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Design of a Dual Band Local Positioning System Technische Universität Dresden Design of a Dual Band Local Positioning System Niko Joram der Fakultät Elektrotechnik und Informationstechnik der Technischen Universität Dresden zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktoringenieur (Dr.-Ing.) genehmigte Dissertation Vorsitzender: Prof. Dr. techn. Klaus Janschek Gutachter: Prof. Dr. sc. techn. Frank Ellinger Prof. Dr. sc. techn. Jan Hesselbarth Tag der Einreichung: 30. Januar 2015 Tag der Verteidigung: 11. September 2015 Danksagung An dieser Stelle möchte ich mich bei allen Personen bedanken, die diese Arbeit in den letzten Jahren unterstützt haben. Mein besonderer Dank gilt Prof. Dr. sc. techn. Frank Ellinger, der mich zur Arbeit auf dem Gebiet der integrierten Hochfrequenzschaltungen motiviert hat und es mir ermöglicht hat, meine Dissertation an seinem Lehrstuhl zu bearbeiten. Sehr verbunden bin ich meinen Mitstreitern Jens Wagner und Belal Al-Qudsi, die sich stets Zeit für umfangreiche Fachdiskussionen genommen haben und mich bei allen wissenschaftlichen, technischen und administrativen Belangen im Projekt unschätzbar unterstützt haben. Markus Schulz, Elena Sobotta, Axel Strobel und Robert Wolf, meinen Kollegen im Büro, sowie Bastian Lindner, Anja Muthmann, Stefan Schumann und Uwe Mayer danke ich für das kreative Arbeitsklima und die vielen aufschlussreichen fachlichen und privaten Gespräche. Ich danke Tom Drechsel, Mohammed El-Shennawy, Marco Gunia und Prof. Dr. Udo Jörges für die aufmerksame Durchsicht der Arbeit und die hilfreichen Kom- mentare und Diskussionen, die zur Verbesserung des Manuskripts beigetragen haben. Der Gemeinde Eichigt im Vogtland danke ich für die unkomplizierte Bereitstel- lung der Messszenarien für das Positionierungssystem. Von Herzen danke ich meinen Eltern, die mich immer unterstützt haben. VII Zusammenfassung Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit dem Entwurf eines robusten lokalen Po- sitionierungssystems (LPS), welches in den lizenzfreien Frequenzbereichen für in- dustrielle, wissenschaftliche und medizinische Zwecke (industrial, scientific, med- ical, ISM) bei 2,4 GHz und 5,8 GHz arbeitet. Die Positionsbestimmung beruht auf dem Prinzip des frequenzmodulierten Dauerstrichradars (frequency modu- lated continuous wave, FMCW-Radar), welches hochfrequente Rampensignale für Laufzeitmessungen und damit Abstandsmessungen benutzt. Im Gegensatz zu aktuellen Arbeiten auf diesem Gebiet benutzt das vorgestellte System Daten aus beiden Frequenzbändern zur Erhöhung der Genauigkeit und Präzision sowie Verbesserung der Robustheit. Ein Prototyp des kompletten Sys- tems bestehend aus Basisstationen und mobilen Stationen wurde entworfen. Fast die gesamte analoge hochfrequente Signalverarbeitungskette wurde als anwen- dungsspezifische integrierte Schaltung realisiert. Verglichen mit Systemen aus Standardkomponenten erlaubt dieser Ansatz die Miniaturisierung der Systemkom- ponenten und die Einsparung von Leistung. Schlüsselkomponenten wurden mit Konzepten für mehrbandige oder breitbandige Schaltungen entworfen. Dabei wur- den Sender und Empfänger bestehend aus rauscharmem Verstärker, Mischer und Frequenzsynthesizer mit breitbandiger Frequenzrampenfunktion implementiert. Außerdem wurde ein Leistungsverstärker für die gleichzeitige Nutzung der beiden definierten Frequenzbänder entworfen. Um Spezifikationen für den Schaltungsentwurf zu erhalten, wurden in der Fach- literatur vernachlässigte Nichtidealitäten von FMCW-Radarsystemen modelliert. Dazu gehören Signalverzerrungen durch Kompression oder Intermodulation, der Einfluß der automatischen Verstärkungseinstellung sowie schmalbandige Störer und Nebenschwingungen. Die Ergebnisse der Modellierung wurden benutzt, um eine Spezifikation für den Schaltungsentwurf zu erhalten. Die Schätzung der Position aus gemessenen Abständen wurde über eine erweit- erte Version des Gittersuchalgorithmus erreicht. Dieser nutzt die Abstandsmess- daten aus beiden Frequenzbändern. Der Algorithmus ist so entworfen, dass er effizient in einem eingebetteten System implementiert werden kann. Messungen zeigen eine maximale Reichweite des Systems von mindestens 245 m. Die Genauigkeit von Abstandsmessungen im Freiland beträgt 8,2 cm. Positions- messungen wurden unter Verwendung beider Einzelbänder durchgeführt und mit den Ergebnissen des Zweiband-Gittersuchalgorithmus verglichen. Damit konnte eine starke Verbesserung der Positionsgenauigkeit erreicht werden. Die Genauig- IX keit in einem Innenraum mit einer Grundfläche von 276 m2 kann verbessert werden von 1,27 m bei 2,4 GHz und 1,86 m bei 5,8 GHz zu nur 0,38 m im Zweibandver- fahren. Das entspricht einer Verbesserung um einen Faktor von mindestens 3,3. In einem größeren Außenszenario mit einer Fläche von 4,8 km2 verbessert sich die Genauigkeit um einen Faktor von mindestens 2,8 von 1,88 m bei 2,4 GHz und 