Flood of 1954: The beginning of a developmental state Sharad Ghimire Graduate Student of Global Environmental Policy, School of International Service, American University, Washington, DC, USA
Editors Hari Dhungana-Coordinator Fraser Sugden
Copy-editing Gyanu Maskey
Layout and Design Manjari Graphics
©Southasia Institute of Advanced Studies E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.sias-southasia.org NEW Nepal Journal of Published by Social Science and Nepal Policy Research Network ANGLE Public Policy Available at www.nepalpolicynet.com December 2014, Vol. 3(1), pp. 5-48
FLOOD OF 1954: THE BEGINNING OF A DEVELOPMENTAL STATE Sharad Ghimire*
ABSTRACT
Development projects evolve with reference to particular framings of the need and imperatives of a developing country. Once development projects get legitimated in this way, the aid agencies deepen their presence to move in a direction of their choice. This is evident from an examination of the 1954 flood in Nepal which devastated a significant part of the hills and Tarai in the eastern, central and western areas. This paper looks into the disaster caused by that flood; into how the government of Nepal, the civil society and donors responded to it; and into the way the crisis stirred conflict and contestation among political parties within and outside the government. This paper is based primarily on the review of newspaper coverage around the flood, the political processes and the inauguration of development project in Nepal in the 1950s. It shows the extraordinary power of how the crisis caused by flood stirs up political contestation and helps legitimise actions of one or the other actor, including the donors. These insights on the power of a big disaster to command response from a wide range of domestic actors and donors help us question the largely technocratic framing of the ongoing debate around disaster risk reduction.
Key words: 1954 flood; development; disaster risk; Nepali politics INTRODUCTION Isaacson et al. (2001, p.9), Shrestha (1990, p.185), Mihaly (2002, p.80) This is a study of a flood in 1954. The and so on, but it has remained under event is important as it occurred during elaborated. Similarly, most literature on a particularly important time in Nepal’s natural hazards in Nepal have made only history. The incident is also covered in a cursory look at the incident, if any. The various literature of Nepal’s political flood occurred in a political context, which and development history, e.g. Joshi and L. S. Baral termed the ‘Apprenticeship in Rose (1966, p.118), Shaha (2001, p.310), Democracy’ (Baral, 2012) towards the end ______* Graduate Student of Global Environmental Policy, School of International Service, American University, Washington, DC, USA. E-mail: [email protected]. © Sharad Ghimire, 2014 5 New Angle: Nepal Journal of Social Science and Public Policy Vol. 3(1), December 2014 of the Tribhuvan era (1911-1950) and at involvement. However, subsequently the beginning of Mahendra’s era (1955- it created challenges to the already 1972) of a more assertive monarchy. eroding legitimacy of the incumbent Regarding its development context, the government, ultimately leading to a shift period also saw the beginning of foreign in power. Similarly it laid the foundation aid-led development in Nepal and the of approaching disasters from a top-down event also attracted foreign aid for relief process in Nepal. Since the flood occurred and recovery, particularly from the USA. at particular time in Nepal’s history, there This later became a basis for the larger was a massive institutional response from development projects in the Tarai. The the state for relief, rescue and recovery. incident is important in the history of Since there was no discussion among responding to disasters in Nepal as it is decision makers about preparedness the first flood which attained such a high and vulnerability of the people and no level of institutional response, particularly proposals for establishing any policy from the modernising state. This set a mechanism to deal with such incident in 2 precedent for the conceptualisation of and the future , that would come only after 3 dealing with natural disasters in Nepal. In three decades , the example shows how fact, it led to the first rehabilitation efforts disasters in Nepal were dealt with in the in Nepal (Dixit, 2003, p.173). This article early period. aims to look at some of these aspects of On the second claim, the crisis attracted Nepal’s history in detail. foreign aid particularly from the USA through the USOM (United States Primarily based on newspaper Operation Mission), which was then about (Gorakhapatra)1 coverage of the event to launch substantial development projects and other secondary literature, this paper around health and rural development. makes two modest claims. One is related The support to the flood crisis made some to the Nepali state’s approach to the basis for donors to carry out the project of crisis and its implications for future policy their interest in the future. However, these making on disasters as well as on domestic upcoming projects had to be linked with politics. The second one is related to the flood. The USAID-led Rapti project and implications for foreign-led development. Resettlement activities became important Related to the state’s approach upcoming development projects. Other involvement, the disaster was so massive development policies, for example the that it inevitably required the state’s agriculture policy, also emerged in the ______1 Gorakhapatra is the oldest national daily newspaper from Kathmandu, Nepal. It is published in Nepali language. It is owned by Gorkhapatra Sansthan. 2 However, in case of India the same flood (of 1954) led to a policy statement, launch of National Programme of Flood Management (Mohapatra and Singh, 2003, p.138). 3 The Natural Disaster Relief Act 1982.
6 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954 context of the flood, as was covered in a committee during the crisis situation. The report of the first agriculture convention government’s efforts were also extended of Nepal 2015 (1958) (Dahal, 1997, p.152). to the district level. This paper also has a section on responses from monarchy, This paper is divided into following which was late to respond but ended sections: first it gives a picture of the forming a relief fund through yet another flood and the extent of its impact in institution. different parts of the country as covered in Gorakhapatra and few other sources. Towards the end of the paper is a Then it goes in detail about what responses discussion on how the crisis was responded were made, for immediate relief and to by the international community, rescue, from governmental agencies particularly by Nepal’s top donors, viz., (including ministries, departments, other India and USA. As hinted above, the USA’s offices and the newly formed committee response was more important since it as well as the Advisory Assembly), other also created the basis for upcoming and non-government agencies, and political bigger development projects. The USA parties and from countries like India and also formed another institution, a joint USA. disaster relief agency. Therefore, all the At the domestic level, responses were main actors of that time, government, the made from different institutions at AA, monarchy and donors approached the different levels, with many overlaps among flood by establishing one after the other them. The response from the Advisory institution to manage the relief operation. Assembly (AA) in its daily proceedings as Therefore, the approach to the 1954 flood well as through its members is particularly was mainly limited to dealing with post- important, especially to understand how disaster relief through a certain type of high the response was debated at the policy level institutions. It does not mean that making level, which ended up forming a there were no local level initiatives, but as committee, that was not long-lasting, and the paper reveals, the non-governmental was replaced by another committee in the and local level responses were either next session. However, its speaker and severely limited or were just outgrowths other members were active in making trips of central level institutions. However, this to different districts after the first session part may require further investigation. of AA (August 17) until the next session Based on these findings, the paper argues started (November 17).4 Responses from that the response to 1954 flood in Nepal the other government bodies were also actually led to the current dominant very important since they acted to make approach namely what Dixit (2003, p.166) the state conspicuous through another called the hazard-led top-down approach, ______4 A new committee was formed by sidelining the speaker not only from the committee, but also from the ruling party of PM who chaired the second committee.
7 New Angle: Nepal Journal of Social Science and Public Policy Vol. 3(1), December 2014 totally focused on post-disaster relief obtain the extent of the rainfall during distribution.5 Next, this paper argues that that time in all affected areas. However, it also contributed to the justification as measured inside the Kathmandu valley, for the upcoming bigger development the rainfall was more than 6 inches (152 projects under foreign aid. Similarly, the mm) per day on average during these 4 response also made it necessary for the days. There were also news reports about government, policy-making bodies and the damage caused by the rainfall and the other leaders to become engaged in subsequent flood in Gorakhapatra. Since providing relief. However, the response no specific report about the impact of the also ended by posing challenges to the flood could be located (except in a foreign then political arrangement. aid document), the following show a picture of the impact based on newspaper THE INCIDENCE OF coverage. THE FLOOD AND ITS IMPACT Inside the Kathmandu valley, the Bagmati river flooded, as did all its tributaries. A flood occurred in Nepal in July 1954. It The flood damaged roads, houses was caused by heavy rainfall from 24-28 and croplands and claimed few lives. July in the central and eastern part of the A government team reported on the country. However, there was also a second specific cases of destruction on 1 August round of heavy rainfall in central Nepal, in when it went for observation trips right the valley, East No 1 and 2 and the Central after the incident. Regarding the damage Tarai, exactly one month after the first by the flood inside the valley, based on a incidence. The first round of the downpour news report of 16 August, the road from claimed hundreds of lives and caused Kathmandu to Sankhu deteriorated to extensive damage to infrastructures and such an extent that it was difficult even crops (Shaha, 2001, p.310). The flood for walking and impossible for motor created havoc in the central and eastern transportation. It seems that the flood hills and Tarai, particularly in and around had affected more adversely the area from Kathmandu valley (for example east and Chabahil to Boudda, as well as Gokarna, west no 1 and 2 districts), Bhimphedi Sundarijal and Sankhu. These parts of (Chisapanigadhi district at that time) and the valley used to supply firewood, grains Birgunj-Rautahat in central Nepal as well and other agri-products to the city. The as Biratnagar, Dharan, Dhankuta and deterioration in transportation affected Jhapa in eastern Nepal. It is very hard to the supply of these items to the city. ______5 Dixit (2003, p.166) distinguishes a ‘hazard-led approach’ to disasters, which focuses onthe physical event and considers that disasters are inherent characteristics of natural hazards, from an ‘alternative approach’ that pays attention to socio-economic structures and political processes beside the natural hazard. The first approach, as in 1954, focused on relief and technological measures to alleviate flood (Dixit 2003, p.168).
8 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954
Details of the damage outside the valley 1954) and mainly through the various with specific details were absent in field observation trips of local government the newspapers except from one from officials as well as central level and local the central hill region: from Thankot to level flood relief committees. Bhimphedi, Dhursing and Bhainse area. Damage in the eastern hills also extended The damage was reported by Bhakta to Ilam, from where a delegation team Bahadur Amatya, a government official, arrived in Kathmandu on 16 August. who was sent for assessment right after The team came to the valley to inform the incident on 31 August. He reported it in high level officials and ministers about his field-based account that was published the extent of flood destruction in the in a supplementary issue of Gorakhapatra region along with other local issues such on September 3. According to him, there as establishing a high school in Ilam and was extensive destruction of lives and problems created by the exchange rate properties in the central hill region area. between Nepali rupees and Indian rupees. As this area was heavily affected, the In the eastern hills, the flood occurred in contact of the valley with other regions the Rewati and Tamor rivers in Dhankuta. through this area was seriously disturbed. Besides Dhankuta, rainfall also affected All means of transportation from the valley Dharan and Biratnagar. Drinking water to the southern plains, particularly the facilities were also seriously affected in road from the valley to Bhimphedi, then Dharan and Dhankuta. to Amlekhganj, railway from Amlekhganj to Raxaul and the ropeway from the valley Apart from the eastern hills, the western to Dhursing6, were seriously damaged. hills were also affected, such as the There was destruction of a large amount West No1 and 2, Dhading and Nuwakot of goods stocked at Dhursing (the ropeway and Gorkha. In those areas damages terminus). Destruction also occurred in occurred to croplands, roads and bridges. private and public houses in all areas For example, according to news reports including in the southern border city of that came only in the middle of August Birgunj, where the rainfall was reportedly from the Trishuli section of Paropakar (a the highest in the preceding 32 years. philanthropic organisation), nine people were killed in a landslide that occurred in There were also news reports about a village just above Harkapur. The same damage in the eastern hills, in East no news reports further informed that 3 1 and 2, Sindhupalchowk, Dolakha, people were killed in a village named Ramechhap, Sindhuli up to Bhojpur, Katunje Torke in West No 1, where Dhankuta and Illam. These news reports, cropland was also washed away. Similarly however, came very late (only from late at least 14 households were displaced August and September to November from Jhiltung when a landslide damaged ______6 It is a village near the road head town of Bhimphedi about in Makawanpur district.
