Rast Müzikoloji Dergisi, 2018, 6 (1): 1769-1787 Original research https://doi.org/10.12975/pp1769-1787 Özgün araştırma

How was the traditional makam theory westernized for the sake of modernization?

Okan Murat Öztürk and Fine Arts University, Department of Musicology, Ankara, [email protected] Abstract

In this article, the transformative interventions of those who want to modernize the tradition- al makam theory in Westernization process experienced in Turkey are discussed in historical and critical context. The makam is among the most basic concepts of as well as the Eastern music. In order to analyze the issue correctly in conceptual framework, here, two basic ‘music theory approaches' have been distinguished in terms of the musical elements they are based on: (i.) ‘scale-oriented’ and, (ii.) ‘melody-oriented’. The first typically represents the conception of Western harmonic tonality, while the second also represents the traditional Turkish makam conception before the Westernization period. This period is dealt with in three phases: (i.) the traditional makam concept before the ‘modernization’, (ii.) transformative interventions in the modernization phase, (iii.) recent new and critical approaches. As makam theory was used once in the history of Turkey, to convey a traditional heritage, it had a peculi- ar way of practice and education in its own cultural frame. It is determined that three different theoretical models based on mathematics, philosophy or composition had been used to explain the makams. In the 19th century, Turkish modernization was resulted in a stage in which a desire to ‘resemble to the West’ began to emerge. Starting from the last decade of that century, the makam conception was also exposed to some transformative interventions for the sake of modernization. First, it was compared with the concepts of Western musical theory such as scale and tonality. At this stage, the scale-oriented theory of harmonic tonality was seen as a complete and excellent model for the 'new/modern' theory desired to be built for the makam. Leading modernizers, Yekta, Ezgi, and Arel did not see any drawback in interpreting tradition- al makam /tones as the European tonal scale degrees with harmonic functions. Moreover, they also regarded those transformative interventions as necessary progress in order to mod- ernize the makam theory. In particular, the model put out by Arel has been accepted and used for many years by researchers, educators and musicians either domestic or foreign as the only modern theory of Turkish music. However, the flawed and incomplete aspects of this theory, which has been constantly contradictory with actual musical performances, have caused ‘cri- sis’, and have been subjected to multidimensional criticisms, at least for the last fifty years. Demonstrating the arguments of new discussions on the subject, here, it has been revealed that the concept of makam should be understood as a melody-oriented approach, particularly considering the historical course of the concept in the Ottoman world. As a conclusion, it is suggested that the former reputation and validity of the -oriented makam theo- ry, which has been developed since the 15th century in the Ottoman world, should be re- turned. This step should also be taken as a starting point for new theoretical studies.

Keywords makam, music theory, melody-oriented approach, Turkish modernization, shifting paradigms

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Rast Müzikoloji Dergisi, 2018: 6(1) | 1770

Geleneksel makam teorisi modernleş(tir)me uğruna nasıl ba- tılılaştırıldı? Özet

Bu makalede, Türkiye’de ya anan Bat l la ma sürecinde, geleneksel makam teorisini modern- le tirmek isteyenlerce yap lan dönü türücü müdahaleler, söylem analizi temelinde ve ele tirel ba lamda tart lmaktad r. Makam,ş Tüırkı mş üzi inin oldu u kadar Do u müzi inin de en temel kavramlarş aras nda yer al ır. Meseleyiş kavramsal çerçevede do ru bir ekilde incelemek maksa-ş d ylağ burada, ışıdayand kları müzik unsurlar açğs ndan ikiğ temel müzikğ teorisiğ yakla m ay rt edilmi tir:ı (i.) diziı -merkezliı ve (ii.) melodi-merkezli. Bunlardanğ ilki, ştipik olarak Bat armonik tonalitesineı özgü kavrayı ı temsil ederken, ıikincisiı ı de Bat l la ma dönemi öncesindekişı gelenek-ı ı sel Tüşrk makam kavray n simgeler. Bu dönem üç ba l k alt nda ele al nm t r: (i.)ı ‘modern- le (tir)meden önceki gelenekselışı Türk makam kavray , (ii.)ı ı şmodernle (tir)me evresindeki dö- nü türücü müdahaleler, ışı(iii.)ı son dönemlerdeki yeni veş eleı tirelı yakla mlar.ı ış Makamı teorisi, Tüşrkiye tarihinde bir zamanlar geleneksel bir miras ışıiletmek amac ylaş kullan ld ndan, kendi kültürelş çerçevesi içinde, kendine özgü bir uygulama ve e itimş tarz na şısahipti. Modernle me- den önce makamlar aç klamak için matematik, felsefeı veya kompozisyonaı ı dayalığı üç farkl teorik modelin kullan ld belirlenmi tir. 19. yüzy lda, Türkğ modernleı mesi, ‘Bat ’ya benzemeş ’ arzusunun tezahür etmeyeı ı ba lad bir a amaya ula t . Bu yüzy l n sonlar ndan baı layarak,ı makam kavray da bazı ığı dönü türücüş müdahalelereı maruz kald . Önce,ş Bat müızik teorisine özgü dizi ve tonalite gibi kavramlarlaş ığı mukayeseş edildi.ş ıBu a amada,ı ı armonikı tonaliteyeş özgü dizi-merkezli teori,ışı makamı içinş in a edilmek istenen ‘yeni/modernı ’ teori içinı tam ve mükem- mel bir model olarak görüldü. Yekta, Ezgi ve Arel gibi önde gelenş modernle tiriciler, geleneksel makam perdelerini, armonik i levlereş sahip Avrupa tonal dizileri olarak yorumlamakta herhan- gi bir mahsur görmediler. Dahas , bu dönü türücü müdahaleleri, makam teorisiniş modernle tirmek ad na zorunlu bir ilerlemeş olarak da kabul ettiler. Özellikle Arel taraf ndan ortaya konu- lan model, uzun y llar boyunca, yerliı veya yabancş ara t rmac , e itimci ve müzisyenler taraf n-ş- dan, Türkı müzi inin yegâne modern teorisi olarak kabul görmü ve kullan lmı t r. Ancak, ger- çek müzik icralar ıyla devaml surette çeli en bu teorininı ş ı kusurluı ğ ve eksik yönleri, onun ‘kriz’ı içine girmesine ğve en az ndan son elli y ld r, çok yönlü ele tirilereş tabi tutulması ış ı na neden ol- mu tur. Konuya dairı yeni tartı malardakiş ba l ca görü ler ortaya konulmak suretiyle burada, makam kavram n n, özellikleı Osmanl düı nyası ndaki tarihselş seyri de göz önünde ıbulundurula- rak,ş melodi-merkezli bir yaklaışmla anla lmasş ı gerektiş i aç kça ortaya ç km t r. Sonuçta, Os- manl dünyas ndaı ı 15. yüzy ldan itibarenı geli tirilenı melodik harekete dayal makam teorisine, eski itibar ve geçerlili inin iadeşı edilmesişı ve buı ad m n,ğ yeniı teorik çalı malarış ı için ba lang ç al nması gerektiı i öne sürülmı ü tür. ş ı Anahtar kelimeler ğ ı ı ış ş ı ı ı ğ ş makam, müzik teorisi, melodi-merkezli yaklaşım, Türk modernleşmesi, paradigma değişimleri

