken soldiers common ). he : (Morgan, him with complicity of Crusaders the by suspected were and Abu Shama ( : Abu al ‘Imad 51), (2000: Shaddad Ibn as such historians, from Muslim capt relations friendly en oyed had men hese Ibn Bar an). Balian as to in Arabic sources of (referred Balian Ibelin and of Sidon of eynald ripoli, aymond were lines, throughMuslim to safety who fled leaders, only surviving on attin), of orns the or attin, as literature in western (known ittin of that was battle decisive and important most the but Crusaders, the over victories number won a of they southfrom Damascus marched Muslim army the As ISLAMICJERUSALEM TO ROAD THE (Al city ofholy the significance the Muslims about to conveyed wanted he ideas of the intensity and strength the by determined was decision final is him. to sermons draft submit to preachers Muslim greatest al t from these knights many ofand erusalem) ohn St ospital of the of of rder nights (the the ospitallers the emplar and masters nights of grand the the kingdom the constable ofthe Amaury, th of king of usignan, Guy were taken those Among them. of number huge a capturing or killing army, : , : Maher ABU-MUNSHAR Maher anbali ( , ( , anbali
Rabi‘ al Rabi‘ ured soldiers be brought before him. his encounter received wide coverage coverage wide received encounter him. his before brought be soldiers ured harmed but that all were to be treated courte with be were to all harmed that but was of none be thebarons to lay gave that wentHe orders far.’ too then him. he insolence said, man’sand ‘A kingkill perfidy doesking,’ that not a‘but trembled, thinkingtha Guy answered himself truculently,Saladin sword a off struck took and his head. When eynald greed. his hisand blasphemy treachery, his of his crimes, eynald himforgive reminded whose impious not and of he brigandage could tu then He I.’ not man drink, thegave he King that ‘Tell the interpreter: captivea to drink his meantthat wasthe lifeto quickly safe said so, Saladin give or food hospitalityto Arab the lawsof side. hisBy was eynald at who water,iced the snows with of drank from ermon.Guy goblet rose of a handed thirst, him seeing his and, him to ing ne t seated the graciously. e them greeted e realm. of the barons lesser the of many and the emple,the aged Marqui Master of the Grand oron, of umphrey stepson his and eynald Chatillon of here his and Saladin theGuy brother Constable received ing Amalric, ) who wrote: who ) Salah al .
a i a i ). ere the Muslim forces heavily defeated a combined Christian Christian combined a defeated heavily forces Muslim the ere ). Din camped on the field of battle and ordered the leaders of the of the leaders the ordered and battle of field on the camped Din A uly C near the Sea of Galilee (Abu Shama, (AbuShama, Galilee of Sea the near C uly A ,
), Ibn al ), e atin kingdom of erusalem his counsellors his brother brother his counsellors his erusalem of kingdom atin e and fromnon and t his turn would come ne t. But Saladin reassured reassured Saladin But ne t. would come turn his t s of Montferrat, theof lords Montferrat, ofBotrun,s and ebail ‘Adim (1996:408 ‘Adim
Muslim historians like unciman ( , ( , unciman like historians Muslim wo military anbali, , : , anbali, ), Abu al Abu ), sy and respect during their during respect syand
itand handed to iton religious orders. he he orders. religious Fida’ (1997, 2:155), 2:155), (1997, Fida’
with Salah al with Din (n.d: Din rned on ) .
Din Din ) )
Islamicjerusalem in the Eyes of Salah Al-Din greatest Muslim preachers to submit draft sermons to him. is final decision was captivity. ut he would not spare the knights of the military orders, save only determined by the strength and intensity of the ideas he wanted conveyed to the Grand Master of the Temple… Muslims about the significance of the holy city (Al anbali, , : ). This established the pattern for Salah al Din’s treatment of the Crusaders – both in his magnanimity towards ing Guy and his harshness toward Reynald. Ibn THE ROAD TO ISLAMICJERUSALEM Shaddad justified the latter, saying that Salah al Din had vowed to kill Prince As the Muslim army marched south from Damascus they won a number of Reynald if he had him in his power. The reason was that a caravan from gypt victories over the Crusaders, but the most important and decisive battle was had passed through Reynald’s territory at Shawbak during a time of truce. They that of ittin (known in western literature as attin, or the orns of attin), on had halted there under conditions of safe conduct, but Reynald had killed them.
Rabi‘ al a i A uly C near the Sea of Galilee (Abu Shama, Salah al Din heard of this and swore in the name of God that if he captured , : ). ere the Muslim forces heavily defeated a combined Christian Reynald he would kill him (Al Dhahabi, 1999, :96). army, killing or capturing a huge number of them. Among those taken were Guy of usignan, king of the atin kingdom of erusalem his counsellors his brother Salah al Din’s goal was to move towards Islamicjerusalem. To open the Amaury, the constable of the kingdom the grand masters of the nights way, he first had to conquer the cities in the region. The Crusader losses at the emplar and the ospitallers (the nights of the rder of the ospital of St ohn battle of Hittin had added to their serious manpower shortage. ithin a period of erusalem) and many knights from these two military religious orders. he of two months, from July to September that year, Salah al Din had recovered all only surviving leaders, who fled to safety through Muslim lines, were aymond the inland cities and fortresses such as al arak, al Shawbak, ablus and of ripoli, eynald of Sidon and Balian of Ibelin (referred to in Arabic sources as a areth except the walled city of Islamicjerusalem. He also conquered all major Balian Ibn Bar an). hese men had en oyed friendly relations with Salah al Din ports between ‘Asqalan (Ashkelon) and Jubayl except for Sur (Tyre). (Ibn Al and were suspected by the Crusaders of complicity with him (Morgan, : Athir, 199 , 10: 14 4) As a result, the land route between Palestine and gypt ). he common soldiers taken at ittin were sold in the slave market at was cleared for the movement of the Muslim army. Salah al Din then established Damascus. his fleet in the Mediterranean between Alexandria and Acre. His ships went into action on a a al a i, 3 AH September 11 7 C and blocked the Salah al Din camped on the field