9 New Angle: Nepal Journal of Social Science and Public Policy Vol. 3(1), December 2014 their homes. Therefore, besides the bed over the others to keep them dry. central and eastern Tarai, the eastern, During the 7-year food shortage period, central and western hill regions were also the richer households bought food affected by the floods and landslides in from local and regional markets while July-August, 1954. In Gorkha area, rivers the poor households migrated to India such as the Marsyangdi and Chepe, had and neighbouring villages in search of flooded, causing extensive damage. menial jobs. The remittance money they earned helped sustenance. The most affected area was the central Tarai, particularly Bara, Parsa, Rautahat, In the eastern Tarai, floods also occurred Sarlahi and Mahottari. The flood had hit in Jhapa, particularly in the Mechi river Rautahat the worst, particularly due to and other rivers. A news report published the increased flow in the Bagmati river. on 11 August informed readers that the Therefore, flood victims of those areas, continuous heavy rain for 36 hours since hardly served by the initial relief packages 24 July had increased the water level in of government, were aggrieved with the the river and obstructed transportation government and protested when one of including boats. News further reported the leaders went there later (discussed in that difficulties were also caused in the the next section). Dixitet al. (2007, p.145) villages by the destruction of croplands. collected people’s memories of the 1954 According to the news, the rain subsided flood (in what the authors have called only by 26-27 July, but again fell heavily an ethno-history of flood) from a village on 27 August. Local people said that named Brahmapuri in Rautahat, just on such heavy rain was the first event in the the banks of the Bagmati River. Their previous 20 years. findings were summarised as: After undertaking an extensive aerial A major flood resulted in sediment inspection with two Ministers on 14 deposition over the lands. Entire paddy August, the Speaker of the Advisory crop was lost. Farm land looked like Assembly (AA) Mr. Bal Chandra Sharma, sand banks and could not be farmed who also headed the 15-member relief for the subsequent 7 years. During this committee formed by the AA, shared at a period people faced food shortage. meeting about his estimation of the total The river also brought tree trunks and losses caused by the floods. According to deposited them in the fields. Some him, the flood had caused losses of Rs. people collected the timber, sold them 10-15 million rupees, claimed 300 lives and made their living. People built and washed away almost 2,000 domestic resting places on stilts and lived on it animals. He further added that the flood for many days. Cooking was done on created havoc for almost 200,000 people machan. Some families stacked one in the Tarai and damaged huge areas
10 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954 of roads and lands. According to him, In order to summarise the impact of the these people were going to face severe flood, it would be useful to look at the problems for at least one year and among following information from a document them were almost 10,000 people whose that was an internal communication cable land was covered completely by sand, and dated 17 September from the Foreign had become landless. He further added Operation Administration (FOA) of USA that the flood had washed away almost (which was represented by USOM in 200 villages in the eastern Tarai. Nepal, headed by Paul Rose). In fact, the cablegram was sent from Paul Rose Casualties of the flood were not only at the USOM to Harold Stassen of FOA/ limited to the remote hills and Tarai, but Washington in order to request flood also occurred inside the capital city. For relief for Nepal. It eventually led to an example, on 15 August, very early in the agreement, which is discussed later in morning, a house, which was weakened this paper. As stated in the cable the by the heavy shower in the last week of information was provided by Nepal July, near Gyaneshwor in Kathmandu government to the USOM. The first suddenly collapsed at around 2 am. Ten paragraph of the cable reads: people living inside were squashed. Among them, 2 were killed on the spot Nepal has suffered the worst flood whereas another 8 who were seriously damage in the last fifty years. These injured were brought to the hospital. flood waters arriving in Malaya are same that have caused such devastation Besides these damages and disturbances to Bihar province in northern India. in transportation, the flood also affected Despite tremendous problems in communication systems such as telephone securing up-to-date information and postal services. Although the on the extent of damages suffered telephone line was restored soon, postal because of a woefully inadequate lack services could not run properly due to the of communication facilitates within obstruction in transportation. Therefore, country, the Government of Nepal the government made a decision on 13 forwarded the following data to USOM August to run postal services through /Nepal dated September 2: 1529 airplanes, as informed by a notice of the hamlets were submerged in Birgunj, Ministry of Communication. Damaged Biratnagar, Kathmandu, Bhairahawa roads were temporarily restored only by 22 and Nepalganj centers resulting in November. The Nepal and Indian military damaging of an estimated 35,000 jointly restored the road. Therefore, the homes and consequently 132,700 credit for the restoration of some vital homeless refugees. More than 2000 services went to the security forces, and miles of roads and byways have largely not to the incumbent government. been damaged and 56 bridges either
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destroyed, washed away or seriously communicated to the Advisory Assembly damaged. Crops on 76000 bighas (AA) by a minister during its first meeting of land (123,006 acres) have been after the heavy rainfall on 29 July, 1954. destroyed or are seriously damaged. The Government assigned a bureaucrat Land itself has in some instances (the Commissioner of Upatyakanchal) to been rendered temporary unusable. lead the committee. Its objectives and Hospitals at Birgunj, Bhimphedi mandates were clear from a government and Biratnagar have reported their notice published in Gorakhapatra, on 2 buildings have been so flooded that August 1954. The notice says: keeping patients indoor is no longer The Government had already assigned possible. The GoN estimates that the Director Yagya Bahadur with necessary approximate total loss from floods provisions when it received news about up to this time is about rupees 1-1.5 the flood destruction in road, ropeway crores (10-15 million rupees) and and railway. The Government is approximate number of deaths is 1000. confident about bringing the situation RESPONDING TO THE FLOOD back to the normal by repairing all infrastructures within 5-6 days, as it is Here, I discuss responses from actors about to send a contingent of engineers inside the country as well as external and soldiers from national army and donors. Actors inside the country police force. Also it is expected that the included the government (particularly government will succeed in between the ministries and departments and the times by transporting foods and other committee formed by them), the advisory goods that have already arrived in a assembly, monarchy, political parties sufficient amount in Dhursing. and non-governmental organisations. It should be noted that it is a public The outside actors, which were donors, offense to spread rumors and hence included mainly India and the USA. increase the price of foods and other everyday consuming goods or hoard Response from the government them in a large amount or promote Immediately after the heavy rainfall of a black market and take advantage four days, the government established a of the emergency situation created committee, Bishesh Paristhiti Niyantran by disturbed transportation. The Samiti (Special Situation Control Government has already constituted Committee or SSCC) in order to provide a SSCC under the chair of Valley Zonal assistance to the flood victims and to (Upatyakanchal) Commissioner in resolve many other emerging problems. order to punish such wrong-doing and The constitution of the committee was also combat the situation. The Government
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also urges all gentle people to report victims and manage other necessary their total holding of foods and goods activities, the government has formed (if you have more than one year’s the committee under the chairmanship self consumption) to the Department of Commissioner of Upatyakanchal of Civil Supplies within 3 days. If the along with the DIGP, three area government finds anybody not obeying commanders of the Army, the Director the announcement, it is obliged to take of the Department of Civil Supplies, legal action against them. the District Magistrates of Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur districts and It will be easier for the government three members representing trade to manage necessary facilities and and business sectors. The committee provide assistance if you report about had its first meeting at the office the destruction caused by floods to of Department of Civil Supplies the lives and properties of your family Department, Singhdarbar, Kathmandu, inside and outside the valley along on Shrawan 15 (30 July). The meeting with your current status within 7 days took various decisions including one to the Ministry of Public Works and that anybody who has petrol stock of Communication. more than 30 gallons should inform Therefore, the committee aimed the Department of Civil Supplies within to transform itself into part of the three days, otherwise, if informed conspicuous state machinery during the from other sources the stock would be crisis situation. Its mandate and modes confiscated. Notice should be directed of operation, as shown in its own press to the local Magistrates Office regarding release of 1 August 1954 (published on 2 the existing stocks of everyday August) by a secretary also reveals how the necessary goods (as publicised by then government perceived the impact of the radio previously) including petrol the crisis, particularly in the capital city, (as decided by this meeting), which and how it wanted to show its presence would help to provide assistance to during the crisis situation: the victims. In such an emergency situation, one should not attempt to In order to take a detailed account of increase the price of daily using goods, the existing government-stored and should not support the black market, business person-stored grains and food should not hide goods and should not items for immediate management export anything without permission. in the context of heavy destruction One should economise one’s own caused by the recent rainfall; to assess consumption (and suggest others to do the existing stocks of daily necessary the same) of imported goods. By doing items like salt, kerosene, clothes in so, I request everybody, to serve the the market; to provide credits to the country and the victims.