Introduction: "Turkish moderniza- of all, it is necessary to take into account tion" as the basis for cultural trans- the process defined as the ‘Turkish mod- fomation ernization’. Turkish modernization, which started in the late 18th century in In order to understand why those who the , has basically de- want to modernize the traditional veloped depending on two reformative makam theory by taking Europe as mod- conceptions. The historian Stanford el have entered such an orientation, first Shaw, bases these conceptions on the

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Öztürk | 1771 preference of two opposite reforms as ‘Westernization’ are often used and un- ‘traditionalistic’ and ‘modern’ (1977 1, derstood synonymously with ‘moderni- 55). In traditionalistic reform process, the zation’ in Turkey. The makam concept methods such encountered as the ‘ame- within traditional Turkish music has lioration of the tradition’, ‘elimination of been one of the most affected issues by defects of the tradition’ and ‘revival of these processes. In this context, Turkish the past’ had been tried to solve the vari- modernization defines a process that has ous problems. The typical and the last developed with the efforts of adoption representative of this conception was and dissemination of Western music and Sultan Selim III who came to the sultan- the modernization of traditional Turkish ate in 1789. By realizing a series of re- music by transformative interventions. forms, Selim III wanted to modernize the Ottoman system, which lost power Makam: Conceptual frame against Europe. However his efforts of reformation have failed and he lost his Makam that is derived from , means ‘place’, ‘location’, ‘posi- life as a result of the assassination during tion’, ‘situation/state’, ‘station/stop’ or a major uprising at 1808. At the same time, this rebellion was the end of ‘the ‘gradation’ in Turkish. The conception of traditional reform’ conception. makam, in which context it is taken into account, in the end, it cannot be consid- The efforts of the Europeanization of the ered separately from the concepts of Ottoman military and administrative space and motion. This conception is a systems took place in the period of Sul- way of knowing which is focused on tan Mahmut II (1808-1839) who repre- some definite referential points such as sents ‘modern reform’ conception. The beginning, progressing, and ending of any concept of ‘tradition’ was seen as a fac- motion within a certain space. It is tor, which should be abandoned by this noteworthy that the word makam has a understanding. The process continued widespread use not only in music, but in until the establishment of modern Turk- as well. In Sufi terminology, ish Republic through the some stages of makams are understood as definite ‘sta- administrative and political reformations tions’ of the ‘mystical path to reach to such as , Islahat and Meşrutiyet God’ (Knysh 1999, 303-306). In this re- in the Ottoman Empire. Mardin (1999, gard, the makam means primarily 'the 15) draws attention that Sultan place being resided / rested / reached / Abdülhamid II (1876-1909) took the West stopped'. It clearly means at the same as a ‘model’ to himself for the innova- time ‘having a particular place of its tions he wanted to achieve. But in the own’. This meaning of the word corre- years of the Second Constitutional Era sponds to a certain /tone in musical (1908-1918) when particularly, the space bounded by the fret/tone/sound Committee (and Party) of Union and system. Therefore, the makam concep- Progress was in power (1909-1918), the tion is directly related with the concepts idea that the West was ‘the superior and of ‘space’, ‘motion’ and ‘stop/final’ in the only civilization' was widely adopt- music. If the concept of melody, in gen- ed. “[T]he Young Turks”, Ahmad says, eral sense, is understood as ‘motion’ in “[…] not only changed the political sys- musical space, the makam concept corre- tem but they also attempted to refashion sponds to the stopping, staying, or resting society by borrowing more freely from places (frets/tones) which are references the West than ever before” (2003, 31). It to this movement. In this context, it is is a fact that ‘Europeanization’ and remarkable in all respects that the simi-