of battle and ordered the leaders of the movement of Crusader ships in the area under its control. It was essential for captured soldiers be brought before him. his encounter received wide coverage Salah al Din to deny easy bridgeheads to potential Crusader support forces from from Muslim historians, such as Ibn Shaddad (2000: 51), ‘Imad al Din (n.d: ) urope, and he spent the ensuing weeks capturing as many coastal towns from Abu Shama ( : ), Ibn al ‘Adim (1996:408 ), Abu al Fida’ (1997, 2:155), the Crusaders as possible. al anbali ( , , and from non Muslim historians like unciman ( , : ) who wrote: Having gained ‘Asqalan on 16 a a al a i, 3 AH September 11 7 C and arranged for its administration, Salah al Din summoned all his troops, here Saladin received ing Guy and his brother the Constable Amalric, who were scattered along the coast. He then marched on Islamicjerusalem (Ibn eynald of Chatillon and his stepson umphrey of oron, the Grand Master of Shaddad, 000: 3). n reaching the walled city, the sultan enquired about the emple, the aged Marquis of Montferrat, the lords of ebail and Botrun, and many of the lesser barons of the realm. e greeted them graciously. e the location of the al Aqsa mosque and the shortest route to it (Abu Shama, seated the ing ne t to him and, seeing his thirst, handed him a goblet of rose 1997, 3: 336), which he described as “the shortest route to Heaven”. (Al water, iced with the snows of ermon. Guy drank from it and handed it on to Asfahani, n.d: 40). As ‘Imad al Din reports, he swore to restore the sacred eynald who was at his side. By the laws of Arab hospitality to give food or shrines to their old grandeur and vowed not to leave Islamicjerusalem until he drink to a captive meant that his life was safe so, Saladin said quickly to the had recovered the ‘rock on which the Prophet had set foot,’ had visited it interpreter: ‘Tell the King that he gave the man drink, not I.’ He then turned on personally and raised his flag on its highest point. (Al Asfahani, n.d: 40). eynald whose impious brigandage he could not forgive and reminded him of his crimes, of his treachery, his blasphemy and his greed. When eynald According to Muslim chronicles, Salah al Din and his army approached answered truculently, Saladin himself took a sword and struck off his head. Islamicjerusalem from ‘Asqalan on the western side of the walled city on Sunday Guy trembled, thinking that his turn would come ne t. But Saladin reassured 1 Ra ab 3AH 0 September 11 7 C (Ibn Shaddad, 000: 3). ane Poole him. ‘A king does not kill a king,’ he said, ‘but that man’s perfidy and insolence (19 : 6) says that Salah al Din stationed his forces opposite the western wall went too far.’ He then gave orders that none of the lay barons was to be between Jaffa’s Gate ( ab al alil) and Damascus Gate ( ab al ‘Amud), and harmed but that all were to be treated with courtesy and respect during their began to besiege the city. Muslim historians do not give the exact location of the Muslim army in these first few days of the siege. Beytülmakdis Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2019, 19 (1) 69 70 Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2019, 19 (1) it, while archers gave cover and mangonels continued their bombardment. bombardment. their continued mangonels and cover gave archers it, while to destroy prepared Their sappers wall. the reached moat and the crossed then from them forcing Crusaders, chargedthe they violently Muslims that the so grieved death al ‘Izz the that Crusaders killed says Ibnal battles, of these one In casualties. bothsustained and Din’sforces, inSalah a with to combat engage city daily fromthe emerged Crusader cavalry ofThe faith. its defence struggletoin be the considering each bravely, fought catapults. othsides firing began and wall the on own mangonels up their in opera were machines these morning by and mangonels same way they had dealt with the city’s inhabitants in 492 AH/ 1099 CE CE 1099 492 AH/ in inhabitants city’s the with dealt had they way same Salah al to Salah al Jerusalem to surrender agreed and council in met perishing, of verge onthe were they that realising leaders, ACCOUNTS OF NEGOTIATIONS OF ACCOUNTS According to Runciman (19 , : 464), on : on 464), (19 , to According Runciman had said that the king of Jerusalem had contacted him during his attack on Tyre, Tyre, on attack his during him contacted had Jerusalem of king the that said had Ibn al quoted 3 9) who agreement was reached soon after. soon reached was agreement forMuslim askingasett the leader messengers sent They val the overlooking wall in the made Salah al that stating battle, of account the brief a 3) gives ( 000: Shaddad Ibn city. on the attack final his commenced surrender Jerusalem to Salah al Salah to Jerusalem surrender to agreed and conferred Crusaders besieged the defeat, of their inevitability the
r Salahal between communications of accounts the different four give chroniclers different However, prisoners. of taking the and killing preceded by four others. The first of these was reported was first of these The others. four by preceded al Salah with people its city and the of future the discuss to Jerusalem left ar an) ordered his camp to be quietly moved. hen the people of the hen moved. to quietly be camp ordered his they relaxed, but Salah al but relaxed, they 1 n on them. down raining arrows with group of 10,000 cavalry and 10,000 archers (Runciman (19 , :464). (19 , archers (Runciman 10,000 cavalry and of 10,000 group a formed and built, be to (mangonels) engines assault ordered then He hills. According to him, on the night of 0 of night the on him, to According Maher ABU-MUNSHAR Maher ulers about surrender about ulers Din. This was not, it seems, the first attempt at communication but had beenat had communication first but attempt the not,seems, it Din. Thiswas Ibn al The Crusaders were worn down by two weeks of unremitting assault, assault, of unremitting weeks two by down worn were Crusaders The Ibn al n riday 0 riday n Din turned their delegation away, saying he would he saying away, delegation their turned Din
their positions and pushing them back to the city wall. The Muslims Muslims The city wall. to the back pushingand them positions their Athir (199 , 10: 1 10: (199 , Athir Athir’s (1998, 10: 155) account of the battle is more detailed. detailed. more is battle the of account 155) 10: (1998, Athir’s
.
