Stassen et al. Environmental Health 2013, 12:46 http://www.ehjournal.net/content/12/1/46

RESEARCH Open Access Sensitizing events as trigger for discursive renewal and institutional change in ’ environmental health approach, 1970s-1990s Kristien R Stassen1*, Roel Smolders2 and Pieter Leroy3

Abstract Background: Sensitizing events may trigger and stimulate discursive renewal. From a discursive institutional perspective, changing discourses are the driving force behind the institutional dynamics of policy domains. Theoretically informed by discursive institutionalism, this article assesses the impact of a series of four sensitizing events that triggered serious environmental health concerns in Flanders between the 1970s till the 1990s, and led onto the gradual institutionalization of a Flemish environmental health arrangement. Methods: The Policy Arrangement Approach is used as the analytical framework to structure the empirical results of the historical analysis based on document analysis and in-depth interviews. Results: Until the 1990s, environmental health was characterized as an ad hoc policy field in Flanders, where agenda setting was based on sensitizing events – also referred to as incident-driven. Each of these events contributed to a gradual rethinking of the epistemological discourses about environmental health risks and uncertainties. These new discourses were the driving forces behind institutional dynamics as they gradually resulted in an increased need for: 1) long-term, policy-oriented, interdisciplinary environmental health research; 2) policy coordination and integration between the environmental and public health policy fields; and 3) new forms of science-policy interactions based on mutual learning. These changes are desirable in order to detect environmental health problems as fast as possible, to react immediately and communicate appropriately. Conclusions: The series of four events that triggered serious environmental health concerns in Flanders provided the opportunity to rethink and re-organize the current affairs concerning environmental health and gradually resulted into the institutionalization of a Flemish environmental health arrangement. Keywords: Discursive institutionalism, Environmental health incidents, Policy arrangement approach

Background environmental health discourse at the European level. Possible adverse health impacts of the deteriorating en- The main discourses relate to policy integration, stake- vironmental quality have been an issue since the early holder involvement, and children as a prioritized target days of environmental concern, as indicated in the Dec- group. As already concluded in our previous paper [1], laration of the United Nations Conference on the Hu- these novel discourses have greatly affected the European man Environment in 1972. In the late 1980s, the issue environmental health policy arrangement in terms of the regained attention by the Environment and Health establishment of new organizations, agreements, charters, Process for Europe, initiated by the World Health financial resources, and legislation. Yet, the implementa- Organization Europe (WHO-Europe). Its five-yearly tion of European discourses and agreements unfolded European Conferences on Environment and Health have rather slowly in , partly due to its internal com- played an important role in the agenda setting of the plexity. The Belgian State is characterized by a federal state composed of three Regions and three Communities * Correspondence: [email protected] 1HUB – Hogeschool-Universiteit Brussel, Centre for Corporate Sustainability, which have the authorities on environment and health Warmoesberg 26, Brussels 1000, Belgium prevention policies respectively. The previous study Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© 2013 Stassen et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Stassen et al. Environmental Health 2013, 12:46 Page 2 of 11 http://www.ehjournal.net/content/12/1/46