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Rast Müzikoloji Dergisi, 2018: 6(1) | 1772 larity between ‘melody and makam’ in century theorist Muhammed Nisha- music is also present between the con- buri/Naysaburi built his makam theory cepts of 'state and station' (‘hal ve on the term of perde (Dzhumajev 1992; makam’) in Sufism. Conceptually, it is Fallahzadeh 2005, 110-115). clear that there is a complementary rela- The second factor is particular locations tionship between ‘makam, station, and of the makams in traditional two-- resting on’ against ‘melody, state, and tone-system. There is a strong relation- motion’. In his doctoral dissertation on ship between perde and nağme in the the metaphorical logic of ‘musical mo- makam conception. For makam, some tion and space’, Arnie W. Cox, has notes/tones play a key role in positioning reached the following ‘conceptual’ obser- and development of some unique tunes vations, which can be interpreted perfect- and melodies. Initial tone (ağaz perdesi) ly in terms of the makam: “states are and final tone (karar perdesi) are the im- locations […] musical states are musical portant ones of those. The Ottoman mu- locations […] change of state is motion sic theoretical manuscripts from the 15th between states […] change of musical century to the early 20th century clearly state is change of musical location” show that makam was basically de- (1991, 256). In traditional makam theory, scribed in terms of the ‘manner/mode’ of the ‘states/locations’ correspond to the a ‘melodic motion’ between initial and beginning and ending ‘frets/tones’, while final tones (Öztürk 2014a, 2014c, 2018). the ‘motion’ is expressed/defined by seyir Therefore in determination of the place (progression) ‘between’ those two ‘cen- of a makam, the initial and final tones tral’ tones. In addition, it can be said that stand out as decisive factors. However in there are two main factors in traditional time, the final tone has gradually become Turkish music that coincide with the the only factor to determine the place- observations of Cox (1991) and reinforce ments of the makams. Thus, it is under- the meaning of the makam word. The stood that the ending locations of the first is the states/positions of the perdes melodies are also the keys to determine (frets) on the neck of the fretted instru- the place of a makam in traditional ments such as , or bağlama. fret/tone system. In the 15th century Because of frets, each makam has a defi- Turkish sources on music theory, there nite ‘place/location’ on instruments. are some special expressions used for the That’s why makam has the same mean- ending such as karar, karargah, mahatt, ing with the position especially for the and so on. But karar is the most common instrument players. It always means use among them in those sources. Karar ‘string – fret – finger’. It is necessary to literally means ‘to decide’ or ‘making a remember here that the term used to decision’. In addition, particularly in the classify melody styles was perde (Persian 15th century musical writings, it’s note- pardeh) before the 14th century when the worthy that some expressions like ‘to concept of makam began to become rest’, ‘to come and sit’, ‘to arrive and rest’ widespread (Dzhumajev, 1992). Famous are used for ending. In this way, the con- theorist Abd al-Qadir al-Maragi expresses cept of karar is used synonymously with this relationship in a clarity that does not the expressions of ‘to stop’, ‘to stay’, ‘to need any interpretation: “musicians (or sit’ and ‘to rest’. As can be clearly seen, masters of music) use the twelve perdes karar is where the melody ‘ends’ or ‘rests’ for the twelve makams. The Arabs call or ‘sits and stays’ or ‘stops’. The close them as shudud and give also special relationship between makam and karar names to each one” (Sezikli 2007, 170). It should also be noted here that the 12th

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Öztürk | 1773

(ending) enabled the development of a (Powers 1988, 199). In addition to these, new theoretical paradigm. it’s known that there are two different conceptions, ‘modal’ and ‘tonal’, in There are differences between theoretical Western music history (Wienpahl 1971; and practical aspects of makam concept Powers 1981). in today’s Turkey. While the concepts of interval and scale are the keys in ‘west- Inspired by these categorizations I dis- ernized’ theoretical side of the makam, cuss the concept of makam here, in fret/tone, tune/melody and terms of two different approaches. Thus course/motion are effective for the prac- two basic concepts that I have used here, tical and historical side of it. Also very symbolize two different music worlds well known, being one of the basic issues ‘theoretically’: (i.) Scale-oriented ap- in traditional Turkish music, the makam proach, (ii.) Melody-oriented approach. has also become a point of a growing Of these, while the scale-oriented one interest in the international area (Aoyagi typically represents to Western harmonic 2001; Ederer, 2011; Feldman 1996; tonality theory, melody-oriented one Signell 1977, 2002, 2008; Stubbs 1994; symbolizes the theory of makam of ‘tra- Wright 1990, 1992, 2000). Therefore the ditional’ Ottoman and Turkish music. ICTM (International Council for Tradi- Scale-oriented approach is a product of tional Music) has a special Study Group, Western-oriented theorists who under- which completely focused on this issue took the task of modernizing ‘Turkish (Elsner 1989; Elsner and Jahnichen 1992, music’ in guidance of ‘positive (Europe- 2006, 2008; Elsner and Pennanen 1997; an) science’. According to them, the Elsner, Janichen and Talam, 2014; Elsner, makam was essentially nothing more Janichen and Güray, 2016; Powers 1988). than an octave-scale loaded with har- The concept of makam still retains being monic tonal functions, as in Western the core subject and very controversial music theory. The keywords of this ap- issue particularly in music theory. proach are ‘interval, scale, octave, major, minor, , pentachords, degree, Two worlds, two music theoretical tonic, dominant, subdominant, function, systems in music harmony’, and so on. The main source of the melody-oriented approach, which is According to Jeff T. Titon and Mark emphasized by the writer, is that of the Slobin, ‘music cultures’ can be under- traditional makam theory itself that has stood as different ‘music worlds’ (1992, been shaped since the 15th century in 1). One of the most effective pioneers of the Ottoman world and has given the the modernization of Turkish music, distinctive quality to Turkish music. Rauf Yekta, penned an article on Turkish This approach, which refers to the tradi- music for the famous French encyclope- tion itself and which has the goal to un- dia Lavignac in 1913 (published in 1922) derstand it better, is based on the multi- and referred: “If any musicologist of our faceted relations between frets, tunings, time wanders to investigate the civilized tunes/melodies and the makam concept. countries and music of various nations, The keywords of this approach are perde the existence of two main types of music (fret/tone/note), nağme (tune/melodic will be observed: 1. Western music that motive), düzen (tuning, adjustment) ağaz is called European music, 2. Eastern mu- (initial), karar (final), seyir [course (me- sic” (1986, 17). Co Chair of the ICTM lodic movement or progression)], and so Study Group on Maqam, Prof. Dr. Elsner on. The written sources of the Turkish uses the expression of the ‘maqam-world’ music, its living repertoire and the tradi- for cultures that use the makam concept