Qadisi’s story that Salah al story that Qadisi’s September, Salah al September, Din had only spread out his camp across the nearby nearby the across camp outhis only spread had Din
6) agre 6) Din and to seek safe conduct for themselves. for themselves. conduct safe to Dinseek and
Din Isa Ibn Malik, a Muslim commander. His a commander. DinIbn Malik, MuslimIsa ley of Hinnom ( Hinnom of ley es with Ibn Shaddad that the Crusader Crusader the that Shaddad Ibn with es September Salah al September Din pressed his attack until a hole was was untilhole a attack his pressed Din Din and ask him for safe conduct. ut conduct. ut him for ask safe and Din
ctober alian of Ibelin ( alian Ibn of Ibn ( alian Ibelin alian ctober Din set up his mangonels and and mangonels up his Din set Din, in a letter to his relatives, torelatives, his letter a Din, in 6 September Salah al September 6 d m d
tion. The Crusaders set set tion.Crusaders The by by Abu Shama (1997,3:
deal with them in the in the them with deal Din and Jerusalem’s Jerusalem’s Din and
Jerusalem saw this this saw Jerusalem lement, and anlement, Din installed his his installed Din
). Realising ). Realising
Athir Athir –
Din Din by by l
Islamicjerusalem in the Eyes of Salah Al-Din
The Crusaders were worn down by two weeks of unremitting assault, in 5 3 AH 11 7 E, to ask for safe conduct (a an) and that Salah al Din had with arrows raining down on them. n 1 6 September Salah al Din responded, ‘I will come to you in [Islamic] Jerusalem’. Ibn al adisi adds that the ordered his camp to be quietly moved. hen the people of Jerusalem saw this astrologers had informed Salah al Din that the stars indicated he would enter they relaxed, but Salah al Din had only spread out his camp across the nearby Islamic erusalem but would lose one eye. To which Salah al Din replied, ‘I would hills. He then ordered assault engines (mangonels) to be built, and formed a accept becoming blind if I took the city’ (Abu Shama, 1997, 3: 329). At that time group of 10,000 cavalry and 10,000 archers (Runciman (19 , :464). only the siege of Tyre prevented the sultan from going to Islamic erusalem. n riday 0 September, Salah al Din set up his mangonels and The second attempt at negotiation was reported by ane oole (19 5, commenced his final attack on the city. Ibn Shaddad ( 000: 3) gives a brief 223 25), who quoted Ernoul, the rusader chronicler who was in Jerusalem account of the battle, stating that Salah al Din pressed his attack until a hole was during Salah al Din’s siege. Ernoul provided details that did not appear in Arabic made in the wall overlooking the valley of Hinnom ( d m). Realising sources. He indicated that on the day the Muslims took ‘Asqalan, a delegation the inevitability of their defeat, the besieged Crusaders conferred and agreed to from Jerusalem went to ask Salah al Din for a peaceful solution for their city. n surrender Jerusalem to Salah al Din and to seek safe conduct for themselves. the day of the meeting, there was a solar eclipse, which the rusader delegates They sent messengers asking the Muslim leader for a settlement, and an considered a bad omen. Salah al Din was keen to spare the holy city the misery agreement was reached soon after. of a siege, because ‘Jerusalem is the house of God, as you also believe, and I will not willingly lay siege to the house of God or put it to the assault’. He offered Ibn al Athir’s (1998, 10: 155) account of the battle is more detailed. them generous terms: they would be allowed to remain in the city temporarily According to him, on the night of 0 September Salah al Din installed his they could retain the surrounding land within a radius of five leagues, and they mangonels and by morning these machines were in operation. The Crusaders set would receive the supplies of money and food they needed until the following up their own mangonels on the wall and began firing catapults. oth sides entecost. If the inhabitants of Jerusalem had any prospect of being rescued by fought bravely, each considering the struggle to be in defence of its faith. The an e ternal force, they should keep the holy city, but if not, they were to Crusader cavalry emerged from the city daily to engage in combat with Salah al surrender it and Salah al Din would conduct them and their possessions safely to Din’s forces, and both sustained casualties. In one of these battles, Ibn al Athir hristian lands. The delegation refused this offer without hesitation, saying: “if says that the Crusaders killed ‘Izz al Din Isa Ibn Malik, a Muslim commander. His od leases [we] would never surrender the city where the Saviour died for [us]”. death so grieved the Muslims that they violently charged the Crusaders, forcing Salah al Din then vowed that he would never take Islamic erusalem e cept by them from their positions and pushing them back to the city wall. The Muslims force, and commenced his march against the city. then crossed the moat and reached the wall. Their sappers prepared to destroy it, while archers gave cover and mangonels continued their bombardment. The third attempt was reported by ‘Imad al Din Al Asfahani (n.d: 35) who says that when Salah al Din was at Tyre, he brought the captured king of Ibn al Athir (199 , 10: 1 6) agrees with Ibn Shaddad that the Crusader Jerusalem – Guy of usignon – and the grand master of the Templars before him leaders, realising that they were on the verge of perishing, met in council and and promised them freedom if they would help him secure the surrender of agreed to surrender Jerusalem to Salah al Din and ask him for safe conduct. ut other cities. In fact, they did help him later to obtain the surrender of ‘Asqalan Salah al Din turned their delegation away, saying he would deal with them in the and Ga a. same way they had dealt with the city’s inhabitants in 492 AH/ 1099 CE – by killing and the taking of prisoners. However, different chroniclers give four The fourth account is reported by Runciman (1952, 2: 463). He says that different accounts of the communications between Salah al Din and Jerusalem’s Balian of Ibelin, who was with the rankish ( rusader) refugees at Tyre, rulers about surrender. contacted Salah al Din and asked for a safe conduct to enter the city of Jerusalem in order to rescue his wife ueen Maria (he had married the widow of ACCOUNTS OF NEGOTIATIONS Amalric, king of Jerusalem), who had retreated there from ablus with her According to Runciman (19 , : 464), on ctober alian of Ibelin ( alian Ibn children, and whom he wished to bring to Tyre. Salah al Din granted this request ar an) left Jerusalem to discuss the future of the city and its people with Salah on condition that Balian spends only one night in the city and did not carry arms. al Din. This was not, it seems, the first attempt at communication but had been By acceding to Balian’s request, it seems that Salah al Din hoped to use him as preceded by four others. The first of these was reported by Abu Shama (1997,3: his chief negotiator in Jerusalem’s surrender. Balian ultimately did negotiate the 3 9) who quoted Ibn al Qadisi’s story that Salah al Din, in a letter to his relatives, surrender of the city, but only after, he had broken his agreement with Salah al had said that the king of Jerusalem had contacted him during his attack on Tyre, Din and had played a dramatic role in the city’s defence (Runciman, 1952, 2: 464). Beytülmakdis Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2019, 19 (1) 71 72 Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2019, 19 (1) The sultan had sworn to take the city by force and to repay the rusaders for for rusaders the repay force city by to the and take swornto had sultan The of thismessage. impact dramatic the doubt about isno There thousands. in the to number estimated were who war, of prisoners Muslim massacring and Rock pl holy Muslim of sacredness the to violate therefore prepared were soldiers his and much ofcity.Balian to destroy and the death the to fight them order would Balian surrender, of fair terms Jerusalem
unani non and other Muslim 1: 473) and (1999, Hanbali Abu al Abu Salah al to commitment his wouldhe keep that saying refused, Balian first At defence. city’s the lead and stay should he that insisted orders military the of officers to threaten Salah al Salah to threaten only so the that concluded Balian killed. be would they probably, Most or captured. killed be city would in the indigenous hristians) and rusaders that (boththe and all hristians the them, against orsooner repeated be later ent first they when Muslims the against rusaders the by committed massacre the conclusionBalian that cameto the that seems It CITY THE DESTROY TO THREAT BALIAN’S consolidate the rusader forces and plan the defence (Runciman, 1952, 2: 463) 2: 1952, (Runciman, defence planthe and forces rusader the consolidate immediate city and the of leadership the accept to consented finally Balian e ile. into camp his through passing grandeur, vanished to heirs children, al Salah to herTyre. family and an sent but Balian forgave only not He respected. al Salah that says 463) 2:(1952, al Salah to wrote embarrassed, Maher ABU-MUNSHAR Maher our hands hands our in who are slaves Muslim slaythe we will places, holy other Mosque, the and al the and Rock the demolish we will that, finished wehave when man or a woman a enslave to nor loot, smallest and sequin nor amountto women, wealth possessions, our our and we will burn leaveyouneither and see deathwe mustGod that by willneeds be, sons our slaughter our and citiesother grace, believing wilt thou that it grant then as thy in of the hope the fight slackening are who knowspeople, how many Sultan,he said, we that know soldiers in this cityinare the midst of God or conquer like conquer gentlemenor gloriously shall we die thus he slain has like his man ofbefore willa fall us not lives: for our will fightyou and you, to body a in out go we will then and have mous about the content of Balian’s speech to Salah al Salah to speech of Balian’s content the mous about hen Balian arrived in Islamic erusalem, atriarch Heraclius and the the and Heraclius atriarch in Islamic erusalem, arrived Balian hen It can be seen from this fromthis seen be canIt Regan (19 7: 15 (19 7: Regan Fida’ (1977, 2:156 (1977, Fida’ Din. However, –
for they abhor death and desire life. But for ourselves, when we whenfor ourselves, desireBut and life. death abhor for they there are 5 such, and s and there 5 are such, Din. Ibn Al Ibn Din. 51) comments that Salah al Salah that comments 51)
57), Ibn ahir (197 , 12: 323), Ibn al Ibn 323), 12: (197 , ahir Ibn 57), at th at .