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The committee again published the such messages through the media following ‘urgent’ notice after a couple (radio and papers). The Department of days (published on 4 August in of Civil Supplies is also mandated to Gorakhapatra under ‘government’s prepare a detailed account of the notice’ section in page 4), aiming to existing stocks of necessary goods further tighten the control of the hoarding and present it to the Committee. After of goods in the valley during the crisis. having the details of stocks of goods, the Committee will make the necessary In the context of the recent notice in decisions. Items: 1. Clothes, 2. Cotton 2011 Shrawan 17, Sunday (1 August) (yarn), 3. Kerosene, 4. Salt (Bekrota), 5. from the Ministry of Home Affairs Edible oil, 6. Rice, 7. Pulses, 8. Spices, requesting people to inform the 9. Nuts, 10. Cigarettes, 11. Matches, government about the existing stocks 12. Sugar. of goods additional to one year’s consumption, by valley residents, Besides the AA’s relief committee (which this is a new notice to all residents, will be discussed later), the government’s particularly to business persons, SSCC was also very active in making the in order to ask them to inform the state’s presence felt during the crisis. government about the availability of Its fourth meeting, which was held on stocks in their stores of more than one 15 August, focused on updating and month’s regular use. This particularly following up about issues related to the concerns the following goods and transportation and supply of goods, as well materials: For business persons, they as concerns about traders’ ‘illegitimate’ should inform the government about approach towards making a profit out the following details: what amount of of crisis and following up on restoring stocks of following goods they have, transportation inside the valley. The what amount they have sold since meeting promised to make updates to the Gorakhapatra last Magh (January) and what is the public available through . current price. Such information should The SSCC also made an inspection of come in written form, within Shrawan various parts of the valley on August 11. 21 (5 August) to the Department of The team involved the Chairman of the Civil Supplies. If such information is not committee, Commissioner Mr. Mana provided by you and we are informed Shamsher JBR, Member of the committee by other sources, we are obliged to and Area Commander Brig Gen Padma confiscate such additional goods and Bahadur Shah, Kathmandu District initiate punishment. This is also to Magistrate Mr. Ranga Nath Upreti, Mr. notify you that the Ministry of Home Bhagirath Upadhyaya and other members. Affairs has been writing to publicise They observed affected areas like the
14 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954 bridge on the way to Bhaktapur, damaged inside the valley. For this, it paid attention houses in Chabahil, a demolished wall in to the ropeway line. For example, Ministers Gokarna, road and bridge in Sundarijal made inspections at the ropeway station and other examples. The area commander at Matatirtha7 on 17 August and ordered promised to start rebuilding those areas to move left behind goods from the which required wooden poles once the station. Later, in the same day the SSCC Ministry of Forest provided those poles. also made a decision about this. The SSCC was, however, criticised in popular media. Another meeting of the committee was One of decisions of the SSCC was about held on 16 August and it came up with news in a paper: decisions for further action. The first decision was related to regulation of the A recent issue of a newspaper, ‘Sahi import and trade of necessary goods Raasta’, in its 4 August issue published into the valley market. The point, which a piece under the title ‘consumption is important to understand, was on how of 756 gallons of oil’, which was the market could help on relief work after unsubstantiated, nothing more than a crisis even as it made a profit out of it. a propaganda, about the issue which However, market representatives asked for never came into the committee’s an easing of the government’s restrictions discussion. Therefore, a decision was on the market. There were other decisions made to write a reaction letter to the for further steps to be taken in order to paper. respond the situation properly. The committee was also highly concerned about market irregularities during the Besides assessing the destruction of crisis situation. It possessed influence floods and proposing and recommending over the government, particularly on the relief activities, the SSCC was also active administration and police as it included in inspecting the ongoing reparation officials from these bodies. There was one activities. When the committee was example of arresting of some businessmen informed about the flood damage in on 20 August for wrongdoing in the the Kuriayagaun and Panchayani Ghat market, particularly on the price of ghee. near Thapathali on 14 August, it ordered The news reads: for reparation. Later, on 18 August, the committee expressed its satisfaction after The Special Situation Control the reparation by binding the banks of the Committee expected to see a river with wooden poles. reduction in the price and scarcity of ghee in the market in days to come. The government also seemed highly Some businessmen were arrested by concerned about the scarcity of goods police for going beyond the regular ______7 Matatirtha is a village in Kathmandu District in the Bagmati Zone of central Nepal.
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price. The arrest however contributed eastern and western parts of the country to the scarcity at the beginning. Later to carry out two month-long relief works. when all traders physically attended Each team would be equipped with a the committee, they assured the doctor and other supporting staffs along Committee they would limit the price with the required medicines. The first and regularise the trade of ghee. team would go to East No 1, 2 and 3; the second team to Dang, Salyan, Banke The government ordered the regular and Bardiya; the third to Gulmi, Pyuthan, supply of petrol in the valley to arrive Baglung, Palpa and Syangja; and the fourth by air though in limited quantity. The team would go to West No 1, 2 and 3. This government, therefore, sent a notice on information itself shows the extent of the 25 August to restrict the price and get flood impact, which was up to the Karnali petrol in a fixed quota. The SSCC also river in the west. published a notice in 13 September in Gorakhapatra to increase the air service The restoration of roads inside the valley, from Kathmandu to Simara until the road particularly around Kathmandu, was also was restored. The restriction on petrol almost completed by a company from was completely lifted on 10 December. Nepal Army by the end of December. The Samarjang company restored roads In this way, the SSCC also made the in Thankot, Banepa, Kharipati, Sankhu, government’s presence more visible Godavari, Chapagaun, Budhanilkantha during the crisis. It was more influential and up to Pharping of Dakshinkali road by than any single government ministry or 22 December. Therefore, the government department during the crisis. However, responded immediately through the its implementation wings were all committee, and later on through its government bodies including the departments and ministries. ministries and departments. Responses from the King and The regularisation of petrol became Royal Family possible by the restoration of the Bhimphedi-Amlekhganj road, which was The King delivered his first condolence made ready for running vehicles on 22 message to the flood victims on 24 November. The government also worked August, almost one month after the for medical relief works in other parts of incident. Besides offering sympathy to the country. For example, the government the affected people, he acknowledged the decided through a meeting of Flood Relief government’s efforts for relief and sought Coordination Committee on 5 December cooperation from the people. He further (that was another joint committee declared a relief fund (Gorakhpatra between the Nepal government and termed it the ‘Royal Relief Fund’) to be USOM) to send four medical teams to the established to tackle the crisis situation by
16 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954 providing Rs. 31,000 (Nepali Rupees) from September and then in many subsequent his behalf and sought contributions from issues, in order to generate further all. He announced that the fund which contributions from people. The advert would be called “Royal National Distress was published in Gorakhapatra as follows: Alleviation Fund”8 and it would have an account at the Nepal Bank Limited. The King said he regretted not being able to observe the flood affected areas by himself and his sons due to his prolonged illness, but expressed satisfaction with the government’s relief works, particularly works done by ministers, speakers, secretaries, directors and engineers. On the same day, the Crown Prince also expressed his condolences to the flood victims and contributed Rs. 500 to the fund. When the King delivered a message to the nation before leaving for Europe for medical This announcement added yet another treatment in the first week of October, he high level governmental institution specifically mentioned the crisis created to those working for flood relief, by the flood. While acknowledging particularly for generating funds. After the assistance by the international announcement of the fund, there were community, he also emphasised on the contributions from various persons and groups including other members of the importance of self-dependence in order royal family who contributed almost Rs. to deal with such a crisis and urged for 19000. Contributions were also made by collective works. He also expressed the Prime Minister, Ministers, Speaker, his satisfaction at cooperation among governmental officials (mostly collectively members of the cabinet and expected the as one day’s salary from a particular office), same even for the future. This point was other elites, social organisations and other particularly important because there were individuals. The appeal raised more than deep division within the cabinet, which 300 thousands until 29 September (as later also became a cause for ending the informed in the news). The establishment coalition. However, when the King asked of the fund and its popularity was highly the Cabinet about issues of division, they praised in various editorials in newspapers. showed their unity. This unity did not last The fund also published an advertisement long and will be discussed later in another in Gorakhapatra for the first time on 13 section. ______8 Shri Paanch Maharajadhirajko Rastriya Dukh Nivaran Kosh
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The Crown Prince, while heading the initiatives were reported. However, in Regency Council, also made an inspection the central region border town of Gaur, visit to flood affected areas in the central the government had a joint meeting region from 20 to 22 December. He with Indian officials on ongoing relief first went to Simara by plane and then operations. The government’s relief visited affected areas around there by packages in that area included grains, cash vehicles. Two ministers and the army and repairing drinking water facilities. chief accompanied him. He observed Although there was huge loss in cropland, the Amlekhganj-Bhimphedi road and Rautahat district remained without the Dhursing terminus of the Ropeway; immediate support which was announced took guard of honor from and addressed later on after a detailed assessment by a (with thanks) the Military of India and local governmental officer. Nepal for restoring roads. He returned to The Minister of Transport, Mr. Bhadrakali Kathmandu on 22 December. Mishra, made an inspection trip of flood Towards the beginning of 1955, the affected areas of central Tarai from Birgunj crown prince was much involved in the to Saptari in the last week of August. He everyday politics, particularly in the also formed a local level flood victim relief problems created by differences between committee in Rautahat on 27 August political parties in power and those out and released Rs. 20,000 for immediate of power. These disputes ultimately led distribution. The committee made a plan to the dissolution of the government in to divide the district into three regions the first week of March 1955. However, and start working with the highly affected there were significant responses to the and densely populated 52 villages at the flood by the Advisory Assembly (AA) beginning. The committee aimed to work and interesting politics around this, as in coordination with local governmental discussed later. Before moving on to that, officers. It also provided a few boats this paper will highlight a discussion about to reach the flood affected regions. It the government’s response at the local made the Minister spend more days in level, particularly at the district level, as Rautahat as he extended his trip by four covered in Gorakhapatra. days as informed on August 29. He also happened to meet Nepali Congress leader Responses at the district level Ganeshman Singh unexpectedly in Gaur Relief works from the governmental and they talked about the ongoing flood level were also taking place outside the relief activities. Mr. Singh assured the valley. For example, in towns in Jhapa, Minister that his party would collaborate particularly in Bhadrapur and Sanischare, with the government for relief operations government and non-governmental irrespective of political differences.
18 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954
The Minister left Rautahat only on 1 of bighas of land had been submerged. September for Malangawa. Similarly, a There were also another 16 displaced district level relief committee was also families in Sanischare, who were provided formed in Biratnagar on 19 September with food and medicines. This is another when the Minister of Forest and Land example of relief at the local level, where Revenue made a tour there. Immediately governmental bodies collaborated with after the formation of the committee, local initiatives. the government released assistance of Therefore, based on few examples Rs. 5000 to the committee. That is one above, it is clear that there were various example about how the formation of the initiatives for relief at the district or local local relief committee and relief works level. However, most of them were either occurred initially in Tarai districts. created or coordinated by the government A relief committee was also formed in (e.g. in Biratnagar, Jhapa and Gaur) or Jhangajholi, in East number 2, at the created independently in order to pressure local level without the presence of any the government for more assistance (in ministers. However, the committee asked East Number 2). Some politicians from for more assistance from the government the centre also made extensive trips to and urged the government to distribute various parts of the country in this regard. the relief fund not based on districts, but We will discuss more about their trips in based on the impact of the flood (the the following section. need). Response from the Advisory Another example of a district level Assembly relief initiative was in Jhapa. The local The Advisory Assembly (AA), a parliament- Badahakim (district magistrate), along like body in place during the transition with other officials and local elites held period was, arguably, at the peak of its the first meeting. They then had an action when the crisis occurred at the inspection visit of flood-affected areas end of July. It was the second such avatar around Bhadrapur and later decided to of the Assembly (among a total of three provide food, medicines, shelter and other avatars during the 1951-59 period) and support. A government officer was also had been established by the King in mid- sent to estimate the destruction around April 1954. There were two sessions (July- the Shanischare area in the northern part. August and November-December) during His report estimated that the flood had the crisis time, and both sessions ended in destroyed almost 2000 bighas of cropland. an untimely fashion. Responses made by The report recommended providing credit this body in its both sessions are discussed to 14-15 households whose hundreds below.