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Rast Müzikoloji Dergisi, 2018: 6(1) | 1774 tional performance practices; all of them are the followings: (i.) the main concept, are the main components of this ap- (ii.) explanation style, (iii.) classificatory proach. categories, and (iv.) terminology. In the light of these criteria he determined that The makam concept and shifting four different theoretical models in the paradigms in Turkey history of makam theory have been de- veloped up to now. It is seen that the Thomas Kuhn dealt with the concept of basic concepts that the models depend on paradigm with his famous work Struc- are (i.) cycle/circle, (ii.) makam, (iii.) tures of Scientific Revolutions (1970), makam and course/motion, and (iv.) and explained it as the prevailing view of harmonic tonal scale and course/motion. science between the scientific communi- While the first and fourth models are ties in certain periods. In terms of infor- scale-oriented, the second and third ones mation, paradigm is a set of the princi- are melody-oriented. In the second mod- ples, rules, explanations, applications and el, esoteric symbolism is valid, while in even the beliefs that are believed to be the third, composition and work are the valid in a certain period. Therefore para- forefront. So the second model aims to digms change in time. He separates the describe and to classify the existing mel- paradigm changes into three stages: the odies, while the other has become as a stage of normal science, the stage of cri- guide for the works to be composed. sis and the emergence a new paradigm. If ‘valid’ or ‘existing’ paradigm enters into It has experienced radically interventions the crisis, scientific communities tend to during the Turkish music modernization seek a new paradigm (Kuhn 1970, 84-85, in the field of traditional makam theory. 90-91). It is a fact that there are different theoret- ical models in the history of the concept Because it is an ‘art’ based on perfor- of makam in Turkey. It is possible to mance, there is no obligation to make investigate these models under three music with ‘only’ theoretical knowledge. main headings: It can be made in a perfect way also without knowing any theory at all. Mu- Pre-Modernization era: Historical sic theory is an epistemological field in makam conception (from 15th century which definition, information, explana- until the first quarter of 19th century) tion and classification activities are val- Pre-Ottoman time id. It is a priority issue only for those Ottoman sources began to emerge by the who want to know and explain what 15th century. In these sources, which happening in music is and what the ele- developed within ‘tradition’, different ments of music are. For this reason, it is approaches/models are seen to be salient possible to understand those who work in dealing with the makam concept. in the field of music theory as a kind of Those manuscripts are basically the ones scientific community in the sense that who referred to the ‘Systematist School’ Kuhn means. developed in Islamic culture. Safi al-Din We can clearly see that theorists have al-Urmawi is considered as the founder adhered to different theoretical models of this school (Wright 1978). However in when we turn to the sources that illumi- the source of knowledge represented by nate the history of the makam theory. It the school located a deep-rooted tradition is actually possible to identify those starting with al-Kindi’s translations from models through four basic criteria. Ac- Greek to Arabic in 9th century (Shehadi cording to Öztürk (2014c), those criteria 1995, 20, 40). So that, the traces of this

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Öztürk | 1775 tradition can be seen in the Ottoman ter. The melodic fourth and fifth inter- world, up to the end of 15th century vals, which constitute the sub-segments (Farmer 1986; Can 1993, 2001). The vari- of the theory are combined in various ous works which belong to Al-Kındi, Al- ways to form the circles. At this point, Pharabius, Brethren of Purity and Avi- most of the circles denote not the ‘real’ cenna, formed the basis of this school. tone clusters used in music practice, but Safi al-Din al-Urmawi, Qutb al-Din al- the ‘probable tones’ obtained through a Shirazi and Abd al-Qadir al-Maragi be- cognitive process. The key concepts of came the leading representatives of this the circle paradigm are ‘octave divisions’, tradition in Islamic world. When this interval, genus, circle, consonance and tradition is approached from the perspec- dissonance. However, it is seen that most tive of concepts which provide sound of these concepts either do not exist or organization, the mere concepts of the were subject to change in content of paradigm are observed as circle (daire) makam theory. and cycle (devir). Circles are symbolic Theory Treatises: and speculative signs which are based on Ottoman manuscripts are basically the ‘interval ratios’ and ‘numerical harmony ones, which reflect the multi-cultural or concordance’. The theory of circle, inheritance of the empire although they with its basic principles and symbolic made references to the prominent au- features seems to be an extension of old thors of the Systematist School. Hence, belief systems like Hermetic and Pythag- the 15th and 16th centuries present im- orean tradition in Islamic culture portant diversifications from the previ- (Öztürk 2012a, 2014a, 2014b, 2014c). ous traditions as far as the makam theory Some theoretical topics (the division of was concerned. With a highly functional octave, the formation of ‘two-octave- distinction made by Al-Ladiqi Mehmed system’, genus, consonance and disso- at the end of the 15th century, I find ap- nance criteria, and so on) are the main propriate to diverge the sources of this components of this paradigm. Cycles are era into two distinctive groups with re- the products of cosmo-chrono- spect to contents, which are salient in naturalistic symbolism of Pythagorean their theoretical orientations. The first tradition (Godwin 1993). Cycle is a se- one is ‘the masters of science’ group, quence based on ‘intervals’ and ‘conso- whose octave calculations and intervals nance’; it is not identical with the con- were based on Pythagorean theory ception of makam. In this paradigm, (Öztürk 2008; Tura 1988). The second music is considered together with arith- group is the ‘masters of art/practice’, metic, geometry and astronomy as quad- which explain the makams as fret rivium, four fundamental sciences of (perde), fret/tone system, tuning (düzen) Pythagoreans. For this reason, in the tra- and ‘melodic motion manner’ dition of the Systematist School, cycles (seyir/reviş/eda). The term makam of are the representative of the network of which the first usage was seen in Abd al- relationships. Circle not only symbolizes Qadir al-Maragi is one of the basic terms ‘celestial bodies’, but also a geometric of Ottoman sources in these centuries. surface, the cycling character of sounds, Al-Ladiqi, who was one the last repre- arrangement of intervals in an order, the sentatives of the Systematist School tra- journey of the human soul and the ‘stars’ dition in the Ottoman world and who which are formed by the true combina- exploited Safi al-Din and Abd al-Qadir’s tion of parts of consonant intervals. The works use the ‘circle’ and ‘cycle’ terms theory of circle, with its utmost symbol- together. Makam, in the works of this ism, basically carries a modular charac-