that if Salah al if that Din was always courteous to an enemy whom he he whom toenemy an courteous always Din was Runciman oath. his of violation the e plain to Din e insistence of the patriarch, Balian, deeply deeply Balian, ofpatriarch, insistence the e Athir (199 , 1 :156), Abu Shama (1997, 3: 34 ), 34 ), 3: (1997, Shama Abu 1 :156), (199 , Athir Din is said to have wept when he saw these these saw he when wept to have Din said is
laughter every beast and mountlaughterand we everybeast aces by destroying Domeby ofaces the destroying the Din would not grant the people of of people the notgrant Din would
thou hastthou granted itthe to escort to convey ueen Maria Maria convey ueen to escort Din was forced torecons forced was Din ered Islamic erusalem would would Islamic erusalem ered Muslim chroniclers are are chroniclers Muslim Din ‘Ibri (1992, 221), Al 221), (1992, ‘Ibri :
ly began to to began ly lution was was lution Aqsa Aqsa ider. ider. .
Islamicjerusalem in the Eyes of Salah Al-Din
hen Balian arrived in Islamic erusalem, atriarch Heraclius and the their massacre o e er, becomin master of a ruined city, ith its holy sites officers of the military orders insisted that he should stay and lead the city’s destroyed, ould ha e been a tra ic end to the holy ar e an uestions defence. At first Balian refused, saying that he would keep his commitment to hether a oluntary surrender by the defenders ould ha e iolated Salah al Salah al Din. However, at the insistence of the patriarch, Balian, deeply Din’s oath. He adds that the siege had already been bloody enough. He suggests embarrassed, wrote to Salah al Din to e plain the violation of his oath. Runciman that it as enerous terms, rather than military mi ht, that had facilitated the (1952, 2: 463) says that Salah al Din was always courteous to an enemy whom he surrender of other cities oreo er, con uerin Islamic erusalem by force ould respected. He not only forgave Balian but sent an escort to convey ueen Maria ta e lon er and ould affect the capabilities of Salah al Din’s forces. He and her family to Tyre. Salah al Din is said to have wept when he saw these concludes that Salah al in understood that enerosity as his most potent children, heirs to vanished grandeur, passing through his camp into e ile. Balian eapon ( e an 19 7: 151) finally consented to accept the leadership of the city and immediately began to Salah al in discussed the situation ith his commanders, and as at first consolidate the rusader forces and plan the defence (Runciman, 1952, 2: 463). told that the ri ht approach as to cause humiliation by ta in the enemy and their families as prisoners of ar o e er, after len thy ne otiation ith BALIAN’S THREAT TO DESTROY THE CITY Balian, terms of surrender ere finally a reed (Ibn Al Athir, 199 , 1 : 156) he It seems that Balian came to the conclusion that the massacre committed by the city as to surrender unconditionally, but the rusaders ere ranted safe rusaders against the Muslims when they first entered Islamic erusalem would conduct to lea e, pro ided that they paid a ransom fi ed at ten dinars for a man, sooner or later be repeated against them, and that all the hristians (both the fi e for a oman, and t o for a child (Ibn Shaddad, 2 , 5 ) Se en thousands rusaders and indigenous hristians) in the city would be killed or captured. of the poor ould be freed for a lump sum of , dinars (Ibn Al Athir, 199 , Most probably, they would be killed. Balian concluded that the only solution was 1 :156) to threaten Salah al Din. Ibn Al Athir (199 , 1 :156), Abu Shama (1997, 3: 34 ), Abu al Fida’ (1977, 2: 156 57), Ibn ahir (197 , 12: 323), Ibn al ‘Ibri (1992, 221), Al Salah al in sa this as an e cellent opportunity to capture Hanbali (1999, 1: 473) and other Muslim and non Muslim chroniclers are Islamic erusalem ithout further bloodshed All those ho paid their ransom unanimous about the content of Balian’s speech to Salah al Din: ithin days ere allo ed to lea e, hile those ho could not pay it ould be ensla ed he rusaders ere allo ed to ta e ith them any mo able property Sultan, he said, know that we soldiers in this city are in the midst of God knows how many people, who are slackening the fight in the hope of thy o e er, they ere encoura ed to sell as much as possible to the uslims, grace, believing that thou wilt grant it then as thou hast granted it to the either to merchants in Salah al Din’s army or to local Christians (Ibn Al Athir, other cities for they abhor death and desire life. But for ourselves, when we 1998, 10:158), in order to raise their ransom. ‘Imad al in reports that Balian see that death must needs be, by God we will slaughter our sons and our promised to pay , dinars to free the poor e says the offer as accepted, women, we will burn our wealth and our possessions, and leave you neither and that Balian fulfilled this promise (Ibn al ‘Adim, 1996:411 12) sequin nor smallest amount to loot, nor a man or a woman to enslave and when we have finished that, we will demolish the Rock and the al Aqsa THE S RRENDER O ISLA IC ER SALE Mosque, and the other holy places, we will slay the Muslim slaves who are in he alled city of Islamic erusalem surrendered on Friday 27 a a 5 A 2 our hands – there are 5 such, and slaughter every beast and mount we October 1187 CE, and according to ‘Imad al in al Asfahani (n d: ), it contained have and then we will go out in a body to you, and will fight you for our lives: not a man of us will fall before he has slain his like thus shall we die gloriously more than one hundred thousand people, includin hristian men, omen and or conquer like gentlemen. children Salah