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First session of the Advisory Assembly budget, the government faced another blow. The Assembly rejected the Home The King inaugurated the first session on Minister’s bill to provide extensive 28 May. The Assembly appointed its leader powers to magistrates and other officials (Speaker) Bal Chandra Sharma on 1st June in the first week of August (discussed 1954. The Assembly provided a platform below). The bill concerned administrative for vigorous debates and discussions on reforms, but was rejected since the Prime policy affairs among its members, who Minister’s party leaders voted against were representing various parties or it. This deepened the division within groups but behaving independently, as and between the government and the the King nominated them individually. Just Assembly. The flood became major issue before the flood incident, on 23 July, the for the AA during that time (as discussed government had presented a statement below) until its adjournment on 17 August of expenditure for the financial year 1953- on the pretext of the same flood. 54 and a statement of the estimated expenditure for the first four months On 29 July 1954, for the first time, the flood of the current year at the Assembly crisis was made a matter of discussion (Joshi and Rose, 1966, p.117). The Prime in the Assembly, which also passed its Minister had to face some problems in the condolences to the flood victims. In that Assembly and the meeting was postponed meeting, a member Mr. Basupasa tabled a without ratifying the budget because resolution saying: ‘We express our regrets members demanded some time to study for the destruction in roads, bridges and the budget. The session was to take place other infrastructures by the recent heavy on 27 July but could not take place as the rainfall of about 72 hours and express also required quorum could not be achieved sympathy to farmers for the damage to due to the ongoing heavy rainfall. After their crops’. Mr Keshav Raj Karki, Mr Sher that, the first meeting occurred on 29 July. Bahadur, Mr Padma Bahadur and others It then engaged mainly on issues related to also supported the proposal. Mr Hora the flood crisis. However, some discussions Prasad Joshi proposed an amendment also continued about the expenditure that “Sympathy to all flood victims inside and government’s fiscal policy in a few the country as well as in India” should subsequent meetings intermittently. For be added to the message. He further example, the government passed a bill on urged the government that since the rain internal tax in the AA meeting of 6 August had swept away the shops and stores in with majority and it became the first bill Dhursing and a large amount of goods had passed by the AA in the session. In addition been damaged at price Rs. 300,000, all to the postponement of discussions goods should be brought inside the valley about the government’s expenditure and even if that involved running the rope
20 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954 way for 24 hours. Mr. Krishna Bahadur Discussion was held in the AA meeting Thapa backed the amendment and added of 3 August about support to the areas that the flood in the Rewati, Tamor rivers affected by the recent country-wise in Dhankuta had also damaged bridges rainfall and floods. …. An eight point and roads, therefore he requested for an proposal presented by Mr. Bedananda immediate response from the government Jha said: “A committee should be in those areas. The tabled resolution was formed under the chairmanship of the supported by Minister of Defence Kaiser Speaker having members in certain Shumshere on behalf of government, number as recommended by the who said that the government supported assembly and the committee should the resolution fully. He also informed the form separate sub-committee with session about the formation of a special local members in all affected areas. committee (SSCC, discussed above). He The government should immediately further added that the government had manage the necessary fund in order to support residents of flood-affected considered the whole territory between areas. The sub-committee members Mechi and Mahakali as Nepal (not just should form an observation team with inside and around the valley) and it had the Badahakim and other government been assessing the destruction in all officials. This team will make a detailed affected areas. He assured the Assembly inspection of the affected areas and that after getting information from all over arrange necessary assistance. All the country regarding the destruction, the assistance should be carried out only government would consider providing on the recommendation of the sub- support to the affected people. The committee. Financial support should proposal with amendments was later be provided freely to the helpless approved by consensus. In this way, the people who have no other options AA first discussed the flood. left and as a credit to others. The sub- The subsequent meeting of the AA on 3 committee should report its activities August discussed how to approach the to the Assembly committee so that problem of flood destruction from this the Assembly can discuss this in its next meeting. Government officials level, particularly by forming a committee should cooperate with the sub- from the AA. Actually, the meeting floated committee as required. Members of the idea of forming another committee the sub-committee should encourage based at the AA in order to address rich people to provide assistance. The the crisis of the flood in addition to the government should send necessary government’s SSCC. On this matter, the directives to its officials at the local news of 6 August reads as: level on this matter.”
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The proposal of Mr. Khadga Man Singh to have 13 instead of 10 members in says: “A disaster relief committee the committee. should be organised involving Mr. Jagat Bahadur Singh asked for government officers, AA members and assistance to people in the affected persons from local communities. It will areas in the form of grants and revenue work to rescue human and animals relaxation for peasants. He further in affected areas. Arrangements suggested to gather statistics about should be made to send immediate the destruction through the revenue assistance.” While presenting his office and by forming an assistance proposal, he discussed the huge loss committee by involving social workers made in and around Birgunj and the and government officers. Mr. Krishna difficulties in establishing contact Gopal Tandon said that all proposals with the center due to obstructions in had same objectives with differences transportation and communication. only in their approach. He, therefore, Mr. Kunwar Kallu said that the heavy suggested to merge them into a single rainfall had also caused floods in the proposal to table in the Assembly so western part of the country, as in rivers that there would be a more coherent such as the Narayani, Gandaki and discussion and decision making would Rapti, and they had damaged many be facilitated. For that, he asked houses and infrastructures and resulted for some time. Then the Assembly in a loss of almost Rs. 5 lakh. He further passed Mr. Ram Chandra Singh’s idea recommended that the government to postpone the meeting until the form a relief/assistance committee next day and the Assembly meeting immediately and implement activities concluded. based on an assistance plan. In this way, the assembly meeting Mr. Tripurvar Singh Pradhan proposed approached the flood crisis and ended that a committee should be formed with some level of consensus to form a under the chairmanship of the Prime relief committee. Therefore, on the next Minister and involving members of the day, 4 August, the Assembly continued in Assembly representing the affected its discussion about forming a flood victim areas and that the committee would assistance and relief committee. At the provide assistance with the help of end of discussions, it was agreed that the the Badahakim and other government committee would consist of 15 members officials of affected areas. Mr. Dan headed by the speaker. News about the Bahadur Shrivastava presented an session as reported in Gorakhapatra of 6 amendment to the Pradhan’s proposal August is as follows:
22 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954
A joint resolution ‘15 member Rainfall Assembly finalised the formation of the Victim Assistance (Relief) Committee ‘Flood-victim Relief Committee’. The to be formed’ tabled by Mr. Bedananda information about its final structure was Jha, Mr. Khadga Man Singh and Mr. notified after the Assembly approved Tripurvar Singh had been passed with the release of a total of Rs. 10 lakhs for amendments in today’s Advisory emergency relief. However, the Assembly Assembly meeting. … [the] Adopted did not allow the Home Minister to table resolution with amendment had the a bill, “Special Situation Right Bill 2011”. following content: “In order to provide The rejected Home Minister’s bill was assistance/support to the victims about delegating extensive powers to of recent heavy rain and floods, a magistrates and public officers (Shaha, 15 member committee would be 2001, p.310) in the crisis. The bill and formed under the chairmanship of the its rejection was important because it Speaker of AA and members of the revealed not only the deep divisions inside committee would be nominated by the the cabinet but also great concern from Chairman”. … some AA members. Mr Bedananda Jha After approval of the resolution, the would continue showing serious concerns Speaker nominated the Prime Minister, about it even in the next session of the AA Minster of Defence, Minister of Home in November 1954 (this will be discussed in Affairs and Minister of Legal Affairs detail later). Another permitted bill, about in the committee as members. To claiming barren/fallow land was related to nominate the remaining 10 members the resettlement of landless people (later he suggested dividing the country on this category would also include flood into 5 regions namely the Eastern Hill, victims). This bill was conceived before Eastern Tarai, Western Hill, Western the crisis, but was also related to the flood Tarai and Kathmandu valley so that victim resettlement issue. The bill would two members from each regions could not be approved by that session but was be represented in the committee. He discussed in the next session of the AA. further formed a team made up of The news about the proceedings of the AA Mr. Bishnu Bahadur, Bedananda Jha, on 5 August reads: Kashi Ram Sharma, Krishna Gopal Today’s meeting of AA permitted Tandon and Basu Pasa to recommend tabling of a bill “Obtain Fallow/Barren nominees. Land 2011” brought by Mr. Narad In the next day’s meeting of the AA Mani Thulung, Minister of Forest and on 5 August, members were informed Land Revenue. But the AA did not about the names of all members of the allow the Minister of Home Affairs to committee by the Speaker. Hence, the table a bill “Special Situation Right Bill
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2011”. Following this, the Minister of After forming such an institutional set- Defence, Mr. Kaiser Shumshere, tabled up inside the Assembly, the committee a proposal to channel a sum of Rs. 10 chair (Speaker) and other members lakhs for the flood victim assistance as: (which included the PM and ministers “It has been difficult for the government too) started to make their air-surveys to manage the fund for flood victim and field trips for the assessment of the assistance since there is no any kind devastation, particularly in the second of emergency fund or items like that week of August. The first of such trips in the recently approved budget by was made by the Speaker (Bal Chandra government (approved in 10 Shrawan, Sharma), the Home Affairs Minister 2011) for the next three months (until (Tanka Prasad Acharya) and the Minister Kartik, 2011). Therefore, the AA agreed of Transportation (Bhadrakali Mishra). to set off a total of Rs. 10,00,000 (NC The Prime Minister was absent from all 5,00,000 and IC 5,00,000) in order to of these trips and the activities related to manage expenses for the flood victims flood relief for almost a month since he and for other unseen requirements left for Calcutta for his medical treatment. until coming Kartik month of the fiscal The trips brought the above three leaders year.” together and later they would form an Amendment to this resolution were alliance which ultimately would lead to either pulled back or rejected by the the dissolution of the government in the assembly. Finally, the resolution as following year. These leaders shared their it was tabled was passed with heavy experiences of the trips after returning majority. The speaker also announced back to Kathmandu. For example, Bal names of nominated members of the Chandra Sharma shared his estimation committee as: Speaker Bal Chandra about the extent of damage in the valley Sharma (Chair), Prime Minister Matrika and eastern Tarai in the AA on 14 August Prasad Koirala, Minister of Defence after his first trip. Similarly, the Minister Kaiser Shumshere, Minister of Home of Home Affairs ordered army and police Affairs Tanka Prasad Acharya, Minister forces in Biratnagar to go to the affected of Transport Bhadra Kali Mishra, areas. The Minister of Transport assured Kulchandra Koirala and Dr. Bhudev the repair of infrastructures. After such Rai (from the Eastern hills), Mr. Gulab trips, the leaders also shared their idea Narayan Jha and Mr. Beda Nanda Jha about how to allocate the relief fund in (from the Eastern Tarai), Gaya Prasad the regions for various items. Sharma and Puskar Nath Upreti (from the Western hills) and Kunwar Kallu As the AA members were involved in flood Singh and Dan Bahadur Shrivastava relief activities, the Assembly ended its (from the Western Tarai). current session abruptly on 17 August.