5,93 m bei 5,8 GHz auf 0,68 m bei Nutzung von Daten aus beiden Frequenzbän- dern. X Abstract This work presents a robust dual band local positioning system (LPS) working in the 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz industrial science medical (ISM) bands. Position measurement is based on the frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar approach, which uses radio frequency (RF) chirp signals for propagation time and therefore distance measurements. Contrary to state of the art LPS, the presented system uses data from both bands to improve accuracy, precision and robustness. A complete system proto- type is designed consisting of base stations and tags encapsulating most of the RF and analogue signal processing in custom integrated circuits. This design ap- proach allows to reduce size and power consumption compared to a hybrid system using off-the-shelf components. Key components are implemented using concepts, which support operation in multiple frequency bands, namely, the receiver con- sisting of a low noise amplifier (LNA), mixer, frequency synthesizer with a wide band voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) having broadband chirp generation ca- pabilities and a dual band power amplifier. System imperfections occurring in FMCW radar systems are modeled. Effects neglected in literature such as compression, intermodulation, the influence of au- tomatic gain control, blockers and spurious emissions are modeled. The results are used to derive a specification set for the circuit design. Position estimation from measured distances is done using an enhanced version of the grid search algorithm, which makes use of data from multiple frequency bands. The algorithm is designed to be easily and efficiently implemented in embedded systems. Measurements show a coverage range of the system of at least 245 m. Ranging accuracy in an outdoor scenario can be as low as 8.2 cm. Comparative dual band position measurements prove an effective outlier filtering in indoor and outdoor scenarios compared to single band results, yielding in a large gain of accuracy. Positioning accuracy in an indoor scenario with an area of 276 m2 can be improved from 1.27 m at 2.4 GHz and 1.86 m at 5.8 GHz to only 0.38 m in the dual band case, corresponding to an improvement by at least a factor of 3.3. In a large outdoor scenario of 4.8 km2, accuracy improves from 1.88 m at 2.4 GHz and 5.93 m at 5.8 GHz to 0.68 m with dual band processing, which is a factor of at least 2.8. XI Contents 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Motivation . 1 1.2 Scope of Application . 2 1.3 ObjectivesandStructure. 5 2 Fundamentals of Localization 7 2.1 System Classification . 7 2.2 Time of Flight Location Measurement Schemes . 9 2.3 Performance Measures . 11 2.4 Commercial Radio Frequency Localization Systems . 14 3 FMCW Ranging and Synchronization 17 3.1 Ranging Basics . 17 3.2 Range Resolution . 21 3.2.1 Rectangular Window . 21 3.2.2 Windowing and Discrete Fourier Transform . 23 3.3 Frequency Band Selection . 25 3.4 SystemImperfections.......................... 25 3.4.1 Thermal Noise . 25 3.4.2 Compression and Intermodulation . 29 3.4.3 Automatic Gain Control . 31 3.4.4 Blockers............................. 34 3.4.5 Spurious Emissions . 37 3.4.6 Quantization . 39 3.4.7 Phase Noise . 41 3.4.8 Non-linear Frequency Chirp . 44 3.5 TestSystemDesign........................... 50 3.5.1 Transceiver Architecture . 50 3.5.2 Digital Back End . 52 3.6 Two-way Ranging and Synchronization . 53 3.6.1 Overview ............................ 53 3.6.2 System Imperfections . 54 3.6.3 Oscillator Alignment . 54 3.6.4 Coarse Synchronization . 55 XIII Contents 3.6.5 Fine Synchronization . 55 3.6.6 Error Analysis . 56 3.7 TestSystemResults .......................... 58 3.7.1 Measurement Setup . 58 3.7.2 Outdoor Scenario . 59 3.7.3 Indoor Scenario . 60 3.8 Specification Summary . 60 4 Dual-band Localization System 63 4.1 Motivation . 63 4.2 Semiconductor Technology . 65 4.3 SystemOverview............................ 66 4.3.1 Integrated Front Ends . 66 4.3.2 Complete System Architecture . 68 4.4 Low-Noise Amplifier and Mixer . 72 4.4.1 Circuit Description . 72 4.4.2 Measurement Results . 75 4.4.3 Comparison . 77 4.5 Voltage-controlled Oscillator . 78 4.5.1 Design Considerations . 78 4.5.2 Circuit Description . 80 4.5.3 Measurement Results . 82 4.5.4 Comparison . 84 4.6 Phase-locked Loop . 84 4.6.1 SystemOverview........................ 84 4.6.2 Frequency Divider Overview . 85 4.6.3 Dual-Modulus Prescaler . 87 4.6.4 Pulse-Swallow Counter . 88 4.6.5 Sigma Delta Modulator . 89 4.6.6 Phase-Frequency Detector . 92 4.6.7 Charge Pump . 92 4.6.8 Isolation Concept . 97 4.6.9 Loop Filter . 98 4.6.10 Measurement Results . 99 4.6.11 Comparison . 101 4.7 PowerAmplifier.............................102 4.7.1 Specification . 102 4.7.2 Dual Band Matching
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