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Autophagy in Myelinating Glia

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Autophagy in Myelinating Glia 256 • The Journal of Neuroscience, January 8, 2020 • 40(2):256–266 Viewpoints Autophagy in Myelinating Glia Jillian Belgrad,1 XRaffaella De Pace,2 and R. Douglas Fields1 1Section on Nervous System Development and Plasticity and 2Section on Intracellular Protein Trafficking, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892 Autophagy is the cellular process involved in transportation and degradation of membrane, proteins, pathogens, and organelles. This fundamental cellular process is vital in development, plasticity, and response to disease and injury. Compared with neurons, little informationisavailableonautophagyinglia,butitisparamountforgliatoperformtheircriticalresponsestonervoussystemdiseaseand injury, including active tissue remodeling and phagocytosis. In myelinating glia, autophagy has expanded roles, particularly in phago- cytosis of mature myelin and in generating the vast amounts of membrane proteins and lipids that must be transported to form new myelin. Notably, autophagy plays important roles in removing excess cytoplasm to promote myelin compaction and development of oligodendrocytes, as well as in remyelination by Schwann cells after nerve trauma. This review summarizes the cell biology of autophagy, detailing the major pathways and proteins involved, as well as the roles of autophagy in Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes in develop- ment, plasticity, and diseases in which myelin is affected. This includes traumatic brain injury, Alexander’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, hypoxia, multiple sclerosis, hereditary spastic paraplegia, and others. Promising areas for future research are highlighted. Introduction While other reviews have described autophagy signaling in Autophagy, derived from the Greek words phagos meaning “eat” detail (Glick et al., 2010; Dikic and Elazar, 2018), our goal is to and auto meaning “self,” is an essential and conserved cellular synthesize mechanisms of autophagy in myelinating glia in the process that drives the capture and recycling of proteins, patho- CNS and PNS during lifelong development, plasticity, injury, and gens, and organelles, allowing their removal from the cytosol and disease. We first review the major components and interactions degradation in the lysosome (Levine and Klionsky, 2004; Eskeli- along the autophagy pathways. We then discuss studies that iden- nen and Saftig, 2009; Dikic and Elazar, 2018). Well characterized tify and manipulate autophagic processes in Schwann cells and in neurons (Lee, 2012; Wong and Holzbaur, 2015; Maday and oligodendrocytes across developmental and injury states. In do- Holzbaur, 2016; Menzies et al., 2017), autophagy in glial cells has ing so, we hope to underscore the crucial contribution that au- been much less studied. This is surprising, considering the im- tophagy plays in myelinating glia and how these new insights may portant involvement of autophagy in development, disease, and be targeted in therapies for neurological disease and injury. response to injury, and the essential functions of glia in these processes. Examples that will be discussed in this review include Autophagy process and pathways the new evidence of autophagy during oligodendrocyte develop- At least three forms of autophagy have been identified: (1) ment, in peripheral myelin compaction, and in facilitating myelin chaperone-mediated autophagy (Dice, 1990), which targets clearance after nerve injury. The functions of autophagy in my- unfolded cytosolic proteins with chaperone proteins and trans- elinating glia (Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes) are even less locates them through the lysosomal membrane; (2) micro- well known than for astrocytes and microglia, yet the formation autophagy (Marzella et al., 1981), in which the lysosomal of myelin membrane and removal of myelin debris after injury membrane undergoes local rearrangements to engulf portions of involve robust transport and recycling of proteins, membrane cytoplasm; and (3) macroautophagy (De Duve and Wattiaux, lipids, organelles; cytoskeletal and membrane remodeling; and 1966), which, through double-membrane organelles called endocytosis and exocytosis: processes in which autophagy is crit- phagosomes, engulfs cellular material that is degraded and recy- ical in other cells. This review summarizes current information cled. Microautophagy is induced by nitrogen starvation or rapa- on autophagy in myelinating glia in association with a wide range mycin treatment (Li et al., 2012) and can be selective or bulk of biological functions and in nervous system disorders, and it engulfment (Sahu et al., 2011). Microautophagy happens locally highlights promising areas for future research. on the surface of