24 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954
The termination was declared by then that the Assembly had grievances with the Crown Prince, since King could not make government and its experiences were not it due to his deteriorating health. The end encouraging. meeting of the Assembly was witnessed Although the assembly was terminated on by the Indian and British Ambassadors, 17 August in order to facilitate members other diplomatic representatives, high participation in relief works in their level government officers and others. The constituencies (Shaha, 2001, p.310), it is Speaker welcomed the King. The Prime important to know what happened to the Minister was still absent. The King sent a AA-based “Flood Victim Relief Committee”. message through the Prince and regretted After the termination of AA session, the that he was unable to join the session. committee remained almost completely He expressed his satisfaction about the inactive. The Speaker Bal Chandra Sharma activities of the Assembly as it had built also resigned from the chairmanship of the a good foundation for future sessions, committee on 21 August. This resignation according to him. He further added that further deactivated the committee. the next session would be called on to Although he urged the continuation of start in suitable time. the committee, the committee seemed It is important to know how its members to be basically deactivated after this perceived the Assembly. Towards the episode. This indicates how an institution termination of the regular session of the established for relief work at the very top Assembly on 15 August, the members political level with much fanfare ultimately were discussing about the experiences ended without doing any substantial work obtained so far from the Assembly. They for relief. Although the committee was seemed unsatisfied with the effectiveness not active after the resignation of the of the proceedings, particularly the length chairman, it was not totally dead, since of time spent in prolonged question it was only the high level flood relief and answer sessions and the waste in committee of the state involving the PM bringing in so many resolutions and bills and other ministers. For example, it was survived by a disaster relief agreement but spending a whole month in debates between USA and Nepal, which was about a single bill (e.g. internal revenue signed in October. bill), whilst leaving very important bills not discussed, such as a bill related to land With or without being in the committee, reform. According to the Assembly, they the AA chairman and some of its members tried to make the government listen with were very active in visiting flood-affected many questions and recommendations. areas from August through to November However, their grievances were directed when the next session would begin. One toward the government. This indicates of trips was made by AA chairman Bal
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Chandra Sharma. He made extensive Sharma in Chhatauni village in Sarlahi, visits of almost 20 days to flood affected while he was going to Malangawa and areas of the central and eastern Tarai in presented their demands to him for relief. the month of October and returned back Later, when he promised to raise the issue to Kathmandu by 26 October. Then he in Kathmandu, they allowed him to carry went out again to western hill areas, West on with his tour. Therefore, he made No 1 and 2, particularly Trishuli, Arughat many promises and consolations to the and Gorkha, from 6 to 15 November, victims. Besides that, he also released the returning just before the next session of relief fund to the victims by himself or in the AA. Although he had already left the his presence by the committee or else he committee head position, he became a recommended that the local flood relief key person on such trips since he was committee do so. Therefore, the trip also not only the chair of AA, but also a key likely increased his political capital. leader (General Secretary) of the Prime In the western hill area, he also did the Minister’s Rastriya Praja Party. same, meeting local officials and cadres, In the Central Tarai, he visited Bara, collecting complaints and demands and Simraungadh, Rautahat, Malangawa and making promises for their fulfillment. Jaleshwor and reached to Siraha. He In hilly areas, he also recommended could not go further east due to suffering providing arable lands to landless victims, an illness. In most of these areas, he had for instance, he said so in a speech meetings with local officials and local in Trishuli Bazar on 10 November. He flood relief committees, he also addressed returned to Kathmandu just before the mass gatherings of victims and general next session on 15 November, from people and met party cadres. Since the Gorkha via Pokhara with many complaints government in Kathmandu focused on and applications from the victims. Then the situation inside the valley and its he was engaged in the AA proceedings. He supply line, particularly the road through also had to give clarifications regarding his Bhimphedi, not much attention had been trips to the committee. given to the flood situation in the Tarai, Besides the Speaker, other members of which was even worse. Therefore, the the AA were also busy in making trips Speaker had to gather complaints and to various parts of the country. An AA demands and make promises to present member from another ruling party, the them for the executive to do something Praja Parishad, Mr Ram Hari Sharma, about them in Kathmandu. Mr. Sharma made one such visit. He visited the western found Rautahat was the most severely hills, particularly Gorkha, just before the flood-hit district, but it remained without Speaker’s visit and made a press release much support. Flood victims blocked Mr on 22 November about his trip. Through
26 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954 the press release, he reported the damage issue in the upcoming AA second session. he had seen particularly of bridges and The government made the first public cropland, which were, according to notice in Gorakhapatra on 5 November him, more visible at the national and calling for the second session of AA on 17 district level than at the individual level. November. He also recommended that relief reach the needy people and that relief should Second AA session focus beyond the immediate material and The flood would be a major issue in the monetary relief, towards reconstruction second session of AA, occurring after and rehabilitation. Similarly, other AA the crisis. In addition to direct responses members also visited Eastern 1 and 2 and on the flood problem, there were other West 2 up to Syangja. In East No 2, a Praja related issues around policy-making in the Parishad Member, Baikuntha Acharya, AA related to the flood. The first issue of released Rs. 100,000 through the local contention was the government’s attempt flood relief committee. Therefore, the to pass the special situation rights bill to politics during these times was focused provide more power to local government on the relief fund and expanding political officials. Although the bill was rejected influence across the country through promises and release of funds. in its first session, some members of AA, for example Bedananda Jha, were highly Though delayed due to his medical concerned by this in the next session and treatment, the Prime Minister was also said that the government implemented not far behind in carrying out such trips. the bill by changing its name and contents He stopped in Biratnagar while returning slightly even though it had been rejected. home from Calcutta and made a visit to The next issue was related to a new bill, villages along the Koshi river. He declared the Citizen’s Rights bill which was to define that the government would exempt land citizen’s rights for the first time. This is also tax on farmers in Saptari and Biratnagar important, even for flood relief activities, and for that it would release Rs 25,000 because it would reveal how the state immediately. These relief promises and considered its citizens. Another bill was actions came only on ad-hoc basis and about obtaining fallow and barren land were never communicated through the for the government in order to provide official government channels. Therefore, in sum, post-disaster relief works had landless people with land. This would now a very limited impact on recovery. This include flood-victims. became a big political issue, particularly The Crown Prince inaugurated the during the second session of the AA. second session of the Advisory Assembly The responses made by the government on 17 November. He highlighted the and political partiesould w be a major government’s activities in his inaugural
27 New Angle: Nepal Journal of Social Science and Public Policy Vol. 3(1), December 2014 speech, which included mention of concerns before the adoption of the the flood issue. He said that the worst resolution. In his deliberation, PM MP impact of the rainfall and flood was in the Koirala also touched on the issue of central part of the country, including East flood relief activities. He accepted the and West No 1 and 2, particularly in the government’s weaknesses in dealing central and eastern Tarai and the worst with the crisis in terms of effectiveness; hit was Rautahat. He further stated that however, he urged that all collectively the total loss was estimated at more than should take responsibility for such Rs. 1.5 crore and that the government weaknesses. He further added that the had already released Rs. 12 lakhs even government had released a sum of Rs. when it had limited capacity. He further 10 lakhs immediately but that could acknowledged the fund generation not be distributed properly. He further through the National Flood Relief Fund emphasised that the government did established by his father as well as support respond in a timely manner by approving made by the international community for the relief and did not delay in making such relief and reconstruction (particularly by a response. It is clear from this deliberation India, Britain and USA) and the military’s that the government had to be defensive hard work in restoring the road from on the matter of responding to the flood. Bhimphedi to Amlekhganj, the major After completing the inaugural session supply line for the valley. by adopting the acknowledgement Following the inaugural speech, there resolution, the government tabled two was a discussion on the speech in the bills on 26 November. These two bills were house. Many members raised issues and related to citizen’s rights and claiming proposed amendments. Mr Bedananda barren and fallow land for re-distribution Jha raised the issue of the flood-relief to landless people, which had remained activities by the government. On the next undecided in the previous session.9 After day, 24 November, an acknowledgement realising that the bill related to citizen’s resolution was passed by the AA and rights was vital and technical in nature proposed amendments were either (defining citizen’s rights for the first time rejected or pulled back. However, the based on the Interim Constitution) it Prime Minister responded and raised was sent to an expert committee of 10 ______9 The bill was also related to the resettlement of the flood victims. For example, while answering a question about the government response to the flood victims gathered in Janakpur, the Home Affairs Minister said that they were provided assistance and would be resettled soon, for which the bill related to achieving the fallow and barren land had been tabled in the Assembly. The bill was approved on 13 December after many rounds of debates. Actually, the issue of resettlement of the flood victims became important during that time. In another example, flood victims in Sindhuli also demanded resettlement when meeting with the Flood Relief sub-committee members.
28 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954 members of the AA, including the PM, implement it anyway since there was crisis after a brief discussion. Mr Bedananda Jha caused by the flood and there was no AA then proposed a termination of the session running its session. According to him, the on the issue of flood relief. However, he cabinet could promulgate the act with the later agreed to discuss this further since consent of the King. A similar approach the issue was serious and the Speaker was was taken on the budget and expenditure due to speak on it in the next day. Besides issue. However, Mr Jha did not accept the issue of flood relief, Bedananda Jha the answer and protested against it by again brought his concerns about the walking out of the AA. Here, the flood so called bill about the special situation crisis situation and the government’s way control, which was rejected in the previous of dealing with it without a necessary legal session but later allegedly implemented basis became a great political issue. by government after they made a few cosmetic changes. He argued that there The next day’s (28 November) AA were only two ways to make laws at that proceedings also dealt with the response 10 time: through the AA and through the to the flood and drought. Members ordinance of the supreme ruler (King) in a shared their recommendations in order special situation. He asked how could the to deal with these natural disasters from government make the law and implement a fresh start. In that session, the PM it and how could be there two legislative revealed that the total amount released bodies in a state? He further asked why the by the government so far for flood relief government did not start the session with was 15 lakhs, which had not been utilised 11 the bill related to budget and expenditure, yet. Therefore, the PM requested more which was not adopted in the previous suggestions and asked the Assembly to session, and instead brought these two think about forming a new committee to bills. The PM answered his concerns about start activities more effectively under a the bill related to special situation control concrete plan. He further requested the by saying that the government had to Assembly to remove the legal obstructions ______10 There was another series of drought and water scarcity incidents in the central Tarai, particularly in Bara, Parsa, Rautahat, Mahottari and Saptari, right after the downpour. The drought was felt particularly in November 1954, when crops were drying up. Therefore, drought was also added in the AA debate along with the flood. Later in December 1954, the government established a commission based at the Ministry of Industry, Commerce and Food with four members, headed by Fanindra Raj Hamal, assistant secretary and the team was sent to the field to understand the existing situation and make recommendations for possible relief activities. 11 As informed in the AA meeting on 6 December, the total fund released was Rs. 1,557,150 whereas the total expense was about Rs. 25,000. Amounts are as follows: Dhankuta 2990, Sarlahi 5000, Valley 600, Mahottari 5161, Chisapani 4394, East No 2 1639, officials’ trip from Chisapani to Rautahat 4588.