observed that local events that triggered serious environ- measures, practices, budgets, responsibilities, competen- mental health concerns seem to have induced institutional cies, and rules. change in Flanders, the northern region of Belgium. We Compared with the other theoretical perspectives within analyze their role in full detail in this paper, well aware of social sciences to study institutions - i.e., Rational Choice the role of international and European developments and Institutionalism, Historical Institutionalism, and Socio- of similar events in other countries and regions. logical Institutionalism [2] - discursive institutionalism The main objective of this contribution is to assess the im- emphasizes: 1) the important role of discourses in influen- pact of this series of four domestic events between the cing actors’ preferences, interests and behaviour [7]; and 1970s till the 1990s on the institutionalization of the Flemish 2) the role of these discourses in assuring institutional sta- environmental health arrangement, both scientifically and bility, while simultaneously triggering and legitimizing in- politically. Theoretically informed by discursive institutional- stitutional change [2]. Discursive institutionalism tends to ism, this article assumes that this series of events had grad- pay more attention to (a) the cognitive frames of agencies uallyshiftedtheenvironmental health discourses of rather than to their material interests; to (b) a more dy- politicians, scientists, and the population in general. These namic, agent-centred approach rather than to static and shifting discourses, in turn, triggered the institutional re- path-dependent patterns; and to (c) the dynamics of valu- newal of the scientific knowledge-production process as well ation and norm setting rather than with static ones [8,9]. as the environmental health policy arrangement, by inducing Related to the case study of Flanders, a discursive in- and introducing novel organizational facilities, new meth- stitutional perspective is taken into account. Our hy- odological tools, policy programmes, budgets, rules, etc. [2]. pothesis is that environmental health events can indeed This article structures as follows: the first section further induce discursive renewal, which in turn, can explain positions sensitizing events as a trigger to discursive changes in the institutionalization of the Flemish envir- renewal, and the impact of changing discourses on in- onmental health arrangement. stitutional dynamics. We briefly position discursive insti- tutionalism (DI) within recent policy analysis literature as Analytical framework: policy arrangement approach our paper fits the DI perspective. The second section de- In order to understand why discourses gain dominance picts the Policy Arrangement Approach (PAA) as an ap- while other understandings are discredited and to study propriate analytical framework to empirically analyze and the impact of these discourses on institutional dynamics, understand discursive shifts and institutional dynamics. the Policy Arrangement Approach (PAA) is identified as The third section accounts for our methodological an appropriate analytical framework. The PAA is devel- approach. The subsequent section then empirically eluci- oped to empirically analyze change and stability within dates the historical analysis of the aforementioned events policy arrangements [5] and tested in a series of research and their respective impacts on the environmental health endeavours in the environmental domain. discourse and the consequent institutional dynamics. The A policy arrangement is defined by Leroy and Arts [10] article concludes with a discussion of the main findings as: “The temporary stabilization of the content and and some suggestions for further research. organization of a particular policy domain at a certain pol- icy level.” These processes of temporary stabilizations are often referred to as “ongoing processes of institutiona- Theoretical background: sensitizing events and discursive lization” [11]. While studying institutional change (or the institutionalism lack thereof), the PAA distinguishes four interwoven di- As illustrated by Wiering and Arts [3], events that provoke mensions of any arrangement: (a) the actors and their coa- serious societal and political concerns (in their case: a litions involved in the policy domain, (b) the allocated near-flooding disaster in the Netherlands) can cause insti- resources and the differences in power that result from tutional renewal and shape the ideas and plans for future their distribution, (c) the formal and informal rules of the decision-making and risk management. Discourses are de- game, and (d) discourses. As such, the PAA aims to focus fined by Hajer and Versteeg [4] as, “an ensemble of ideas, on intentions, motives, discourses, beliefs of actors, formal concepts and categories through which meaning is given and informal regulatory roles and organizational struc- to social and physical phenomena.” Through interaction, tures, but also takes into account long-term processes that agencies exchange discourses, merge into discursive coali- characterize contemporary society. Each of these four di- tions or split-up into discursive oppositions, depending on mensions might be a trigger of change, while, equally, each shared or conflicting definitions, beliefs, concepts, as- of them might block such a change and preserve institu- sumptions, and ideas which can vary over time [5,6]. Dis- tional stability. As mentioned above, this paper focuses on courses gradually solidify into institutional arrangements the change-inducing roles of discourses caused by envir- when successful storylines, advocated by an influent dis- onmental health incidents on the institutionalization of course coalition, find their way into policy programmes, the Flemish environmental health arrangement. Stassen et al. Environmental Health 2013, 12:46 Page 3 of 11 http://www.ehjournal.net/content/12/1/46