al in entered the city and freed it from years of rusader rule he 27 a a as the same date on hich the rophet uhammad had been It can be seen from this that if Salah al Din would not grant the people of supernaturally transported from a ah to Islamic erusalem in a sin le ni ht, Jerusalem fair terms of surrender, Balian would order them to fight to the death no n as the Ascent, on the e e of al Mi‘raj, as recorded in the Qur’an (al Isra’, v. and to destroy much of the city. Balian and his soldiers were therefore prepared 1) Ibn Shaddad (2 :52 5 ) says that od facilitated this remar able to violate the sacredness of Muslim holy places by destroying the Dome of the coincidence of restorin Islamic erusalem to uslim hands on the anni ersary of Rock and massacring Muslim prisoners of war, who were estimated to number the i ht ourney and the Ascent of the rophet uhammad e adds that a in the thousands. There is no doubt about the dramatic impact of this message. lar e number of people from all o er the uslim orld had come to the re ion Regan (19 7: 15 51) comments that Salah al Din was forced to reconsider. after hearin about the con uest of the coastal lands, hopin for the capture of The sultan had sworn to take the city by force and to repay the rusaders for Islamic erusalem any notables from ypt and Syria itnessed the liberation, so that hen Salah al in entered the city he as surrounded by scholars, urists, Beytülmakdis Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2019, 19 (1) 73 74 Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2019, 19 (1) the gates of alled city be tem orarily closed. At each each closed.At tem orarily city be of alled gates the alah al of conduct gracious the re orted historians ho : among 4 )(1997, ere ( ane fell until night sun the rising of the from de arturelasted their and . a ar, cameforth osternof the from they ane city. the to leave allo ed be ould ransom the not ay of eru streets the throughout to roclaim guard his sent he is that magnanimity his of e am le An :466). 195 , ( unciman, alah al free. them set immediately visit her captive husband in Nablus ‘Imad al Nablus‘Imad in husband her captive visit alahal associates. and retinue her ith leave to allo ed ho as ing uy, ca tured of the ife the Another as anted. e am le she else hatever and her belongings all ta e to ermitted but ithout as ransom, to leave notonly allo ed as erusalem, y a a e am le, ransom. or ithout ac son, 198 : 57 198 : ac son, of al home to n from his come had they that claiming captives, of 1,000 release the requested ‘Ali Kuchuk al u affar country. his from ere they as Armenians, 500 of freedom alah al incident as in contrast to the deeds of the con uerors of the deeds to the contrast in incident as this that commented unciman need. their to according treasury o n from his gifts and money gave he slain been had ho men of or hans and ido s to the th free to romising by re lied He ca tive. or slain or been ta en had fathers husbands their as to ha en them, to alah al came themselves ransomed as ed forthousand ca t a as ed and other church treasures. church treasures. other and al to ‘Imad According Holy Sepulchre. the churchof the artifacts from other and cartload the by relics e ellery, silver and gold ith city laden the to Ibn haddad, numbered close to three thousand (Ibn haddad, 000:5 haddad, (Ibn thousand tothree close numbered haddad, to Ibn al alah and ulled do n as oc the of Dome the over laced been had that cross huge the con uest of the O officers. military and civilians of acro d by as ell as oets, ufis and carrying ith them vases of gold and silver, sil silver, and gold of vases them ith carrying s Crusaders the (n.d: 47), Asfahani Maher ABU-MUNSHAR Maher In order to control the de arting o ulation alah al alah o ulation de arting the control to order In ho ladies ofCrusader some the that re orts :466) unciman(195 , mad al ‘Imad alah al he atriarch Din to ards many noble omen of the city, allo ing them to leave leave to them city,allo ing the of noble omen many Din to ards Din’s commanders (for commanders ruler ofexample, Din’s the al Din’s brother, al brother, Din’s Din Al Din ). ).
Heraclius and his riests each aid their ten ten their aid each riests his and Heraclius Asfahani (n.d: 4 ), Ibn Al 4 ),Ibn (n.d: Asfahani uha ( rfa). alah al ( rfa). uha ives. alahal ives.
Din released all uslim risoners, ho, according ho,according risoners, uslim all Din released ose of their husbands ho ere in ca tivity, and and ca tivity, in ere ho husbands their of ose ali al ali tri ed the ornaments from their churches, from churches, their ornaments tri ed the Din himself set free all the aged risoners risoners aged the all free set himself Din ntine ueen, ho had led a monastic a in life led ho ueen,had ntine ‘Adil, was so moved by this scene that he he that scene bythis moved so was ‘Adil, oole Din even granted her safe conduct to to conduct her safe granted Din even Din in tears and as ed hat as to hat as as ed and tears Din in Din granted his re uest, and al re uest,and his Din granted salem that all old eo le ho could old eo leall ho could that salem Din Al Din , 1985: Din his granted re uest ( yons Athir (1998, 10:157), Abu hama hama Abu 10:157), (1998, Athir
and gold and Asfahani (n.d: 4 ). ome of of (n.d: 4 ). ome Asfahani ). ). of the irst Crusade. irst the of gate,
embroidered curtains embroidered the city unhindered, unhindered, city the ira) as ed for the forthe ira) as ed Din ordered that all all that ordered Din
a commander as as commander a oole says that that oole says i ar n the day day n the
and left left and Din Ibn Din Al Din 54).