29 New Angle: Nepal Journal of Social Science and Public Policy Vol. 3(1), December 2014 to initiate a fresh approach to the flood responsibility to implement it. Since problem. All members accepted the the scope of the authority of the proposal and asked the PM to propose committee had not been defined, it the structure of such a committee in the had to seek the cabinet’s agreement next day’s meeting. It brought about for implementation. Then a provision yet another institution to deal with the was agreed to send the accepted flood crisis, the second from the AA, as regulation (to all government agencies) the previous one chaired by the Speaker through the telephone and wireless (if had failed. Gorakhapatra also covered not applicable, to send by post as soon the failure of the previous committee as possible) for immediate action. in its editorial on 3 December. But the But it was not done. Although there Speaker had to speak about the failure was the formation of local level flood of the Assembly-based first flood relief relief committee in some districts, I committee since he was the chair and did not know about them and did not he had already agreed to do so in the AA have idea who was/were behind such meeting on 26 November. formations. They also stopped doing In the AA meeting of 29 November, the their works. After having an order Speaker clarified about the activities of from the committee and based on my the committee, his resignation from the own capacity, I visited many affected committee and his own involvement areas in the Tarai and hills and made in the flood relief works even after the recommendations based on my field resignation. It seems that he had some observations and consultations with problems with the government over local people. But the government dealing with the flood crisis and he was ignored all of them. Many of my unsatisfied with the works that had recommendations were applicable for been completed so far. However, he the entire country. valued his own recommendations and The Speaker spoke about his asked the government to provide more resignation: Although the committee responsibilities to him with substantial was made to handle the relief works, authority. The news about the Speaker’s it had already been delayed. Further, it clarification as published in Gorakhapatra was accused of assuming unnecessary of 3 December reads as follows: authority. In such a situation I could On the request of Bedananda Jha not bear my responsibilities being in in the AA meeting on 26 November, the committee. Since there was no the Speaker made a clarification: the running Assembly session, I submitted flood relief committee submitted a my resignation to the supreme ruler regulation, but the executive had the (King) who had formed this assembly.
30 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954
But I was asked by the King to convey sitting here. I have time and I am ready any difficulties I would have while to work, just give me responsibilities. working. Therefore, I withdrew my The statement clearly shows the extent resignation. After that, I used to send to which the crisis created by the flood the original copies of every activities of had reached deeply inside politics. Deep the committee to the Regency Council divisions became visible between the and (Ministry of) State Affairs (Rajya AA and government. For example, in the Vyawastha). Since the flood problem was almost a country-wide problem session of 15 December, many of the AA and it needed immediate response, members showed their anger towards I thought that the sluggish working the government for delaying answers to style of ministries would not make any their raised concerns. As a result, many difference. Therefore, I made another of members left the AA and the meeting request to the King recommending the closed because of inadequate quorum. formation of a separate department In the meantime, the PM tabled a proposal to deal with the crisis of this scale as in the AA meeting of 16 December for done during the eradication of slavery the formation of a new committee of 17 and great earthquake in the past. members to resolve problems created The Speaker further added: I have by the flood and drought. Later, the AA submitted a report that is still in the adopted the proposal as it was tabled AA. Every member can have a look at and rejected all amendments. However, it. My report has also influenced the before presenting the proposal in the executive. You can see the increased house, a slight change was made: the responsiveness of the PM as clear name of Bal Chandra Sharma, who evidence of this. was chair of the previous proposal, The Speaker said: I was given NRs was removed and the name of another 15,000 and IRs 10,000 by government in member was put there instead. In fact, order to provide relief by my discretion Bal Chandra Sharma pulled his name out through the local relief committee. I of the committee by himself when AA provided NRs 15,000 in Gorkha and members suggested him to do so since IRs 10,000 in Sarlahi. I have every putting his name forward would create details of my travel expenses which I some legislative difficulties and would will submit to the Accountant General become a matter of political contestation. and if not approved, I will pay back. He The 17 members of the newly formed ended by saying: I have realised that it committee were: Matrika P. Koirala, Kaiser is not enough to say just ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to Shamsher, Bhadra Kali Mishra, Gulab activities from the allocated money by Narayan Jha, Bedananda Jha, Bishwa Nath
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Thakur, Kulchandra Koirala, Rameshwar that in India. Members expressed their Prasad Aryal, Rajeshwar Devkota, Ramhari criticisms that Nepal had not been able Sharma, Punya Prabha Devi, Nistaar Roy to distribute any significant monetary Yadav, Hamsha Raj Shrestha, Krishna support to the victims (on the pretext Bahadur Thapa, Padam Bahadur Singh, of lacking a suitable legal basis) while Bhudev Rai, Bishwa Nath Thakur and the Indian government had distributed Jagat Bahadur Singh. The content of thousands of rupees immediately after the the adopted proposal was as follows: incident. Therefore, as shown, most of the Although a flood-relief committee had politics around the flood relief operation already been formed in the first session of were about the institutions created and the AA, now the new problem of drought financial relief provided. emerged and it was realised that a new While writing about the new committee, committee would be needed to involve a Gorakhapatra editorial compared the new members representing the drought current approach of dealing with the crisis affected areas and to recommend a single created by the flood and drought with plan addressing both disaster issues within the previous approach of dealing with a month. The Prime Minister also tried the crisis created by earthquake of 1934. to justify the new committee based on The editorial labeled the current approach the newly emergent issue of drought. He as very sluggish and ineffective, in spite expected a more effective plan from the of such a huge contribution made from committee with concrete relief ities activ inside and outside the country, even in a giving attention to available resources. democratic system. It further argued that He added that the plan suggested by the the ineffectiveness had aided the erosion committee would be implemented by the of popularity of the government, despite executive (ministries and departments). its responsiveness. All these indicated that The proposed amendments to the the government was heavily attacked due resolution included reducing the size of to its failure to address the flood problem. the committee, involving governmental Therefore, the government had to form a officials in the committee to facilitate new committee, the only a way to deal with implementation, adopting modalities to the crisis. The government’s difficulties in working with sub-committees formed dealing with the political situation at that at the local and district level and giving time was also reflected in the PM’s analysis attention to the already released and used of the existing situation, presented in his funds. Although there was discussion on party’s general committee meeting held these amendments, none was approved in the last week of December 1954. He by the house. Some members also accepted the government’s inability to compared the relief works in Nepal with succeed in making political consensus.
32 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954
The same meeting also recommended which was later withdrawn. Similarly, the that the government work on disaster differences between the PM’s party with relief under a comprehensive plan, Bal Chandra Sharma had also already which will be useful even for the future. surfaced after his poor dealing of the flood The meeting also formed a 5-member crisis and the ineffectiveness of the first coordination committee to implement its flood relief committee of the AA, which proposal for a political settlement merging was severely criticised. A new committee all democratic parties into a single party. had already been formed by the Prime That was the PM’s major proposal, which Minister which excluded all of his three differed with another alliance of the ruling powerful rivals, Tanka Prasad Acharya, party. It will be discussed later. Bhadra Kali Mishra and Bal Chandra Sharma. The political crisis created during The second session of the AA discussed a that period will be discussed in a later few bills and the budget presented by the section. Along with a heightened political Prime Minister on 19 January before its crisis, the flood issue got little attention termination on 9 February. The ongoing during those times. It was instead session of the AA was terminated by the Crown Prince before he left for Switzerland incorporated in the development projects to meet his ailing father. The termination supported by foreign aid, also discussed occurred in the context of government’s later. defeat by the rejection of two budget cut In his press release about the termination motions tabled on 1 February, when the of the second session of the AA on 9 next meeting had been adjourned by a February, the Crown Prince as a chair month. Such defeats happened around of the Regency Council made following the time when the political crisis was statement: heightened by reorganisation in ruling parties. During the crisis, the Rastriya Praja A new legislative situation emerged Party of the Prime Minister dismissed its on 1 February when the meeting of dissenting member, Bal Chandra Sharma, the AA was postponed by one month. who joined the Praja Parishad. There was But now, the Regency Council, on also a merger of another ruling party, the behalf of His Majesty, based on the Jana Congress of Bhadra Kali Mishra with interim Constitution of 1951, has the Praja Parishad. Even before this, the terminated the second session of the Home Minister had already been removed AA from today, 9 February, Tuesday. from his portfolio on 10 January, just The new session would be called on in before the Nepali Congress’ Satyagraha12, a favorable time. ______12 Literally it means “insistence on truth,” the term was coined and developed by Mahatma Gan- dhi to denote a form of civic, peaceful resistance.
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Later, when the Crown Prince dissolved to the flood relief works. His particular the cabinet in the first week of March, responses to the government’s approach he also dissolved the Advisory Assembly could not be covered in this study. It is, and hence the time of political however, clear that he was highly critical experimentation, through which the flood of the then political arrangements, and crisis created havoc, ended. It also ended he also must have been critical about the all institutions based at the AA. way of dealing with the crisis, accepted as a failure even by ruling parties and Responses from others inside the individuals. Nepali Congress was focused country on a larger political issue, as it was about Outside the government, there were few to launch a Satyagraha in early 1955 to responses from various individuals and demand an election. The Satyagraha institutions to the flood as covered in the was withdrawn later on when the Crown Gorakhapatra. Prince, a chief of the Regency Council perceived positively to the demand and The most important was from then assured that he would take necessary opposition leader, Mr. B.P. Koirala of action. But it did not happen soon. In an Nepali Congress, which was neither interview in 1955, BP Koirala dismissed represented in the government nor in the the government’s claim of distributing Advisory Assembly. He made an appeal for cheaper grains in Kathmandu and said help for flood victims on 2 August 1954 clearly he was against ideas such as (published on 4 August in Gorakhapatra) focusing only on Kathmandu for any and expressed his sorrow for the loss relief works (such as selling cheaper rice of lives and properties. According to to combat food scarcity) and running the news, he urged his party cadres to the country through the appointment of collaborate with governmental and non- so-called ‘neutral’ people, who did not governmental efforts for relief and rescue. represent any parties. BP Koirala made another announcement on 26 August from Patna regarding There were also responses from outside the flood problem. He urged people to the political formations. Among very collaborate with one of the many relief few responses made at the individual organisations and initiatives inside the and institutional level to the floods, an country in such a crisis situation and important one was made by Paropakar, a also to contribute to the relief operation. philanthropic organisation. It decided to However, he realised and emphasised the provide treatment to the flood-victims by limitation of the government’s capacity bringing them to Kathmandu after it heard to deal with such a situation. These were about an incident in Dhunibeshi, located some of his announcements related 14-15 miles west from Kathmandu. The
34 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954 incidence was the destruction of lives and football matches and door-to-door fund properties by the floods and landslide raising in order to generate a fund for caused by the recent heavy rainfall. supporting flood victims. As decided in the Besides that, the organisation also said meeting, the fund would be kept initially that it had already sent volunteers to the in a bank by treasurers of Bal Sakha Dal, area from Birgunj to Bhainse and other and the funds would subsequently be parts of Tarai in order to provide help to transferred to any governmental or non- flood victims. It seems thatParopakar was governmental relief fund if it decided to active in the western hills near the capital do so. (West no 1). Besides in Dhading, it also Later Narendramani Aa Di, heading a relief provided rescue and relief from its Trishuli committee formed by some intellectuals section in West No 1, where several people in the valley, made a public appeal on 5 had been killed by landslides. Others were September for people to contribute to provided with medical treatment and flood relief works. The committee headed other assistance by the Trishuli section of by Mr Aa Di was said to be formed on Paropakar. 29 July, having a contact office at the Responses from the non-governmental Chamber of Commerce building on New sector at the organisational level were Road. It is not clear that whether this is few, at least in the capital as stated in same above mentioned initiative of Bal Gorakhapatra. One such rare initiative Sakha or not. However, it is clear that was announced by an organisation called there were few initiatives at the people’s Bal Sakha Dal (Children’s Friend Party) level. Most of the institutional responses on 18 August at its meeting (news came outside the government were focused on 23 August). Bal Sakha Dal was a non- on raising funds and contributing to governmental organisation working on the government’s relief fund. However, children’s issues. It carried out community their influence and effectiveness are not level social work and involved children explored in this paper. in those works. The meeting was held in Domestic politics in the context of the Putalisadak at the residence of Dharma flood crisis Narayan Pradhan. The meeting was participated in by its executive members Since its inception, there was deep division along with Narendramani Aa Di, Dharma within the so-called coalition government, Narayan Pradhan, Sharad Kumar ‘Ashant’ which was formed by the King’s Fagun 7 who was also a secretary general of Nepal proclamation of 2010 BS (February 1954). Tarun Dal, and representatives of various A. Gupta (1964, p.90) called one of the branches of Bal Sakha Dal. The meeting divisions an “oppositional alliance” of decided to organise various shows, newcomers like Tanka Prasad Acharya, BK
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Mishra, and DR Regmi within the cabinet level headed, sincere, honest, patriot against PM MP Koirala. Mr. Tanka Prasad who was desperately trying to bring his Acharya shared his reluctance to join the country out of the chaos that it had been cabinet initially but later joined it due to the in”. Actually, he signed the disaster relief king’s intention, as stated in his biography agreement with the USA in Calcutta on (Fisher, 1997, p.167). The division was 23 October 1954 (the detail is discussed also reflected in the AA as well as in in a later section). However, India was not government proceedings. Although there very positive toward the agreement. It is might be some specific issues of difference also clear from Tanka Prasad Acharya’s like on the administrative appointments statement “Even MP Koirala had difficulties (Home Secretary) or on the future process with Indians. They badly rebuked him for for a political settlement with all parties accepting, without prior consultation in and outside the government, most of with India, the U.S. offer of wheat for the the divisions were more like personality flood-stricken people of Nepal” (Fisher, clashes. During the initial phases of flood 1997, pp.167-68). India’s criticism of relief in August, MP Koirala was under the agreement was also reflected in its medical treatment in Calcutta, therefore Calcutta-newspaper coverage of the other Ministers, such as Tanka Prasad agreement, which was shared by US Acharya, BK Mishra and the Speaker BC Consul in a cablegram to Department of Sharma, made frequent visits to flood State. Therefore the PM had been facing affected areas and helped form local level reactions outside and inside the country, flood relief committees to channel the but he remained in power as long as King government’s relief fund. These attempts Tribhuvan was alive. might have been used for the expansion Based on differences with Tanka Prasad of political influence of these politicians in Acharya over the Home Secretary issue, different parts of the country; ultimately the PM expressed his intention to resign all of them came under the Praja Parishad with the King on 28 September (Shaha, in February 1955. 2001, p.313). But later the King temporarily However, the PM was also active in relief resolved the differences before leaving activities later on, upon his return after for treatment in Europe, as also reflected the medical treatment. He inspected the in his address of 2 October to the nation rebuilding of the Bhimphedi-Amlekhganj before leaving. The cabinet also made a road on 26 September. He was also joint press release saying that they did not engaged in getting US disaster assistance have any differences within the cabinet and later signed an agreement on it. The as publicised. Differences again increased US consultant for flood relief assessment later on in late December 1954 and early also expressed his impression of the January 1955, leading to the dismissal of Prime Minister who he labeled as a “very Tanka Prasad Acharya from the cabinet.