Methods and events but also different stakeholders’ opinions and to It is out of scope to analyse all local Flemish environ- verify the historical description of each case. The newspa- mental health events that occurred between the 1970s pers are screened using Mediargus, an online press data- till the 1990s. Four cases were selected, which, according base covering all Flemish newspapers from 1988 onwards, to the interviewees and the results of the document ana- hence not covering the first two events as these date from lysis, caused serious environmental health concerns at some decades ago. This paper, however, does not intend to the societal, the scientific and the political level. These cover the entire history of these events, yet focuses on cases are related to: 1) lead pollution from metallurgic their impact in terms of changing discourses and institu- activities in Hoboken, 2) cadmium pollution due to zinc tional dynamics. A detailed overview of the consulted doc- smelters in the Northern Kempen, 3) the dioxin depos- uments is listed in Additional file 1. ition by two waste incinerators in Wilrijk, and dioxin The respondents are selected based on their role and contamination in the food chain (4). The first three cases background. Built on two axes, Figure 1 presents an represent human activities with long-term, negative side overview of the interviewees, either located in the scien- effects for the environment and human health. The tific or the political sphere, and engaged either in the en- fourth event was a short term, unintended ad hoc con- vironment or the health domain – with a few of them tamination of the food chain with potential immediate crossing the boundaries between these fields. Table 1 health effects. lists the function of each interviewee. All interviews are To determine how and to what extent each of these semi-structured. The interview guide is based on the re- events contributed to discursive changes and to investi- sults of the document analysis and the outcome of earl- gate their impact on the Flemish environmental health ier interviews. The questions relate to the agenda setting arrangement, we engaged in a thorough discourse ana- of environmental health in Flanders, the impact of differ- lysis. Data are gathered, analysed, and interpreted ent events, the role different actors played, the perceived according to a qualitative approach, and using a triangu- interaction between science and policy, changing dis- lation of methods. Triangulation refers to a well-thought courses about complexity and uncertainty, etc. combination of several research methodologies, here document analysis and in-depth interviews, in order to Results validate the findings through cross verification and to in- This section presents for each of the four events, two el- crease the credibility of the results. The document ana- ements: first, a summary of its history and its stakes; lysis gives some initial indications about historical second, an assessment of its impact on the environmen- developments and evolutions, key events, discourses, ac- tal health discourses and the institutionalization of the tors and formal rules of the game. This information is Flemish environmental health arrangement. used as an input for the in-depth interviews to ensure well-documented and focused preparations. The inter- Lead pollution from metallurgic activities views, in turn, are necessary to validate the information In 1887, a lead and de-silvering plant opened in Hoboken from the document analysis and to gain additional infor- to refine minerals and extract metals from waste. The mation as documents tend to only describe the reached complaints of some neighbours in the mid-1960s about compromises and rarely the nuanced information about the air and smell pollution and the large-scale destruction the discussion behind them, nor the informal rules of of honeybees could not force general public agitation and the game. As such, both methods are complementary political attention. The limited reaction can be explained and their combination (in social sciences: triangulation) by the dependency of the population on employment and is necessary in order to increase the credibility and valid- the priority the Ministry of Labour placed on employment ity of the results. instead of occupational health and safety. In the early A valid discourse analysis asks for a clear methodology 1970s, after the attributed death of six cows and two on how to select documents and interviewees. As to the horses to the lead contamination of the nearby non- former, primary and secondary sources are studied de- ferrous industry, the metallurgical industry was increas- pending on the date of incidence occurrence. For the ingly recognized as not only dangerous for occupationally events that occurred before 1985, primary sources are exposed people, but also for the people living in the neigh- scarcely available or difficult to access. These cases are bourhood [12]. However, there was no scientific proof yet analysed using secondary sources. Events after 1985 are about the possible adverse health effects. Pressured by primarily studied based on original research papers and local action committees and the media, a first small-scale (doctoral) dissertations. If available, policy documents, biomonitoring survey was done in 1974 with eleven-year legislations, annual reports, and advisory reports are also -old children. Based on the same research data, the scien- studied. Additionally, the Flemish newspapers are tists responsible for this biomonitoring survey set up a screened in order to identify important actors, measures, contradictory communication strategy. Regarding the local Stassen et al. Environmental Health 2013, 12:46 Page 4 of 11 http://www.ehjournal.net/content/12/1/46

Environment

Herman De Wel (CS) Theo Kelchtermans (P) Francis Noyen (CS) Vera Dua (P) Rudi Daems (CS)

Pierre Biot (CS) Luc Hens Ilse Loots Scientists Dominique Aerts (CS) Politicians (P) & Greet Schoeters Godfried Thiers (CS) civil servants (CS)

Dirk Wildemeersch (CS)