lysosomes and only involves a small portion of these organelles. This review focuses on macroautophagy, hence- forth referred to as autophagy. Macroautophagy (De Duve and Wattiaux, 1966) can be in- Received May 28, 2019; revised Oct. 17, 2019; accepted Nov. 8, 2019. duced by a number of signals (e.g., hypoxia, nutrient depletion, This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Intramural Research Grants ZIAHD000713-22 and cellular damage, production of oxygen reactive species). Follow- ZIAHD001607. We thank Dr. Juan S. Bonifacino for helpful discussion of the manuscript. ing induction, the cell starts to protrude double-membrane or- The authors declare no competing financial interests. Correspondence should be addressed to R. Douglas Fields at [email protected]. ganelles called phagosomes, to surround and engulf the material https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1066-19.2019 targeted for degradation. The origin of the cup-shaped double Copyright © 2020 the authors membrane is not well understood, and is still a matter of intense Belgrad et al. • Autophagy in Myelinating Glia J. Neurosci., January 8, 2020 • 40(2):256–266 • 257 Cargo 3 sequestration Lysosome Ub Ub Ub NBR1 4 hydrolases p62 and Ub proteases Ub Ub Fusion HOPS ATG5 ATG16L1 ATG7 ATG3 LC3B-I SNAREs ATG12 Autophagy initiation WIPI2 LC3B-II LC3B PE P E II - - I 3B I PE LC ULK1 2 Elongation complex PI3KC3 PI3P complex AP-4 ATG9 5 vesicles Omegasome Degradation mitochondrion and recycling 1 Nucleation recycling of nutrients endosomes Rough ER Membrane source Figure 1. Schematic representation of autophagic pathway. Cellular stress, such as amino acid starvation, targets the ULK1 complex, which then phosphorylates the PI3KC3. This triggers local phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate (PI3P) production and nucleation of the omegasome. PI3P effectors, such as WIPI2, are then recruited, and interact with the ATG-7-ATG12-ATG5-ATG16L1-ATG3 LC3B-conjugation system. This complex, through ATG3, mediates phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) lipidation of ATG8 family proteins (e.g., LC3B), enabling their recruitment to the phagophore membrane.Membranescontributingthephagophoreelongationcanhavedifferentcellularorigins,includingrecyclingendosomes,mitochondria,andATG9A-containingvesiclesexportedthrough AP-4.Inselectiveautophagy,lipidatedLC3B-IIiscriticalforsequestrationofcytosolicpoly-ubiquitylated(Ub)aggregatesthroughreceptors,suchasp62andNBR1.Thefusionofthemature,sealed, double-membrane autophagosome with lysosomes is mediated by SNARE and HOPS complex. Lysosomal hydrolases and proteases can then degrade the autophagic cargo and nutrients, making lipids and amino acids available for reuse in the cell. debate. Some recent in silico work proposes that the double mem- work done in eukaryotic cells shows that the outer membrane of brane is the result of progressive fusion of vesicles, followed by the mitochondria must be physically connected with the ER protein-mediated remodeling (Bahrami et al., 2017). However, during starvation to share phosphatidylethanolamine lipids with macroautophagy does not always involve double-membraned the nascent autophagosome and promote the lipidation of structures (Mijaljica and Devenish, 2013). microtubule-associated protein light chain 3B I(LC3B-I) to In most cells, basal levels of autophagy help maintain the in- LC3B-II (Hailey et al., 2010). The plasma membrane has also tegrity of intracellular organelles. However, autophagy is strongly been hypothesized to contribute to the formation of autophago- induced under starvation (Hosokawa et al., 2009; Kim et al., somes, involving the heavy chain of clathrin and ATG16L1 pro- 2011), hypoxia (Semenza, 2010), aging (Mizushima and Kom- tein (Ravikumar et al., 2010). The Golgi has also been suggested atsu, 2011), cancer (Galluzzi et al., 2015), and infection (Gomes as a possible independent donor of membrane forming autopha- and Dikic, 2014), reflecting a critical role of recycling membrane, gosomes (Geng et al., 2010; Ohashi and Munro, 2010). There is organelles, and macromolecules during these processes. Mac- strong scientific evidence for each these processes, and therefore roautophagy consists of five main steps: (1) initiation and nucle- it is possible that each of these compartments participates in the ation, (2) elongation of the nascent double membrane, (3) cargo formation of the autophagic membrane, depending on the con- sequestration, (4) fusion of the mature autophagosome with ly- dition or cell type. sosomes, and (5) recycling of nutrients (Dikic and Elazar, 2018). The autophagy-related (ATG) proteins, several of which have Following amino acid starvation, the unc-51 like autophagy- been identified and are encoded by different Atg genes (Dikic and activating kinase 1 (ULK1) forms a complex with ATG13,
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