36 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954
The differences between ruling parties, radio address to the country on 8 January. particularly between PM MP Koirala and In the meantime, the PM removed Tanka Home Minister Tanka Prasad Acharya Prasad Acharya from the responsibility of deepened in January 1955. Both of their the Ministry of Home Affairs in the wake parties had their general committee or of the Nepali Congress Satyagraha and executive committee meeting during kept him as Minister without portfolio. that time. At the same time, there was After a meeting with the Crown Prince also increasing resentment about the on 10 January, Congress withdrew the government ineffectiveness in dealing Satyagraha. Congress later clarified that with the flood crisis. Even ruling parties the main basis for this reversal was a had accepted such ineffectiveness and letter sent by the Crown Prince taking recommended a new comprehensive positively the demands of theSatyagraha , approach. For example, the PM’s Rastriya such as having an independent judiciary, Praja Party made a decision during its holding the election as soon as possible meeting on 29 December about forming and other demands. Later, on 28 January, a comprehensive national plan to tackle the valley committee of the Nepali not only the current disaster, but also to Congress also thanked the King for being prepare better for the future. Similarly, positive towards the 6 point demands an executive committee meeting of the of the Satyagraha and assuring that he Praja Parishad on 3 January expressed would take necessary step to fulfill them. resentment for not utilising the flood relief However, the government was very critical given by foreign friends. There was feeling about the announcement of Satyagraha of failure in dealing with the disaster not as it expressed its position against such only among all people and opposition attempt through a press release from the parties, but also within the ruling parties. Ministry of Home Affairs, published in It was in that context that the AA had Gorakhapatra 12 January. also come up with another committee. After sidelining Tanka Prasad Acharya The differences between the major ruling from the cabinet, a new political crisis parties were also related as to how to emerged in the Prime Minister’s party proceed for a political settlement. when its leader Bal Chandra Sharma The major opposition party, the Nepali formed an alliance with Tanka Prasad Congress, which was launching its Acharya. To resolve it the PM, as a chair Satyagraha in early January, posed of his Rastriya Praja Party, dissolved its large political challenges. There were existing working committee towards the outrages from the ruling party against the end of January 1954. He announced his Satyagraha, as reflected in Gorakhaptra’s central committee on 4 February in his long editorial on 7 January and the PM’s chairmanship leaving 6 positions vacant.
37 New Angle: Nepal Journal of Social Science and Public Policy Vol. 3(1), December 2014
Right after the reorganisation on the same remain disassociated with any political day in a press conference, the Praja Party party. Later, Bal Chandra Sharma became made clear that there was no divisions the chair of the newly organised Praja within the party and Bal Chandra Sharma Parishad and he announced 17 members with his 7 allies had already left which of working committee including Tanka made the party free from any ‘reactionary’ Prasad Acharya, Bhadrakali Mishra, Ram forces. A dissenting group from the Praja Hari Sharma, Chuda Prasad Sharma, Party, the Praja Party struggle committee Rajeshwar Devkota, Chandra Bhushan, also rejected, through a press release, the Surya Bahadur Bhardwaj, Govindra Prasad idea of Bal Chandra Sharma as a leader Upadhyaya and others. The reorganised of the group since he had already joined Praja Parishad would remain a major the Praja Parishad. This splinter group political force for the future and lead again merged into its mother party, the the next government during Mahendra’s Rastriya Praja Party, on 12 February. The kingship in the next year. central committee of the Praja Party In such a political context, particularly sent its circular to all local committees to following the government’s defeat to dissociate with Bal Chandra Sharma and dismiss the amendments in the AA on 1 his allies. Therefore, there was increasing February, the Crown Prince terminated the political polarisation. second session of the AA on 9 February. It There was also reorganisation in thePraja happened just before he was leaving for Parishad during the first week of February, Switzerland to see his father and to seek which was also not free of controversy. more political authority for future political Reorganisation was based on the ‘merger’ steps. Actually the PM had submitted his of Bal Chandra Sharma and his group that resignation to the Regency Council after splinted from Rastriya Praja Party and Jana his defeat in the AA but the council was Congress of Bhadrakali Mishra with Praja not empowered to accept it. He however Parishad retaining its flag as party’s new terminated the ongoing session of AA, flag. A dissenter of such reorganisation, dissolved two ministers from the cabinet and left for Neiss, Switzerland. Before Mathura Lal, was obviously given space leaving, he also urged government officials by Gorakhapatra whereby he challenged and the bureaucracy on 9 February to the legitimacy of such changes in Praja continue their tasks and suggested them Parishad. Similarly, Mr. Khadga Man Singh, not to get involved in any political affairs. who was previously associated with Bhadra Kali Mishra’s Jana Congress, also The Crown Prince returned back to Nepal left the newly organised Praja Parishad from Switzerland with full Royal authority on 13 February showing his differences and ordered the dissolution of the Regency on the merger and declared that he would Council on 16 February, just before the
38 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954
National Democratic Day of Fagun 7 (18 by a news story on 11 August, that it February). This move shifted political was thinking of providing an additional authority completely away from political Rs. 25,000 in grants for medical works parties to a more assertive monarchy in the affected areas. The news further practiced by Mahendra. The ailing King stated that the two governments were confirmed his handover of the authority in discussions for necessary mechanisms to the Crown Prince in his message on the in order to supply the medical relief unit national day. The Crown Prince revisited to the affected areas using additional his decisions in the last four months grants. As reported, they were also made through the Regency Council and discussing about the required amount for expected support for his future steps. the restoration needed for the damaged Right after democracy day, the Crown section of the Bhimfedi-Amlekhganj road. Prince sent a message to all political and The Nepal government requested the social organisations and parties through a Indian Ambassador Mr. BK Gokhale to press release on 21 February. After these convey its acknowledgement to Indian government for the assistance. The Nepal developments, the government passed an government also expressed its sympathy economic bill from the cabinet and sent it for the destruction created in Indian to the Crown Prince for approval. In such territory by the same flood. a way the government of political parties had lost its legitimacy with the emergence The flood also created havoc in India of Mahendra’s rule. He finally dissolved too, particularly in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar the cabinet and ran the country under his and Bengal. Indian officials also made direct rule through Royal Advisors until inspection air trips of the flood-affected Tanka Prasad Acharya formed his cabinet areas of India and Nepal. After one of such in the next year (January 1956). All this trips, Mr. Guljarilal Nanda13 said in India happened in the context of the flood crisis. on 25 August about the complex situation created by the flood and difficulties to Responses from other countries carry out any relief operation in Nepal India and others and India. However, the Indian emphasis had always been on controlling Himalayan The first international concern about the rivers, particularly the Koshi river. The flood problem came from India, then same statement was repeated by Mr Nepal’s major donor, on 10 August. The Nanda again in the context of the 1954 Indian Government decided to provide flood when he made public a recent Rs. 25,000 (IC) to the government’s flood agreement with Nepal to have a barrage victim relief fund. Besides that, the Indian on the Koshi river (the agreement was government also informed, as notified made in April 1954). ______13 Indian politician and economist. He was the Prime Minister of India for two short periods following the deaths of Jawaharlal Nehru in 1964 and Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1966.