Vera Nelen

Nik Van Laerebeke Jan Staessen

Bob Vlietinck

Mieke Vogels (P) Wivina Demeester (P) Health Figure 1 Graphic overview of the positions and backgrounds of the interviewees. The interviewees are positioned in a two-axes matrix. The horizontal axis represents the duality between people originating from science or from the political sphere (including civil servants). The vertical axis distinguishes between the domains the interviewees originate from: environment or health. In either case, some respondents restrict to the position we plotted them on, whereas others deliberately cross the boundaries between the domains. authorities, they communicated there was no reason to measured concentration of lead in children’sblood panic because the exposure levels were lower than the ac- (30.1 μg/dl) was higher than the maximum biologically al- ceptable limits, while at the same time, they concluded in lowable concentration (25 μg/dl). Consequently, the local a peer-reviewed scientific journal [13] that children were a authority established a local medical experts’ group to re- more vulnerable group than adults and that the average view and reanalyse the earlier published studies. Based on its recommendations, a general biomonitoring screening Table 1 Overview of the functions of the interviewees of the local population every two years was set up. The Respondent Function first biomonitoring research results were much worse than Wivina Demeester Flemish Minister of Health, 1995-1999 expected: the average lead concentration in blood (34 μg/ – Theo Kelchtermans Flemish Minister of Environment, 1988 1992; 1995-1999 dl) greatly exceeded the maximum biologically allowable Mieke Vogels Flemish Minister of Health, 1999-2003 concentration. Furthermore, the assumption was made Vera Dua Flemish Minister of Environment, 1999-2003 that long-term lead exposure could cause negative cogni- Rudi Daems Principle Private Secretary of the Flemish Minister of tive effects, such as mental retardation. After the formal Environment, 1999-2003 confirmation of the lead pollution in Hoboken and the Pierre Biot Civil servant, Federal Public Service Health, Food Chain Safety and Environment revelation in the media, the Ministry of Public Health de- Bob Vlietinck Professor, Genetic Epidemiology veloped an action programme in 1978 in order to clean- up the contamination area. As part of the action Francis Noyen Environment and Nature Council of Flanders programme, biannual biomonitoring surveys of school-age Nik Van Larebeke Professor, Cancer Prevention children were set up and a ministerial working group was Jan Staessen Professor, Molecular and Cardiovascular Research established composed of experts and representatives of Dominique Aerts Civil servant, Flemish Environmental Administration, late 1990s the relevant ministries. The lead concentration in blood Dirk Wildemeersch Civil servant, Flemish Health Administration decreased gradually from an average of 40 μg/dl in 1978 Vera Nelen Provincial Institute for Hygiene of to 24.3 μg/dl in 1984. It is difficult, however, to determine Greet Schoeters Flemish Institute of Technological Research – human whether this reduction is the result of a good working ac- biomonitoring tion plan or of changing industrial production processes. Ilse Loots Professor, Environmental Sociology What lessons has one learned from the historical ana- Luc Hens Professor, Human Ecology lysis of the lead case? The lead pollution in Hoboken is a Herman De Wel Civil servant, Flemish Environmental Administration, typical example of a long-existing problem which be- 1980s-1990s came a risk event after the suspicious death of cattle, Godfried Thiers Manager, Scientific Institute of Public Health, 1980s-1990s supported by a chemical analysis of the lead content in Stassen et al. Environmental Health 2013, 12:46 Page 5 of 11 http://www.ehjournal.net/content/12/1/46

the deceased animals’ organs, the hay feed, and the soil [14]. As a consequence, a large-scale, cross-sectional epi- [12]. Although these research results did not confirm a demiological study was launched in de mid-1980s. The negative impact on public health, it was an early warn- main conclusions were that environmental exposure to ing, to say at least. In addition, this revelation dates from cadmium may induce renal tubular dysfunction but it the early 1970s, the era of rapidly growing environmen- could not be confirmed that increased cadmium expos- tal concern worldwide. As to the environmental health ure is related to blood pressure elevation and a higher discourse, two shifts are identified. First, through the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases [18]. Although the years, the complexity of the problem, the potential long- political impact of the study was limited, the study was term effects on health and well-being caused by the ac- at least scientifically innovating as a large-scale human cumulation of lead in the human body and the related biomonitoring screening was performed in a relatively scientific uncertainty had increasingly been recognized. wide region to quantify exposure of the general popula- As a consequence, there is a slowly growing appeal for a tion to an environmental contaminant. The cooperation more integrated approach. Second, one had been realizing between epidemiologists and biologists was considered that a norm based on the average cannot protect all as an added value in order to better assess the potential humans equally, as school-age children were assessed as a health impact of environmental pollutants [14]. more vulnerable group. These discursive shifts resulted in A follow-up research was undertaken in the early 1990s some preliminary actions in (1) the knowledge-production in order to investigate how exposure changes over time. process (i.e., state-owned research institutions on public Additional measurements were done related to bone me- health were authorized to scientifically investigate the tabolism and calcium homeostasis. The main finding health impact of lead contamination and set up small- stated that even at a low degree of environmental expos- scale follow-up biomonitoring research of school-age chil- ure, cadmium may promote skeletal demineralization [19]. dren every two years), (2) as well as in the environmental The local government was afraid that the land value would health policy arrangement (i.e., the establishment of an decrease and therefore minimised the results. Anticipating inter-ministerial working group at the Flemish govern- the clean-up operation of the polluted soil in the Northern mental level as a first step toward policy coordination), Kempen, the established two sensi and (3) the science-policy interface (i.e., the set-up of a tization campaigns in 1994 and 1999 advising the inhabi- medical experts’ group to advice local governments and tants to use tap water, to apply hand hygiene, and to re- industry based on scientific evidence). frain from eating locally grown vegetables. What lessons has one learned from the historical ana- Cadmium pollution due to zinc smelters lysis of the cadmium case? Similar to the lead case, the In the mid-twentieth century, Belgium was an important cadmium pollution is also characterized by a long-term producer of zinc. The zinc smelters in the Northern problem which evolved to a risk event in response to an Kempen and Liège had been emitting cadmium, as a by- increase of environmental concern worldwide. As to the product, into the atmosphere since 1888. In the 1970s, environmental health discourse, this event strengthened new technologies were used, resulting in a decrease of the idea that also long-term, low-dose exposure may the cadmium emission. However, as a consequence of affect human health. As to the knowledge-production the estimated elimination kinetics of cadmium in process, more large scale human biomonitoring surveys humans, residents in the affected areas were still suffer- were set up investigating the general population (and ing the historic cadmium pollution [14]. not only school-age children), in different areas that At the end of the 1970s, three scientific studies were were environmentally (and not occupationally) exposed performed in the Liège area in order to assess whether to cadmium. Moreover, people were followed over the cadmium pollution in the environment results in an in- years in order to investigate how exposure changes over creased uptake of cadmium in the human bodies and time and to determine possible long-term health effects. the development of health effects. Until that time, only Additionally, the cadmium case made it clear that epide- animal experiments were done. These three studies de- miologists, toxicologists and biologists have to cooperate termined higher levels of cadmium in blood and urine in in order to better assess the potential health impact of the contaminated area [15], a higher mortality rate for environmental pollutants. Although the lead case already renal diseases possibly influenced by environmental fac- made it clear that ministerial cooperation is necessary to tors [16], and higher accumulated cadmium levels in the solve environmental health problems, there is no indica- renal cortex and liver, notwithstanding differences in oc- tion of concerted action found in the cadmium case. It cupational exposure or smoking habits [17]. Neverthe- seems as if the fragmentation of competencies between less, the scientists communicated their results very different governmental levels and a tradition of strict de- carefully as all studies have been performed in the same marcation of ministers’ competencies in Belgium still area and there might be an unknown interfering factor hampered policy coordination. Stassen et al. Environmental Health 2013, 12:46 Page 6 of 11 http://www.ehjournal.net/content/12/1/46