‘Adil ‘Adil
Islamicjerusalem in the Eyes of Salah Al-Din
ufis and oets, as ell as by a cro d of civilians and military officers. On the day appointed to monitor the movements of the rusaders and to ensure that only of the con uest the huge cross that had been laced over the Dome of the oc those who had paid a ransom could leave. thers were employed inside the city as ulled do n and alah al Din released all uslim risoners, ho, according to take a census (Al Hanbali, 1999, 1:473). ‘Imad al Din Al Asfahani (n.d says to Ibn haddad, numbered close to three thousand (Ibn haddad, 000:5 54). that gyptian and Syrian officers were appointed to collect the payments and to give the departing people receipts that had to be submitted at the gates. he he atriarch Heraclius and his riests each aid their ten i ar and left grand masters of the emplars and Hospitallers were approached to donate the city laden ith gold and silver e ellery, relics by the cartload and other money for the release of poor rusaders. hen they resisted, a riot almost artifacts from the church of the Holy Sepulchre. According to ‘Imad al Din Al erupted and they were forced to contribute to the ransoms ( unciman, 1 , Asfahani (n.d: 47), the Crusaders stri ed the ornaments from their churches, . carrying ith them vases of gold and silver, sil and gold embroidered curtains and other church treasures. As the rusaders were leaving, Salah al Din assigned officers whose ob was to ensure their safe arrival in territories held by the hristians (Ibn Shaddad, alah al Din’s brother, al ali al ‘Adil, was so moved by this scene that he 000 . egan (1 1 quotes an unnamed chronicler who gave Salah al as ed for a thousand ca tives. alah al Din granted his re uest, and al ‘Adil Din’s officers credit for their humane treatment of the refugees immediately set them free. alah al Din himself set free all the aged risoners ( unciman, 195 , :466). An e am le of his magnanimity is that he sent his guard he officers who could not endure the suffering of the refugees, ordered to roclaim throughout the streets of erusalem that all old eo le ho could their squires to dismount and set aged hristians upon their steeds. Some of not ay the ransom ould be allo ed to leave the city. ane oole says that them even carried hristian children in their arms. they came forth from the ostern of . a ar, and their de arture lasted from After the exodus, the 1 ,000 people who remained in the city were enslaved, as the rising of the sun until night fell ( ane oole, 1985: ). they could not pay the ransom. According to ‘Imad al Din Al Asfahani (n.d , ‘Imad al Din Al Asfahani (n.d: 4 ), Ibn Al Athir (1998, 10:157), Abu hama 7,000 were men and 8,000 were women and children. ‘Imad al Din was ama ed (1997, : 4 ) ere among historians ho re orted the gracious conduct of at the amount of treasure that was carried away by the rusaders. He reported alah al Din to ards many noble omen of the city, allo ing them to leave to Salah al Din that it could be valued at 00,000 i ar . He reminded the sultan ithout ransom. or e am le, a y antine ueen, ho had led a monastic life in that his agreement was for safe conduct to the departing rusaders for erusalem, as not only allo ed to leave ithout ransom, but as ermitted to themselves and their personal property, but not for the property of the ta e all her belongings and hatever else she anted. Another e am le as the churches, and he advised that such treasures should not be left in their hands, ife of the ca tured ing uy, ho as allo ed to leave the city unhindered, but Salah al Din replied ith her retinue and associates. alah al Din even granted her safe conduct to If we interpret the treaty now against their interest, they will accuse us of visit her captive husband in Nablus ‘Imad al Din Al Asfahani (n.d: 4 ). ome of treachery. et us deal with them according to the wording of the treaty so alah al Din’s commanders (for example, the ruler of al ira) as ed for the they may not accuse the believers of breaking the covenant. Instead, they will freedom of 500 Armenians, as they ere from his country. u affar al Din Ibn talk of the favours that we have bestowed upon them. ‘Ali Kuchuk requested the release of 1,000 captives, claiming that they had come Salah al Din’s magnanimity contrasts sharply with the attitude of the from his home to n of al uha ( rfa). alah al Din granted his re uest ( yons victorious rusaders in AH 10 . He was chivalrous and fair minded to his ac son, 198 : 57). enemies, and his generosity was recognised by uslim and hristians alike. unciman (195 , :466) re orts that some of the Crusader ladies ho Hillenbrand ( 01 1 says that the propaganda value of Salah al Din’s ransomed themselves came to alah al Din in tears and as ed hat as to bloodless conquest of erusalem counts for much more than the temptations, ha en to them, as their husbands or fathers had been slain or ta en ca tive. He soon overcome, to exact vengeance. She adds that it was important for uslim re lied by romising to free those of their husbands ho ere in ca tivity, and chroniclers like Ibn al Athir to display the magnanimity of Salah al Din’s conduct to the ido s and or hans of men ho had been slain he gave money and gifts not ust as a personal characteristic, but also as a demonstration of the from his o n treasury according to their need. unciman commented that this superiority of uslim conduct over hristian conduct, and of Islamic values over incident as in contrast to the deeds of the con uerors of the irst Crusade. hristian values. Salah al Din was steeped in Islamic teaching, and his treatment In order to control the de arting o ulation alah al Din ordered that all of the hristians reflected the original uslim vision for the treatment of non the gates of alled city be tem orarily closed. At each gate, a commander as Muslims that was established in the Qur’anic verse (al umtahana, v. Beytülmakdis Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2019, 19 (1) 75 76 Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2019, 19 (1) Islamic erusalem should the city be liberated during his lifet during his liberated city be the should Islamic erusalem this this i ar hung from the ceiling (Abu ceiling (Abu the hungfrom were candelabra rich and Qur’an the from texts with illuminated were walls beautiful Its with carpets. fitted and oriental offurnishings cleared hristian was Dome of t of Dome the dominated had that cross golden the mentioned, As places. Muslimholy the (Al a fee Howeve it. worship in of freedom hristians granted and churchreopened the closure ordered he of days three After example. ‘Umar’s opinion and majority this by persuaded al alah Holy epulchre the destroy now Muslims con uering the 3:40 (Abu hama,1997, to them of hristians right confirmed the al Ibn ‘Umar Caliph when that sultan the reminded also They place. the of sanctity would hristians mattered buildingthat the not and site the was it that arguing this, re ected of advisers the most However, al alah that action first he AL SALAH ( capability’ with ‘forgiveness concept of the that li ely is it and acts, barbaric from him restrained Islam of instructions he come for visits and pilgrimages. ‘Imad al ‘Imad pilgrimages. and for visits come would no longer they so that interest inIslamic erusalem, to hristian end an a of his ome tiring war. and long a after future church’s the discuss to time advisers his and sultan the gave (Al normality of semblance a to return to life and (Abu days three for closed be to it ordered to was for hristians, world the place in holiest the mind at the time the at mind Maher ABU-MUNSHAR Maher hattab con uered the city he did not destroy the holy places, but had had but places, holy the destroy not did city he the con uered hattab od loves those who are ust loves od are who those drive yououtofnor your homes,from dealingwith ustly indlyand them: for your ai for fight younot who those to with regard younot, forbids od removed and its pronouncements should be exposed as lies… exposedits shouldas removed be pronouncements and e tin shouldstatusbeits be blinded, be should removed,candelabras its should it wayvisiting to the out, beshould blotted tracesits be demolished, should structures its that whoadvised those were them epulchre.Amongst i ar alah al alah alah al (carved pulpit) in the mos ue. According to Abu hama (1997, 3:39 to hama (1997, Abu mos ue.According pulpit) in the (carved Ma ri i, 1997, 1: 10 1997, Ma ri i, guished, its gospels should be destroyed, its seductions should be be should seductions its destroyed, should be gospels its guished, he oc was ta en down (Ibn haddad, 000: 3). he al 3). he 000: haddad, (Ibn down ta en was oc he DIN AND THE HOLY LACES HOLY THE AND DIN
Dinwith people discussed his the is had been prepared by ur al ur by prepared been had Din introduced some structural changes in the course of restoring restoring of course in the changes structural some Din introduced .
hama, 1997, 3:40 ). his allowed the situation to calm down calm situation down to the his 3:40 ). allowed 1997, hama, r, rusader pilgrims would be admitted only on payment of only on payment admitted be pilgrimswould r, rusader 11). Din too towards the church of the Holy epulchre, epulchre, Holy the of church the towards Din too dvisers wanted him to destroy the church and put put himto churchdestroy and the wanted dvisers hama, hama, 3: 377).1997, alah al .