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Rast Müzikoloji Dergisi, 2018: 6(1) | 1776 period, was described as starting from a to the multi-cultural aspect of Ottoman certain initial tone (ağaz), wandering world and gives the impression that around the other frets of a tuning (seyir) these sources carry some other influ- and finally ending in a certain final tone ences. Within this frame, the similarity (karar). In other words, Ottoman sources between Hızır bin Abdullah’s four-fret preferred a different paradigm focused on based explanation style and ‘enchiriadis’, the ‘manner/mode of the melodic mo- which reflects the Byzantine church tion’ (Öztürk 2014c, 2015b, 2016a, practice are remarkable (Öztürk 2012a, 2016b). In the sources written by ‘the 2014a, 2014b). The main terms of this era masters of art/practice’, such as Kırşehirli is makam (melodic manner/mode), terkib Yusuf’s Risale-i Musiki [1411?], Bedri (compound melodic manner/mode), Dilşad’s Muradname [1426], Hızır bin avaze (voice/tone), şube (branch), perde Abdullah’s Kitabü’l-Edvar [1440], (fret/note/tone), düzen (tuning), nağme Kadızade Tirevi’s Risale-i Musiki [1492] (tune, melody), ağaz/mahrec (initial), and Seydi’s Matla [1504], makams were seyir/reviş (motion/progression/walking), clearly separated from the mathematical karar/mahatt (final), nerm (low, Lat. du- and speculative aspects of Pythagorean- rus), tiz (high, Lat. molle), and so on. As based the Systematist tradition. Howev- seen, sources of this century have a dif- er, it is also stated that these writers con- ferentiated paradigm from the previous tinue to adhere to the 'four element' era. symbolism. (Can 2002; Öztürk 2012a, Renewal of the Tradition: 2014a, 2014b). Few in number though, An important change in the paradigm Al-Ladiqi Mehmed, Fethullah Şirvani and concerning makam was fulfilled in the Alişah bin Hacı Büke tried to be in line 18th century by the modernizing works of with the principles and the content of Kantemiroğlu and Abdülbaki Nasır Dede. Systematist school tradition. In addition, What these works shared in common in these sources the concept of ‘ethos’ was that they did come out with a new which was transmitted from ancient classification, term and explanations Greek to Ottomans via Islamic culture concerning makam. Final tone is thought was seen important as the makam prac- to lie in the centre of this paradigm. tice is concerned: which makam is to be Analyses and explanations of makams used at which hour of the day; which are placed in a ‘final tone-centered’ makam suits to certain hues of skin in frame. These sources went on explaining human; which makam should be used for makams in a ‘motion/course-oriented’ what kind of characters in human; which manner. Here, makam is related with makam is to cure which illnesses are all ‘tune/melody’ and ‘melodic motion’. typical topics of makam and ethos rela- tionship (Can 2002). Such musicoteraphy To illustrate, Kantemiroğlu (2001) di- contexts were still seen in the works of vides makams into two; müfred (main or court doctor, Gevrekzade Mehmed independent) and mürekkeb (compound). Efendi in 18th century and in Haşim Bey In addition to these, he establishes sub- in 19th century. In the works of Kırşehirli categories over final tone, fret character- Yusuf and Hızır bin Abdullah, the way istics (complete or incomplete frets) and the makams are handled and conveyed the position in the system (makams of makes them distinguished among the the lower tones, makams of the higher other names mentioned above. Especially tones, and makams of the incomplete the , as they mentioned frets (in ascending and in descending, and ‘yekgah, dügah, segah, and çargah’ so on). While explaining the makams, he (‘prime, second, third, and fourth’) point gives different ‘routes’. He used some

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Öztürk | 1777 explanatory terms such as kutb (center), Developing new makams and usuls, ağaz (initial), seyir (motion), temam composing new compound melodies, perde (main/complete tone), nim perde making more modulations in musical (half/incomplete tone), karar verme (rest works have been the dominant feature of on), istirahat etme (resting), çıkma (as- this period. It can be seen that the con- cending), inme (descending), hükm cept of seyir (melodic course/progression) (range), tabiyet (subjection). The way he in this period has completely meant transmits the knowledge is completely strategies to compose new musical works changed into dealing with and explaining (Öztürk 2014c, 2017). Therefore, from terms, though it sometimes reuse various the 18th century onwards, the concept of terms of former periods (Feldman 1996; seyir itself has begun to be understood as Kantemiroğlu 2001; Popescu-Judetz 1999; a potential ‘generative’ issue in terms of Wright 1992, 2000). composition. Stubbs makes the following assessment for the concept of seyir, based Abdülbaki Nasır Dede (1794) directly on his own learning experience: “Accord- defines makam as ‘melody’ (lahn). His ing to the way I observe this term used definition has probably been one of the by my teachers, seyir is the self- most satisfying and meaningful descrip- generative principle of makam that tions made throughout the history of comes into play during improvisation makam theory. His makam conception (and also in other types of composition)” must be regarded as one of the most sat- (1994, 117). isfying and meaningful statements made throughout the history of the theory: Transformations during westernization “Makam is melody that shows its own process (from the first quarter of 19th integrity when it is heard with its essen- century to present day) tial materials and can not also be likened The last era of Ottoman Empire to any other one” (1794 v. 8b; 2006, 34; In his article comparing Japan’s and Tur- Aksu 1988, 156-57). He claims that some key’s modernization periods, Karl Signell extra frets, which he called müzeyyen asks if the modernization is “the same as (ornamental), were necessary, since the Europeanization” and he gives that an- makams do not have adequate number of swer: “[…] musically speaking, moderni- frets (Başer 1996; Tura 2006). This asser- zation and Europeanization are not the tion is quite parallel with Kadızade’s de- same” (1976, 72, 88). As previously stat- scription of makam at the end of 15th ed, the efforts of modernization started in century (Öztürk 2014c, 2016a, 2018a). the last years of the 18th century and they Nasır Dede made discrimination between were transformed into an open European- makams and compounds (terkibat). He ization in the 19th century. Especially, in deliberately stated in some parts of his the proper sense the era of Sultan works that he used a new terminology on Abdülmecid had been an Europeaniza- language, terms and descriptions. Conse- tion era due to the attitudes of the Otto- quently, it is obvious that Nasır Dede has man dynasty. From the end of the nine- a maqam understanding, which is fo- teenth century, it is seen that in political cused on the melody, melodic features and ideological writings which criticizing and the manner of the melodic motion. the Ottoman lifestyle, European or West- In this period, it is clearly seen that the ern civilization have always been refer- field of composition passed the previous enced and exalted. theoretical knowledge; realizing and ex- In his article discussing the Western mu- periencing new applications gained more sic influences on non-Western cultures, importance in terms of innovation in art.