Dioxin deposition by two waste incinerators raise the smokestack – was not an adequate solution to Since the 1970s, more and more municipal waste was in- this type of problems. Scientific controversy and uncer- cinerated causing air pollution. During the early years of tainty hampered the political and social debate. Since the incineration, these emissions were mostly not purified shortcomings of different, ad hoc, short-term disciplinary [20]. Despite the smell and dust nuisances, the general studies were recognized, one expressed the need for a sys- public was less concerned as long as the smokestacks tematic, integrated assessment approach by a multidiscip- were high enough. In contrast to the lead pollution in linary research team of environmental, technical and Hoboken, neighbours of incinerators apparently did not medical experts. Next to these, social and communication fear a land value decrease due to incineration. In 1997, scientists could help improving the communication strat- however, neighbours of the Wilrijk (Antwerp region) egies. In brief: one recognized the need for a better coord- waste incinerator suddenly became concerned about the ination of environmental and public health policies, toxic emissions of two municipal waste incinerators in acknowledged the added value of policy-oriented, interdis- their residential area. Strengthened by scientific journal- ciplinary research (teams), and the valuable contribution ists’ information, they started to link cancer, congenital of social and communication scientists. These lessons malformations and genetic anomalies to the emission of were a clear stimulus to take some first steps toward the dioxins by these incinerators. Initially, those complaints institutionalization of the Flemish environmental health were brushed aside by the local mayor, deferring to the policy arrangement: the establishment of complaint desks lack of scientific certainty. A scientific difficulty was that and the organization of scientific policy support. Both the region was surrounded by busy high ways, by non- were important measures to trace local worries as soon as ferrous industry and some other sources of environmen- possible and to manage them efficiently. tal pollution [21]. Under this societal pressure, the local government of Antwerp set up a health survey in the Dioxin contamination in the food chain residential area in 1995. The research team identified In January 1999, a mixture of polychlorinated biphenyls eight genetic anomalies, but was not able to determine (PCBs) and dioxins was unintentionally mixed with whether these malformations were a coincidence or recycled fats used for animal feeds in poultry, swine, and could be attributed to the incinerators. The local inhabi- cattle farms in Belgium resulting in a drop in egg produc- tants, local physicians, local environmental action tion, a reduction in egg hatchability, and an increased groups, and even scientists criticized the survey and mortality of chicks [24,25]. The scientific confirmation of expressed different, often conflicting opinions in the the cause of the dioxin contamination, however, was not media. Consequently, the then Flemish Minister of Pub- forthcoming until the end of April 1999 [25] as the trace lic Health financed two public health studies to deter- within the food chain was very difficult due to various il- mine whether there was a causal relationship between legal, and black market practices [26]. In May 1999, just a those health effects and dioxin pollution. The results of few weeks before the general elections, the contamination both studies [22,23] were questioned by other scientists was leaked to the media [27,28]. The large latency period and protest committees because of the many uncertain- between the first signs of the problem and informing the ties, the lack of statistical significance, the methodology public, the scientific controversy about the possible health used, and the way the results were communicated and consequences, and the uncertainty about the number of information was suppressed to prevent commotion. In- exposed individuals [26], triggered a major political and stead of an objective, univocal scientific advice, scientific food crisis. The media widely echoed complaints from the controversy ensued. In the meanwhile, and in order to society that the Belgian Government was serving the inter- temper public concern, the then Flemish Minister of the ests of farmers’ unions and the meat industry. In addition, Environment temporary closed down the incinerators politicians were accused of trying to protect their own in- which were exceeding the dioxin emission limit, a deci- terests, anticipating the general elections in June, instead sion referring to the Precautionary Principle. An inciner- of protecting public health [29,30]. In fact, and even ator could only restart its activities after the unanimous though no actual health effect could be determined, the permission of the Baeyens’ Committee, an independent events turned into a major political crisis and forced the scientific advisory board consisting of engineers and government to drastic measures. The Federal Ministers of medical experts [21]. However, the members of the com- Health and Agriculture were forced to resign; a massive mittee had different opinions about whether to close or international recall operation of eggs and chicken, start up the incinerators again. followed by almost all meat products took place [24], the What lessons has one learned from this case study? As slaughter and transport of poultry, cattle, and swine were to the environmental health discourse, one recognized prohibited [26]; an embargo was placed on all Belgian food novel threats, i.e., the unborn child and the fertility. One products of animal origin; and tons of eggs and meat also learned that a technical approach – for instance, to products were destroyed [30]. Although there was no Stassen et al. Environmental Health 2013, 12:46 Page 7 of 11 http://www.ehjournal.net/content/12/1/46