Din Al still ma e pilgrimage because of the because pilgrimage ma e still a 3 (n.d: Asfahani sue of the church of the Holy of the Holy the church sue of ‘Afu ‘ind ‘ind ‘Afu ‘Arif: 176). The closure was also also was closure The 176). ‘Arif: Din, to accompany him to to him accompany to Din, a ime. Ma ira Din also installed a a installed Din also
4) says that: 4) says ). hy should should ). hy A sa ) was in his ) was
Din was was Din mos ue mos ue th th
3), 3),
Islamicjerusalem in the Eyes of Salah Al-Din
od forbids you not, with regard to those who fight you not for your aith After discussion with uslim scholars (‘ulama), Salah al Din established nor drive you out of your homes, from dealing indly and ustly with them: for new religious institutions in buildings previously used by Christians. It was od loves those who are ust. argued that these Christian places had been uslim prior to the Crusades. or he instructions of Islam restrained him from barbaric acts, and it is li ely that example, al ma a a al ala a, a school for teaching shafi‘i , was set up in the concept of ‘forgiveness with capability’ (a ‘Afu ‘ind a Ma ira ) was in his the church of St Anne. l a a al ala a, a monastery ( a ) for Sufis, was mind at the time. placed in the former residence of the patriarch of erusalem, ad acent to the church of the oly Sepulchre (Al anbali, , ). A hospital, al ma a SALAH AL DIN AND THE HOLY LACES al ala , was established in a church in the anners uarter ( a al a a a) he first action that alah al Din too towards the church of the Holy epulchre, near the oly Sepulchre. ich endowment was arranged to service the hospital, the holiest place in the world for hristians, was to ordered it to be closed for which apparently also functioned as a medical teaching centre (Al Asfahai, n.d three days (Abu hama, 1997, 3:40 ). his allowed the situation to calm down ). and life to return to a semblance of normality (Al ‘Arif: 176). The closure was also gave the sultan and his advisers time to discuss the church’s future after a long SALAH AL DIN AND THE LOCAL CHRISTIANS and tiring war. ome of his advisers wanted him to destroy the church and put In his treatment of the Christians in Islamic erusalem, Salah al Din made a an end to hristian interest in Islamic erusalem, so that they would no longer distinction between two groups. On the one hand were the Crusaders, invaders come for visits and pilgrimages. ‘Imad al Din Al Asfahani (n.d: 3 4) says that: who had instigated a horrific massacre after their con uest of the city, and on the other hand were the indigenous Christians, who were both Arab and non alah al Din discussed with his people the issue of the church of the Holy Arab followers of the ree Orthodox Church – eastern Orthodox Christians as epulchre. Amongst them were those who advised that its structures should opposed to the atin ( oman Catholic) Crusaders. be demolished, its traces should be blotted out, the way to visiting it should be blinded, its status should be removed, its candelabras should be According to ‘Imad al Din Al Asfahani (n.d ) and Abu Shama e tinguished, its gospels should be destroyed, its seductions should be ( , ), the local Christians now re uested permission to remain in the city, removed and its pronouncements should be exposed as lies… which Salah al Din granted with conditions after paying their ransom they However, most of the advisers re ected this, arguing that it was the site and not should pay the a tax, agree to be his sub ects and accept the role of the building that mattered hristians would still ma e pilgrimage because of the mm . owever, the poorer classes, who did not have money, were sanctity of the place. They also reminded the sultan that when Caliph ‘Umar Ibn exempted from the a . At the same time, Salah al Din ordered the Crusader al hattab con uered the city he did not destroy the holy places, but had Christians to leave Islamic erusalem. he Orthodox Christians and the acobites confirmed the right of hristians to them (Abu hama, 1997, 3:40 ). hy should (Syrian Orthodox) were allowed to remain and to worship as they chose. ‘Imad the con uering Muslims now destroy the Holy epulchre alah al Din was al Din says that Salah al Din even allowed them to wor in his service and in the persuaded by this majority opinion and ‘Umar’s example. After three days of government, although he gives no examples. Arnold agrees with Imad al Din Al closure he ordered the church reopened and granted hristians freedom of Asfahani (n.d ) that the local Christians were satisfied with their uslim worship in it. However, rusader pilgrims would be admitted only on payment of employers (Arnold, ). a fee (Al Ma ri i, 1997, 1: 10 11). Salah al Din’s attitude to the local Christians seems to have been partly alah al Din introduced some structural changes in the course of restoring due to the warm relations he en oyed with the y antine emperor, Isaac the Muslim holy places. As mentioned, the golden cross that had dominated the Angelus. unciman reports that Salah al Din received a message from the Dome of the oc was ta en down (Ibn haddad, 000: 3). he al A sa mos ue emperor ust after the liberation of Islamic erusalem, congratulating him on his was cleared of hristian furnishings and fitted with beautiful oriental carpets. Its victory over the Crusaders and re uesting that he convert the churches in the walls were illuminated with texts from the Qur’an and rich candelabra were city bac to the Orthodox Church, and that all Christian ceremonies in the city be hung from the ceiling (Abu hama, 1997, 3: 377). alah al Din also installed a conducted according to the ree Orthodox liturgy. is re uest was later i ar (carved pulpit) in the mos ue. According to Abu hama (1997, 3:39 3), granted, although the rights of other sects were protected ( unciman, , this i ar had been prepared by ur al Din, to accompany him to ). Salah al Din allowed the local Christians to pray freely in their churches, Islamic erusalem should the city be liberated during his lifetime. and handed over control of Christian affairs to the y antine patriarch. egan suggests that Salah al Din saw this as a good opportunity to foster the disagreements between the followers of the oman and Orthodox Churches Beytülmakdis Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2019, 19 (1) 77 78 Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2019, 19 (1) unciman ( , ( , unciman necessar the out carry to enoughpeople were ensure citythere and the that to populate mainly of to return, them the establishment of atin of ingdom the erusalem establishment the uslims the under religious security greater their confirms ) 2:464 (1952, Runciman freely worship could they when ‘Umar, rulers Caliph under days as such uslim to the nostalgia bac with loo ed and Cath the of domination the resented and ma ority the were they that adds e to them. alien rituals and were language the in which ceremonies ingdom of erusalem erusalem of ingdom gyptian Orthodox Copts had be had Copts Orthodox gyptian as nown Islamic erusalem th by ta en other property and monasteries churches, Coptic former all priesthood Coptic to the returned e wished. rituals they as their to practice them allowed and sects and denominations placeChristian to all open an Islamic erusalem made Christians. ofOrthodox the physical intervention without Salah al that itseems owever, in from living excluded local were these Christians of Crusades, beginning the the At of ome. Church the of domination the from them to liberate con uest uslim a welcome would erusalem in Christians Orthodox of ree thousands that Crusaders well loyalty was localIt of doubtedthe the Christians. they that is conduct for safe asking and surrender city’s the proposing patriarch the and of sort some was there that undeniable is It time. agreed an at gates the opening by erusalem liberate army his and sultan