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Bruno Nettl defines Westernization like ther major nor minor, Haşim says (1864: “to become a part of the Western system 24): alafrangada... na mevcud ise de ... sol by adapting the basic characteristics of minor ta’bir ederler. (Although it does Western music” (1986, 366). In this re- not exist in Western music it is ex- gard, it is possible to see the 19th century pressed as G minor.)”. As it can be seen, as a different paradigm during which theory, knowledge, concept, terminology European music gained a central place and rule importation was also started and comparisons were made between while European notation became wide- tonality and makams. The attempts of spread. In terms of traditional musicians to Europeanize the this centralization gradually shows pro- government and the elite, gave rise to the gress as a ‘process of becoming bi- European music to gain a central place musical’. among those people. Consequently, with Rauf Yekta defined makam as ‘a special the foundation of the Musıka-yı Hu- musical scale’. This definition became a mayun in 1826, a way was given to the pioneer for ‘the scale-oriented’ makam attempts that reinforce the interests to- conception (1986, 67). “Present-day theo- wards European music (Aksoy 1985). It is ry of Turkish is the result seen that in the ‘mecmua’ (also known as of collaboration by Yekta with the two ‘Haşim Bey Edvarı’) written by Haşim others, Ezgi and Arel” (Signell 1977, 7). Bey, who was graduated from that foun- As a ‘positivist scientific’ pioneer, Yekta dation and originally a traditional music lists the requirements for a makam as; (i.) composer, educator and performer, the the fourths and fifths, which are ‘consti- traditional makam definitions were tuting elements’, (ii.) range (he uses the compared with the tonalities of the Eu- term ambitus), (iii.) the initial, ‘domi- ropean music. nant’ and final tones, (iv.) seyir (melodic For this reason, Haşim Bey is a ground- progression), and (v.) tam karar (complete breaking in Turkish music history with ending). Like Haşim Bey, Yekta also that practice. This century also consti- compares Turkish makams with Western tutes the first base of the beginnings of examples. For instance, about Rast becoming widespread of European nota- makam he mentions “it is not something tion and theory, starting from court to- else other than European G major” (1986, wards musicians of . About that 69). Despite Yekta's leading role, it is topic Owen Wright makes those evalua- true that the handling of the makam tions (1990, 237): “In the nineteenth cen- theory with a completely ‘western- tury, when the concern was straightfor- centric’ understanding is achieved wardly to devise an appropriate form of through the cooperation of Ezgi and Arel. representation for Turkish makams in In this context, Wright’s assessment Western notation, problems of this na- seems to be quite right: “If there has ture did not arise. Instructive here is been one dominant, quasi-official theory Haşim Bey (1864), which does not itself for Turkish music in the second half of contain any music, but in which the the twentieth century, it is that particu- basic verbal description of each makam, larly associated with Ezgi and Arel” couched in traditional form, is supple- (1990, 224). mented by a definition of the key/mode Republican period signature for it in Western (alafranga) In Turkey, the republic was appeared in a notation. Rast is thus allotted G major, ‘nation-building’ frame as a ‘moderniza- while for a makam such as Neveser, the tion project’. If the development of that structure of which approximates to nei- process is observed from a musical per-