single health impact, the economic damage was enormous Finally, we reflect upon the theoretical and analytical and the political costs in terms of distrust were, if possible, concepts and the empirical research scope. This section even higher. also suggests some future research topics. The dioxin contamination in the food chain strongly influenced the elections of June 1999. The governmental Changing discourses on environmental health risks parties (the centre-left Christian-Democrat/Socialist co- Each of the four events reported on has demonstrated alition) lived an electoral defeat, while the opposition scientific knowledge gaps and scientific controversy parties (the Liberals and the Green Party) pulled votes. about the impact of environmental pollution on public The Green Party was associated with food safety, healthy health. A first explanation refers to the novelty of the and biological food and would join the newly formed environmental health discipline. Second, also the com- government 1999–2004. plexity of environmental health problems increases sci- Responding to the excessive public concern, the new entific uncertainty and ambiguity. After all, these Federal Government (a) appointed a crisis manager to co- problems are characterized by multiple sources, multiple ordinate governmental action, (b) established an inde- agents, multiple pathways, multiple exposure routes, pendent scientific committee, (c) integrated the Belgian multiple health effects, long delay periods between cause inspection services into one agency responsible for the and effect, cross-bordering scale effects, etc. A third whole food chain, and (d) launched a systematic monitor- contribution is linked with the interwoven character of ing programme for food of animal origin [26]. Together, environmental health problems in a larger context of these measures should detect possible food problems im- economic, financial, and social values resulting in a var- mediately, manage them efficiently, and communicate ap- iety of divergent problem definitions and risk perception. propriately about them [24]. For instance, in the lead case the inhabitants almost de- What lessons has one learned from this case study? nied health problems being afraid of losing their jobs Contrary to the three previous cases that dealt with rap- and decreasing the value of their houses, while, in con- idly upcoming concerns about a longer existing exposure trast, the people living in the neighbourhood of the to environmental pollution, the dioxin contamination in waste incinerators almost claimed health damage caused the food chain can be considered as a short-term, yet al- by the incineration activities. Moreover, the environmen- most instantly all-pervading concern. The latter was tal health discourse gradually shifted from mortality and fuelled in part by hush-hush policy response itself. severe health effects caused by a short-term, high-dose Moreover, the dioxin incident demonstrated that risk exposure to moderated health effects, negative effects on perception among the general public is not primarily well-being, the unborn child and fertility in response to driven by scientific evidence, yet strongly influenced by a long-term (low-dose) exposure (e.g., cognitive effects the media and socio-psychological factors. In line with in the case of lead exposure, osteoporosis as a result of the previous cases, the dioxin contamination again em- cadmium exposure, and congenital anomalies in children phasized the complexity of environmental health prob- living around the waste incinerator). Through the four lems and the need for integrated knowledge-production cases, a new discourse was shaped emphasizing the need and policy-making processes. And as the previous events to differentiate various target groups (school-age chil- it appealed for an organizational set up that could detect dren, foetuses and breastfed babies) and to differentiate problems and/or concerns as early as possible and that environmental quality standards as the average cannot could develop effective surveillance systems and com- protect all humans equally. munication strategies. Institutional challenges related to scientific knowledge Discussion production The central aim of this paper is to assess the extent to The discursive shift in response to scientific uncertainty which four local events that triggered serious environ- and controversy has influenced the institutional context mental health concerns have contributed to discursive of the knowledge-production process throughout the changes, which in turn, affected the institutionalization four cases. Moreover, the scope of environmental health process of the Flemish environmental health arrange- research has extended from one pollutant to complex ment. To this end, the discursive changes are firstly mixtures of pollutants and from the focus on one part of summarized and followed by their impact on: 1) the sci- the chain to the whole chain of causes and effects. As a entific organization and methodologies for knowledge consequence, the knowledge-production process re- production; 2) the relationship between science and pol- quires a more integrated approach at the organizational icy; and 3) the risk communication and risk manage- (interdisciplinary research teams) as well as methodo- ment strategies, including policy coordination between logical (integrated risk assessment) level. For instance, the environmental and public health policy fields. this series of events gradually illustrates the need for Stassen et al. 