tohelpthe ready were hey city. the from scholar Orthodox Arab ), an conta secret maintained hey help. withouttheir city tothe con uer able been have would not places (‘Ashur, holy Christian the over sovereignty to recover able were they as erusalem, Catholicsfrom the of departure the from greatly benefited priests their and Orthodox Christians ( egan, towards Salah al towards Maher ABU-MUNSHAR Maher contentedly to theircontentedly rule. to a masters new the welcomed have to seems of population alestine ), the(A.D. the Christian ofinto hands the uslims uslims of the Crusaders,that to whenand erusalem ever and fell finally he ative egan ( ) argues that one reason behind the re uests of alian of alian re uests the behind one reason that argues ( ) egan In contrast to the religious exclusivism of the Crusaders, Crusaders, of the exclusivism religious the to contrast In attitude ofindigenous ofcity,the the the Christians siege Duringthe ) in a divide and rule strategy. here is no doubt that the the no isthat doubt here rule and strategy. divide in a ) e Crusaders. It was reported that he also granted the Copts a place in place a Copts the granted also he that reported was It Crusaders. e
the city. ater, during the time of aldwin I ( ing of the atin atin the of ( ing I of aldwin time the during city. ater, the Christian preferred certainly uhammadans the rule of the Din was one of collaboration. Some argue that Salah al argue that Some of collaboration. one Din was ) these local Orthodox Christians were made to attend to attend made were Christians local Orthodox ) these ct with Salah al ctwith –
a al a C ), the Crusaders allowed considerable numbers numbers considerable allowed Crusaders C ),the , ). , Din’s recovery of Islamicjerusalem took place place took of Islamicjerusalem Din’srecovery en banned from the holy city because they they holy city because from banned the en ul a collaboration between the two sides. sides. two the between collaboration Din though Yusuf Batit (‘Ashur, 1986, 2: 2: (‘Ashur,1986, Batit Yusuf though Din
y business of the realm. According to to According realm. of business y the (monastery of the sultan). ver since sultan). ver since the of (monastery
nd to have submitted uietly and submittedand uietly have to nd –
almost ninety years years ninety almost
). Arnold Arnold ). olic Crusaders, olic Crusaders, nown to thenown Salah al Salah Din Din Din Din
–
Islamicjerusalem in the Eyes of Salah Al-Din
( egan, ) in a divide and rule strategy. here is no doubt that the were regarded y the atins as heretics and atheists (I n Al Muqaffa’, 1959, 2(2): Orthodox Christians and their priests benefited greatly from the departure of 249 owever, alah al Din allowed them to visit the church of the oly the Catholics from erusalem, as they were able to recover sovereignty over the epulchre and other Christian sites e also e empted them from paying fees to Christian holy places (‘Ashur, , ). enter Islamicjerusalem, largely on the asis that they were his su jects ( einardus, 2 2: 1 During the siege of the city, the attitude of the indigenous Christians towards Salah al Din was one of collaboration. Some argue that Salah al Din Interestingly, alah al Din also treated the Christians of a sha would not have been able to con uer the city without their help. hey (A yssinia generously, particularly in e empting them from fees when they maintained secret contact with Salah al Din though Yusuf Batit (‘Ashur, 1986, 2: visited the holy places (‘Ashur, 1968, 14 : 22), ‘Ashur (1968, 14 : 22) adds that ), an Arab Orthodox scholar from the city. hey were ready to help the sultan alah al Din showed respect to their monasteries and kindness to the a ashi and his army liberate erusalem by opening the gates at an agreed time. It is priest who took care of these places It is evident that alah al Din succeeded in undeniable that there was some sort of collaboration between the two sides. allowing different religions and sects to co e ist in Islamicjerusalem, and did not impose new practices or regulations when he con uered the city or him, the egan ( ) argues that one reason behind the re uests of alian principles contained in ‘Umar’s Assurance of Safety were the most appropriate and the patriarch proposing the city’s surrender and asking for safe conduct is guide, as the a ove e amples show that they doubted the loyalty of the local Christians. It was well nown to the Crusaders that thousands of ree Orthodox Christians in erusalem would CONCL SION welcome a uslim con uest to liberate them from the domination of the Church In this paper, I have demonstrated that for alah al Din li erating of ome. At the beginning of the Crusades, these local Christians were excluded Islamicjerusalem was the ultimate goal for whose realisation he tirelessly from living in the city. ater, during the time of aldwin I ( ing of the atin worked during his life e spared no means for its li eration from the Crusaders ingdom of erusalem – C ), the Crusaders allowed considerable numbers despite all the political and military difficulties he encountered alah al Din’s of them to return, mainly to populate the city and ensure that there were deep elief in the religious and political importance of Islamicjerusalem and the enough people to carry out the necessary business of the realm. According to need to restore it to the uslim rule were the reasons that motivated him to unciman ( , ) these local Orthodox Christians were made to attend li erate Islamicjerusalem I have also shown that alah al Din proved himself as a ceremonies in which the language and rituals were alien to them. e adds that model leader with magnanimity, compassion and tolerance. alah al Din sought they were the ma ority and resented the domination of the Catholic Crusaders, to negotiate with the Crusaders for a peaceful end to the siege of the walled and loo ed bac with nostalgia to the days under uslim rulers such as Caliph city of Islamicjerusalem, for he wanted to preserve the lives and the souls of the ‘Umar, when they could worship freely Runciman (1952, 2: 464 ). Arnold Crusaders in the walled city and guarantee a safe passage for the Crusaders who ) confirms their greater religious security under the uslims were leaving the city to reach the destinations they preferred hese e emplary he ative Christian certainly preferred the rule of the uhammadans ehaviours won him accolades from many western historians he was descri ed uslims to that of the Crusaders, and when erusalem fell finally and ever with ualities such as dignity, generosity, and kindness hese ehaviours gain into the hands of the uslims (A.D. ), the Christian population of alestine salience especially when compared to those of the Crusaders when they seems to have welcomed the new masters and to have submitted uietly and defeated the uslims and occupied Islamicjerusalem in 1 99 C inally, it is clear contentedly to their rule. that the holiness of Islamicjerusalem and its al A sa os ue had played a owever, it seems that Salah al Din’s recovery of Islamicjerusalem took place significant role in alah al Din’s attitude and behaviours alah al Din wanted the without physical intervention of the Orthodox Christians. history to record these moments of rationality and tolerance, even with the enemies, to stress the role of Islamicjerusalem in spreading peace and safety In contrast to the religious exclusivism of the Crusaders, Salah al Din made Islamic erusalem an open place to all Christian denominations and sects RE ERENCES and allowed them to practice their rituals as they wished. e returned to the A u al Fida’, Isma‘il Ibn ‘Ali (1997) a al Fida’ al u amma al u a a a al Coptic priesthood all former Coptic churches, monasteries and other property a a Beirut: anshurat Muhammad ‘Ali Baydun, Dar al utu al ‘Ilmiyyah. ta en by the Crusaders. 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