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Öztürk | 1779 spective, it can be seen that the moderni- semble, and so on. In addition, the in- zation ideal is built entirely on thoughts strumental virtuosity has been related to of Westernization (Aksoy 1997; Behar playing chords, arpeggios, chromatic pas- 2005; Can 2008). As a typical example, sages, ascending and descending scales Rauf Yekta gave the following expression and accompanying the melody with par- on the cover of his book, Turkish Music allel thirds and sixths. The makam Theory, published a year after the decla- choice was started according to its com- ration of the Republic: “According to the patibility with western temperament most recent methods of the science, it is system. Harmonic accompaniment has a theoretical and scientific work that become widespread. Melodic leaps with aims at specifying the theoretical rules third and fifth intervals which are not on which Turkish music is based on, and common in traditional melodic texture, that explains how these rules will be rather characterizing Western music; applied to the practice of our national chromatic progressions; tonal cadence music” (1924, front cover). With all his relations; knowing Western theory; 'scientific' confidence, he explains what learning notation; recognizing major and these rules are like: “[t]hese rules are minor tones; trying to learn and define [melodic] fourths and fifths, which has makams according to those structures. been completely unknown by our musi- All those indicated factors and many cians until now. In the books written other ones consists only some part of the under the name of theory, it has not effects of westernization to Turkish Mu- came acroos any topic related to those sic. formations which form the basis of mu- As noted by Signell: “With the passing of sic theory” (Yekta 1924, 48). , the Yekta-Ezgi-Arel era, theory has fallen one of the prominent modernists, did not into an almost somnolent state. Arel hesitate to accuse the ‘old’ Ottoman the- students and others have made a few orists of the makam conceptions that efforts to prolong the impetus and vigor they were entirely contrary to ‘science of those times, but the spark seems to be and logic’ (1933, 188). It is clear that the dying. If anyone is preparing a major con- positivist tendencies of ‘the modernizers’ tribution to current Turkish music theo- have, are the greatest obstacle in front of ry, it is a well-kept secret” (1977, 8). In their understanding of previous melody- fact, not only Arel but also nearly all of centered theories. It is also clear that the the pioneer Turkish music theorists of main priorities of ‘the modernizers’ were the Republican period could not avoid not to understand better the old theories. seeing the makam tradition with their On the contrary, they gave more im- ‘Western glasses’ (Tanrıkorur 1998). All portance to modernizing the makam of the theorists like Abdülkadir Töre, theory ‘without wasting time’. Ekrem Karadeniz, Mildan Niyazi Ayo- The primary effects and indicators of mak, Kemal İlerici, Şefik Gürmeriç, İs- modernization interventions for music mail Hakkı Özkan continued to consider outside the field of theory are: (i.) west- makam as a scale-oriented conception ern choir and orchestra practices have (Aksoy 1997; Öztürk 2006, 2014c). In been regarded as a model for traditional today’s context, this trend continues to music performances, (ii.) performances be existent among the efforts trying to with a conductor, (iii.) using western further westernize the Turkish music notation, (iv.) wearing ‘bow tie’ and theory (Yavuzoğlu 2008). ‘frock’, (v.) adding violin, cello, piano and Actually, if today’s theory is observed, it clarinet to traditional instrument en- can be seen that the theory has an eclec-

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Rast Müzikoloji Dergisi, 2018: 6(1) | 1780 tic structure. In this respect, it seems Therefore, makams are only definitive like a ‘patchwork’, which is constituted and classificatory elements for tunings by gathering different features of Turkish and tunes/melodies. As a cognitive ele- music and western music theories. For ment, each makam defines a different example, all of the tetrachords and pen- unique melodic motion man- tachords that develop the makam ‘scales’ ner/mode/behavior. In this context, of Arel theory were ‘chosen’ from the makam knowledge does not need restric- tradition of Safi Al-Din. The makam tive ranges such as melodic fourths, classification like basit (simple), bileşik fifths or . All melodic manners (compound) and şed (transposed) was have some centricities in tunings in mainly taken from Kantemiroğlu. The terms of their beginning and ending plac- thought of comparing makams with ma- es. Some makams show uni-centricity in jor and minor scales of the European mu- melodic sections, while others have dou- sic was taken from Haşim Bey. The con- ble. In tradition, the melodies, which tents and the language of the theory had have central notes more than two in been entirely taken from Europe. The formal sections, called as terkib (‘com- ‘subject titles’ of Arel theory, which is pound’ or ‘mixed’ tunes/melodies). All being used as today’s ‘quasi-official’ makams and terkibs are known by their Turkish music theory, are the concepts specific tunes and tunings. and terms like interval, tone, inversion, In his book Makam, Signell (1977) con- scale, function, tonic, dominant, sub- siders it in five components: 1. Stereo- dominant, sensible and modulation. typed melodies and sentences, 2. Main Recent trends and new approaches tonal centers, 3. Melodic direction, 4. Characteristic modulations, 5. Tessitura. One of the most important pioneers of In the ‘stereotyped melodies and sen- new trends is the eminent musicologist tences’ part he mentions that: “A local and composer, Yalçın Tura. His interest Turkish musician can usually recognize on the historical Turkish music sources the makam of a piece long time before pioneers the studies on that field. First of the final note is arrived, sometimes after all, Tura (1988) considerably criticized only a small introduction. It is seen that the inadequacies and obstructions of mainly this recognition process is direct- Arel’s paradigm. Aksoy (2000), Behar ly related to the system of stereotyped (1987, 2005), Tanrıkorur (1998), Signell melodies and sentences” (1977, 122). In (2008) and Wright (1990) are among those the studies he carries on with Münir N. who criticize Arel’s ‘frozen’ theory as Beken, Signell started to investigate well. The researches using ‘tradition’ as a makam and melody relationship in a reference point for a better understanding more detailed way in recent years of the makam, are made by scholars like (Signell 2008). He states that: “The Cenk Güray (2011), Cihat Can (1993, makam system is an open system but 2001, 2008), Emrah Hatipoğlu (2011), any fixed definition of a makam is a Öztürk (2008, 2010, 2012b, 2014c, 2016a, closed system. A scholar who looks at a 2018a), and Oya L. Yılmaz (2002). In par- fixed scale which purports to define a ticular, Öztürk (2014c, 2015c, 2016b, makam may find discrepancies between 2018a) offers and uses a new theoretical the abstract scale and performed music frame for the makam concept, namely in that makam” (2008, 185). Similarly, ‘Theory of Tunings and Tunes’. Accord- Öztürk (2014c) has concretely demon- ingly, tunings are some limited fret ad- strated in his doctoral dissertation that justments (or choices) and all kinds of the makam theory is, in the end, a spe- melodies are shaped in those tunings.