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continuously broadening the number of scientific disci- from different ministries and administrations, experts, plines which should be included in interdisciplinary re- local authorities, professionals and even local and na- search teams: from cooperation between toxicologists tional environmental groups were invited to participate, and epidemiologists to the appointment of biologists, illustrate that it was not sufficient anymore to only in- statisticians and engineers. Moreover, social scientists volve politicians and scientists to deal with this type of and communication experts were considered necessary complex problems. During the incinerator case, the Pre- to better understand risk perception and the social pro- cautionary Principle was applied in response to the chal- cesses and social responses related to this. This, in turn, lenges of scientific uncertainty. The dioxin crisis in the could help to set up more appropriate participatory and food chain, at last, indicated that the application of the integrative processes as well as to improve communica- Precautionary Principle in the case of complex problems tion processes. It must be noted, however, that the dis- is insufficient. After all, one can take drastic measures and cussion about integrated knowledge production is shut down a waste incinerator, but for a food chain it is (a) limited to a range of scientific disciplines. The need to far more difficult to detect the cause of contamination in include other types of expertise and knowledge, e.g. lay- such a complex chain, and (b) far more difficult to inter- knowledge as defined by Wynne [31], was not yet expli- vene as that should encroach deeply on social life. Refer- citly recognized at that time. At the methodological ring to Hoppe [34], first indications towards a Model of level, the four cases gradually demonstrate the increased Mutual Learning are identified. A broader interpretation recognition for integrated environmental health impact of stakeholder participation has been emphasized to assessment methods [32], taking into account the entire legitimize the knowledge-production as well as the cause-effect chain of environmental health problems. decision-making processes. Biomonitoring is recognized as a complementary, feas- ible research method next to epidemiology, toxicology, Communication and management of environmental and the measurement of pollutants in the environment. health risks Throughout the four cases, biomonitoring was used for The analysis of these events demonstrates how the de- an increasing number of pollutants, following-up the bate about uncertainty has evolved from an epistemo- same people across different time periods and a wider logical aspect, to a methodological question about how geographical research area. As a self-evident part of to scientifically deal with uncertainty, and finally to a these novel methodological developments, research pro- challenge for governments about how to manage and jects have been strongly driven by discussions about un- communicate uncertain environmental health risks. certainty. As such, the debate about uncertainties has Related to risk communication, all cases were charac- evolved from an epistemological aspect, to a methodo- terized by a lack of transparency by the governmental logical question about how to scientifically deal with un- authorities, although, the importance of communication certainties. To summarize, the epistemology and was already emphasized during the lead case in the methodology on environmental health problems have 1970s. Through the four cases, medical, environmental more characteristics of the Post-Normal Science epis- and technical scientists as well as politicians became temology, in which the quality of the knowledge produc- more aware of the importance of consulting social and tion process is as much important as the validity and communication scientists and to organize local informa- reliability of the knowledge itself [33]. tion meetings in order to present scientific information to the general public, explain them the significance and Science-policy interface meaning of the information, and listen to the concerns The changing epistemological discourses have also of the stakeholders. influenced the science-policy interface. Initially, the Gov- In order to effectively manage environmental health ernment established (technical) expert committees to problems, the quick succession of incidents illustrates an depoliticize the environmental health problems and to increased need for: 1) the establishment of an organi- legitimize political decisions. However, the complexity of zational structure in order to detect environmental health the problems challenged the Government to develop problems as fast as possible, and 2) policy coordination new strategies to deal with scientific uncertainty and to and integration between the environmental policy and legitimize the political decisions as scientists were not health policy fields (also called multi-sector governance). able to produce univocal conclusions in the short term. Related to the early detection of environmental health con- During the lead and cadmium crisis, the Belgian Gov- cerns, the first complaint desk was established after the in- ernment (mis)used scientific uncertainty to delay the cinerator incident, bridging the gap between the general decision-making process and pass over the problem in public and the Flemish authorities. In order to manage en- order to prevent panic. The establishments of multi- vironmental health problems effectively and efficiently, the disciplinary working groups, in which representatives results of the case study analysis emphasize the need to Stassen et al. Environmental Health 2013, 12:46 Page 9 of 11 http://www.ehjournal.net/content/12/1/46

better coordinate and integrate the efforts done by the dif- arrangement. Second, the approach examines the con- ferent administrations within the Flemish Ministry, more tent as well as the organizational structure, which both precisely between the Administration of Public Health and influence institutional stability or change. An alternative the Administration of the Environment by establishing analytical framework would have been the framework ministerial working groups. developed by Runhaar et al. [36,37] for characterizing, explaining, and evaluating environmental health risk Research scope governance regimes. The latter emphasizes the judicial The aim of this research paper was to focus on the im- approach, primarily focusing on the rules of the game pact of local events that triggered environmental health and on procedures. As such, the impact of discourses is concern on discursive dynamics and the institu- given less attention, while Hajer [7] and Scott [2] already tionalization of the Flemish environmental health elucidated the pivotal role of changing discourses in arrangement. Consequently, neither the mainstream de- explaining institutional dynamics. velopments in the international literature nor compar- The combination of content analysis of documents and able local events in neighbouring countries belong to its in-depth interviews with the main stakeholders resulted in scope. This does not imply that we regard these as ir- a detailed and balanced understanding of the impact of relevant: European Directives (e.g., on particulate mat- the series of environmental health events on discursive ter) have a clear impact on Flemish environmental change and institutional dynamics. The strength of this legislation. However, we believe that these four local data triangulation approach is its internal validity. Con- events have been necessary to set environmental health trary, the external validity of the research results is rather on the Flemish political, scientific and societal agenda. It limited. The results cannot be generalized either to other seems as if, through these events, Flanders went through regions and countries, or to other policy sectors. Com- the phases in risk thinking that one reports on in inter- parative historical analyses would be interesting for further national literature. The National Research Council, for research in order to provide a scientific contribution to instance, distinguished five steps: (1) getting the science the theoretical discussion on the role and impact of events right, (2) getting the right science, (3) getting the right on institutional dynamics. Moreover, a cross-regional/na- participation, (4) getting the participation right, and (5) tional analysis would increase mutual learning and provide developing accurate, balanced, and informative synthesis a more detailed study on the extent to which emerging [35]. Although not planned in advance, this comes very (inter)national discourses leads to changes in institutional close to what happened in Flanders as the results of the arrangements of other countries or regions. series of environmental health events. Conclusions Analytical and methodological reflection This study shows how environmental health problems The combination of a discursive institutionalism stance have shaped thinking, research, policies and the and a historical analysis based upon the Policy Arrange- institutionalization of the Flemish environmental health ment Approach enabled to study how environmental arrangement. The empirical analysis indicates that a series health problems have shaped thinking, research and pol- of events resulted in a gradual discursive shift, which in icies, leading onto the institutionalization of the environ- turn, affected the institutionalization of the Flemish envir- mental health arrangement. The role and impact of this onmental health arrangement. The major institutional type of events on institutional dynamics is underestimated challenge was to increase integrated environmental health in the scholarly literature. This paper gives an empirical knowledge production and decision making in order to contribution to this discussion and is important for under- systematically deal with complex and uncertain environ- standing and improving risk governance. Each analysed mental health problems. Integration at the epistemological event shows evidence of some sort of learning and know- and methodological level refers to (i) knowledge produc- ledge development because it opens the eyes and minds, tion in interdisciplinary research teams; (ii) the involve- while the accumulation of these events within a short time ment of social scientists and communication experts to period, shortly followed by elections, was necessary to better understand the social aspects related to environ- achieve institutional change. The fact that these incidents ment and health problems and, from there, to improve occurred within a short time period is of crucial import- participatory processes and communication strategies; (iii) ance, as the attention of the general public, media and appropriate problem framing by all stakeholders; (iv) the policymakers is likely to be quite short-lived. usage of integrated environmental health impact assess- For this type of research, the Policy Arrangement Ap- ment tools, taking into account serious environmental proach turned out to be a helpful analytical framework. health effects as well as negative effects on well-being, and First, the PAA allows the understanding and explanation differentiating between vulnerable groups; and (v) appro- of the development, change and continuity of a policy priate uncertainty management. All these characteristics Stassen et al. Environmental Health 2013, 12:46 Page 10 of 11 http://www.ehjournal.net/content/12/1/46

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doi:10.1186/1476-069X-12-46 Cite this article as: Stassen et al.: Sensitizing events as trigger for discursive renewal and institutional change in Flanders’ environmental health approach, 1970s-1990s. Environmental Health 2013 12:46.

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