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Öztürk | 1781 cialized knowledge and practice on the man-Turkish music has a considerable concepts of perde (fret/tone) and nağme importance for world music history and (tune). The makam theory is the product culture. of a different epistemology that focuses Makam tradition has some predefined on the basic manner/mode of movement areas of freedom. Therefore a traditional of any melody. In this theory, the main musician has freedoms like: increasing or purpose is to explain the movement decreasing the number of frets utilized; manners of various melodies, which are changing the intonation of a fret/tone; formed in certain fret/pitch arrangements interpreting and using any makam in and tunings (düzenler), by specifying different forms; crossing the borders their starting, going and ending places drawn by known applications; inventing (frets). In this context, he insists on the new formulas for makams; finding me- important and extremely meaningful lodic inventions and innovations; to pro- difference between the fields of theory duce melodies lying out of the standard and composition in the case of the approach; being free and original in im- makam. provisation and melodic production; In recent years, academic studies about staying connected to a defined paradigm the historical sources of Turkish music or not. When all of these factors are con- are also increased in number. Most of sidered, it can be stated that the makam those historical sources are being trans- practice of Turkish music has a signifi- lated and published in the current Turk- cant effect on the construction of melo- ish. A series of publication under the dies. title ‘Adwars as Theoretical Sources of Conclusion Turkish Music’ has been prepared by a committee that I am still a member as The ‘quasi-official’ theory regarding well, within General Directorate of Fine makams used in today’s Turkish music is Arts (Ministry of Culture and Tourism). radically estranged from its traditional With this series, it will be possible to practice due to the westernization at- enlighten most of the unknowns about tempts activated under the heading of Ottoman-Turkish music culture beside modernization. But even within these to understand the tradition with a broad- circumstances, both the living musical er perspective. Moreover, with the indi- traditions and the knowledge transferred cated publication series a contribution by the written musical materials enlight- will be given to determining the charac- en the way to a better understanding of teristics of ‘common knowledge’ shared the makam concept. A total evaluation by Ancient Greek, Islam, Ottoman- of these sources puts forward the central Turkish, Medieval European, Iranian, position of the melody for the makam Indian and Arabic cultures. In addition to concept. those, sources written by Armenian and Greek musicians lived in Ottoman world To be identified the makam concept are also begun to appear (Behar 2005; needs original terms appropriate to its Pappas 1997, 2007; Popescu-Judetz 2000, character. In the traditional resources, 2002; Popescu-Judetz & Ababi-Sirli, some basic terms like perde (tone/fret), 2000). Those sources consider makam düzen (tuning), nağme (tune/melody), concept from their own cultural perspec- ağaz (initial), seyir (melodic progression) tive. For those reasons, I think that a and karar (final) had been used for defini- detailed research and publishing activity tions of makams in musical theory. In of historical sources belonging to Otto- the post-modern world of today, concen-

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Rast Müzikoloji Dergisi, 2018: 6(1) | 1782 trating on the concepts such as ‘tradition’ Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Türkiye and ‘meaning’ will have contributing Ansiklopedisi, C. 5, ed.ler Murat consequences in terms of the makam Belge ve Fahri Aral, 1212–1236. İs- theory. The first of these consequences tanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 1985. would gather around the discussions Aksoy, Bülent. “Towards the Definition about the main differences between the of the Makam.” In The Structure tonality-world and the makam-world. A and Idea of Maqam: Historical App- terminology based on the tonality-world roaches, 3rd Conference of the will have the potential of bringing mis- ICTM Maqam Study Group, edited conceptions and transforming effects to by Jürgen Elsner and Risto P. Penna- the makam-world. Therefore in this nen, 7–25. Tampere: University of study, some terms are particularly and Tampere, 1997. conscientiously used to be able to under- stand and explain the makam concept Aoyagi, Takahiro. “Maqam Rast: Inter- more efficiently. vallic Ordering, Pitch Hierarchy, Performance, and Perception of a The recent studies reveal that Turkey Melodic Mode in Arab Music.” PhD still possesses a rich material on the diss., University of California, 2001. makam concept, a live tradition for mu- sical performance and many valuable Arel, H. Saadettin. Türk Musikisi Naza- historical written sources carrying a re- riyatı Dersleri (1943–1948). ed.Onur markable terminology that can be uti- Akdoğu, Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı lized to functionally interpret the current Yayınları, 1993. musical practices. It can be easily seen Arslan, Faz l. Safiyüddin-i Urmevi ve that with the support of the researches ı erefiyye Risalesi. Ankara: Atatürk that should be carried out in this area, it Ş is possible to make critical additions to Kültür Merkezi Yayınları, 2007. and revitalizing the Turkish makam the- Atcherson, William T. “Theory Accom- ory. The traditional makam conception modates Practice: ‘Confinalis’ The- has been understood and improved on ory in Treati- the basis of the melody-oriented theories ses.” Journal of the American Musi- for centuries. As a conclusion, it is sug- cological Society, 23,no. 2 (1970): gested here that the traditional reputa- 326–330. tion, vitality, functionality and validity of the melodic motion-oriented concep- Ayangil, Ruhi. “21. Yüzyıl Eşiğinde Tür- tion of the makam theory should be re- kiye’de Mûsikî Kuramı Çalışmaları.” turned first and then further improved by Mûsikîşinas, 5 (2001): 72–80. reconsidering it. Ayangil, Ruhi. “Western Notation in References Turkish Music.” Journal of the Ro- yal Asiatic Society, 18, no. 4 (2008): 401–447. Abdülbâkî Nâsır Dede. Tedkik u Tahkîk. Nafiz Paşa Yazmaları, No: 1242, Sü- Bardakçı, Murat. Maragalı Abdülkadir. leymaniye Kütüphanesi, İstanbul, İstanbul: Pan Yayıncılık, 1986. 1794. Bardakçı, Murat. “Derviş Es-Seyyid Ahmad, Feroz. The Making of Modern Mehmet Emin’in Tanbur Perdeleri Turkey. New York: Routledge. Risâlesi.” Mûsikîşinas, 4 (2000): 6– 39. Aksoy, Bülent. “Tanzimat’tan Cumhuri- yet’e Musiki ve Batılılaşma.” İçinde

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