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As had been promised initially the Indian Ambassador and his wife donated 50 government was to send a military medial Pounds (previously stated 500 pound team to flood affected areas in Nepal, which was corrected in the next issue) particularly to the Tarai region. Such news to the flood victims relief fund. came on 28 August. India informed Nepal The British government also announced that it would send two Indian Military a relief package of 100,000 Pounds to Medical teams to Nepal, one would be all flood victims in South Asia including based in Biratnagar and another in Birgunj, India, Pakistan and Nepal, on 28 August. both equipped with medical and nursing Although there was not detail about what officers, other supporting staffs and amount would be given to Nepal and how medicines for flood borne disease. The it would be used, the announcement Biratnagar team also reached up to Koshi emphasised that the relief aid would be Tappu area for the medical assistance for the medical support of flood victims in as informed in a news story on 12 those countries. November. Besides the medical support, an engineering group from the Indian At the international non-governmental military, which was engaged on building level, the Red Cross Society based in the road in the central hill (Tribhuvan Geneva also showed an interest in doing highway), also became involved in the flood-victim relief works in Nepal ina reconstruction of roads and bridges from message sent to the Nepal government on Bhimphedi to Amlekhganj. India’s PM 25 August. It further asked the government Nehru also said in the Indian parliament on to send details of the levels of destruction 17 December about providing monetary in order to plan for the relief operation. support for flood relief operations to the USA Nepal government of almost IRs.1.49 crore. Assistance from the USA for this flood incident is important because it not Besides India, the British Ambassador only provided significant monetary and also contributed financially to the relief material support immediately after the work on 22 August but this was only from incident but it also made this support his personal level. The news about his the basis for future large development contribution reads: projects to be launched in Nepal. Since The British Ambassador to Nepal the year saw the first escalation in foreign Mr. Somer Heise regretted the huge aid in Nepal from the USA (from Rs 2,516 loss in lives and properties by recent thousands in 1953/54 to 9,599 thousands cloudbursts and subsequent floods in 1954/55 leading to 10,024 thousands in Nepal and also expressed his deep in 1955/56, Stiller and Yadav, 1993, sympathy to the affected people. The p.71) flood and famine relief became
40 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954 the third largest category of US support hospitals in Kathmandu) and issues with between 1952 and 1962 (Isaacson et al., the government’s capacity. However, 2001, p.8). The incident, therefore, was he praised USOM/N activities and also significant in terms of the history of the capacity of its staffs to carry out US-led development assistance. development efforts.
In order to assess the possibility for Based on such initial assessments, an assistance to Nepal for the flood disaster, agreement was made between the the Foreign Operation Mission of USA Government of Nepal and USOM in appointed Dr. Alexander Langmuir as a Calcutta on 23 October 1954. Nepal’s special consultant for flood relief from Prime Minister MP Koirala and USOM 19 September to October 6. This was in Director Paul Rose signed the agreement. response to the King’s broadcast appeal for It was extensively covered by Calcutta- flood victim relief and after consultation based newspapers. Gorakhapatra covered between the USOM representative Paul the news on 25 October, quoting the Press Rose and the Nepal government (Ministry Trust of India. However, a summary of of Foreign Affairs).14 Later, based on his the agreement was published only on 17 visit, the Government of Nepal and USOM November in Gorakhapatra. made an agreement on 23 October, which included a detailed work plan.
Langmuir arrived in Kathmandu on 22 September and had extensive meetings with USOM officials, ministers and government officials. He had also brought a token number of emergency medicines for Nepal. Later, he handed over these medicines to Nepali officials. The news about this handover was also published in Gorakhaptra on 1 October. Based on his visit, as the news informed, there were possibilities of further assistance from Statesman, Calcutta, October, 24, 1954 the USA for flood victims in the future. Langmuir had indicated problems like the As informed by Gorakhapatra, the USA lack of a detailed account of the flood would contribute USD 2 million to the impact in the country, problems in service joint relief operation in which the Nepal delivery in various places (particularly in government would also contribute ______14 It was revealed in a letter from Paul Rose (USOM/Nepal) to Stassen (Foreign Operation Mission, Washington DC) dated 17 September.
41 New Angle: Nepal Journal of Social Science and Public Policy Vol. 3(1), December 2014
NRs 2 million. It conceived of providing Under the agreement, which comes material support to flood victims, starting into effect immediately, the US air transportation to the valley until the government will contribute up to a road was restored, rebuilding damaged maximum of USD 2 million, the Nepal roads and other infrastructures, providing government supplementing the fund agricultural inputs to farmers, and with a rupee for every dollar. The providing health services including malaria exact amount of contribution will eradication, sanitation and drinking water be determined by representatives facility in the affected areas. In order to of both governments after actual carry out all these activities, USOM would requirements have been ascertained. bear material, technical and expertise The funds under the agreement, which cost whereas the Nepal government will also be utilised for restoration of would bear the cost of Nepali officials the economy in the areas affected by and other conditional provisions. The August-September floods, will have to agreement further established a joint be spent by June 30 next year. agency named the “Nepal America Disaster Relief Cooperative Service”. The US government undertook The agreement would end by 30 June negotiation for the agreement in 1955. The agreement had the following response to an appeal broadcast by the 8 points: (1) food and clothing relief to King of Nepal for relief to the sufferers. disaster victims, (2) emergency supply The floods are described as the worst line to Kathmandu, (3) road rehabilitation, in the last 50 years. More than 1000 (4) farm rehabilitiation, (5) medical persons are reported to have died as a assistance, (6) establishment of joint result of the floods, which also caused agency, (7) administration, and (8) entry damage to property worth of several into force and duration. crores of rupees.
The news about the agreement as it was Extensive damage published in the Statesman in Calcutta According to reports, large areas of reads: the country have been devastated. A US-Nepalese cooperative relief Hundred of the villages have been agreement to alleviate the distress submerged, thousands of homes of flood victims in Nepal was signed destroyed or damaged, several miles by Mr. MP Koirala, Prime Minister of of vital roadways and scores of bridges Nepal and Mr. Paul W Rose, Director, swept away, large tracts of cultivable US Operations Mission in Nepal, at the land covered by sand, and hundreds Nepalese Consulate General in Calcutta of wells made useless, leaving many on Saturday. villages without drinking water.
42 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954
The cooperative relief programme will infected persons. Dispensaries and include supply of food, clothing and hospitals are proposed to be stocked blankets to about 100,000 sufferers, with essential medical supplies, new many of whom have lost their homes wells will be bored, polluted wells and crops, and provision of emergency sealed and stagnant water areas air transportation between now and drained. early December to maintain supplies The Programme will be administrated of certain essential commodities like by a US-Nepalese Cooperative Relief kerosene, petrol, salt, sugar and yarn Service under the supervision of which are in short supply as a result a committee to be appointed by of disruption of normal means of the Nepalese government and by a transportation to Kathmandu valley. representative of the US Operations Repairs of damaged roads and bridges Mission in Nepal. will also be undertaken. The recent There were some queries raised in the floods have disrupted the normal second session of the AA on 7 December means of transportation from Nepal’s about the total volume and utilisation Terai area and from India to the status of the flood relief received from Kathmandu valley. The road leading other countries. The PM revealed that to the southern end of the Nepal the total relief received to date was: USD Government cable-way at Dhursing 2 million including medicines and other has been badly damaged affecting necessary items from USA; two medical motor traffic. teams working in the Tarai, repairing To provide relief and assistance to bridges and embankment along the road farmers in the devastated areas, the from Bhimphedi to Amlekhganj from agreement proposed to undertake India. He further revealed that there were land reclamation by leveling and deep promises for relief from Great Britain, ploughing to distribute seeds and Australia, New Zealand and Canada. planting equipment and to provide Among this support, US support came veterinary supplies and fodder for with the formation of an agency. livestock. Opportunity will also be In this way, the flood received significant taken to demonstrate land reclamation international development aid. At that by use of mechanised equipment. time USOM was in the initial phase of As for medical assistance, anti-malaria working on vector-borne diseases (focusing work is sought to be expanded by mainly on malaria) and rural development spraying insecticides in the selected works. The project of resettlement and areas and by distributing drugs to Rapti Valley Development were in the
43 New Angle: Nepal Journal of Social Science and Public Policy Vol. 3(1), December 2014 conception phase. The total funding of rural development, health, education and USD 2 million provided for flood victim the Rapti valley development project. In relief could not be used adequately until this way, the flood relief program came the end of the agreement. GB Devkota under the broader development projects (1960, p.265) said that there was huge supported by USA and made a way for corruption in the relief materials given future interventions. Specific discussion by by internationals, particularly by USA. the Nepal government on the distribution According to him, local officials could not of flood relief occurred through the joint provide relief to needy victims. Either Directorate of the Flood Relief Committee these materials, such as milk powder, and USOM on 25 February, just before the grains, clothes, were lost or sold by local dissolution of the MP Koirala government. officials. The meeting, held in the presence of MP Koirala and Paul Rose, Director of USOM, Later, in 1955, there was less discussion discussed the modality for the distribution about the flood in development policy of the relief. Accordingly, the relief would making. On 30 January, the government be distributed through local government unveiled its development projects related officials under the direct supervision of to agriculture, irrigation, agriculture the Directorate. However, the meeting extension, health and sanitation, water also agreed for major works for recovery management and education, particularly such as reconstruction of infrastructure areas supported by foreign support, but it and resettlement of flood victims. did not talk about the flood relief program. However, it made public the total aid Mihaly (2002, p.80) argued that USOM received from the US and discussed about was determined to open up the Rapti the Rapti valley project, which was in very valley for settlement shortly after the initial stages, assessing soil and climate flood of 1954, and that flood-relief funds and starting work on malaria control. totaling USD 2 million were added to the The Nepal government had a meeting aid appropriation. He further elaborated with USOM involving experts from both that with flood-relief funds, a fifty-two countries to talk about ongoing and future mile road was pushed into the Rapti valley development projects on 1 February. in 1955. It was necessary to initiate the The meeting was held in USOM office in Rapti project, for which the flood relief Rabi Bhawan under the chairmanship of made a favorable pretext. According to Bhim Bahadur Pandey, Secretary of the him, in addition to the road building, relief Ministry of Planning and Development. funds were used to construct a sawmill on The meeting discussed the flood relief the periphery of the valley. That eventually program along with other development became the Timber Corporation of Nepal programs such as agriculture, irrigation, (Isaacson et al., 2001, p.154). It was an
44 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954 important project activity but could not CONCLUSIONS last for long. The floods of 1954 in Nepal attained an An assessment of half century’s of USAID overwhelming response from the state. (Isaacson et al., 2001, p.30) also confirms It is not surprising if we compare the the story of how the amount provided for state’s response to the flood with the flood relief also made a way into carrying response of the state to the earthquake out the Rapti Valley project. of 1934. Even during that time, the government established institutions for Funds for major investment in relief operation and fund generation. the Rapti Valley were unavailable During the flood of 1954, the government until USD 2 million in food aid was established a number of institutions at the appropriated for flood relief in 1955. center. Some differences among political Because the Rapti area had been elites were also found in the established flooded, a large portion of the funds institutions and in the distribution of was programmed into the Rapti Valley relief fund. Actually these institutions Development Project, beginning with had allowed politicians to make claims an 87-kilometer road built in 1955. By on behalf of the people and to establish that time, a concentrated effort led by the fact that they were working for ‘the WHO, and supplemented by USOM, people’. However, the interests of the had successfully controlled the Valley’s people became a political matter more endemic malaria (p.30)… USOM’s evidently during the flood of 1954 than first road-building effort was the after the earthquake of 1934. Therefore, 87-kilometer link between Bharatpur there was huge politics around the flood and Hetauda, part of the Rapti response. Similarly, there must have been Development Program, constructed differences between relief operations with flood relief funds (page 72). during the 1934 earthquake and the 1954 flood. However, a detailed comparative In this way, the flood relief operation study of these two disasters could not be led to a model development project covered in this paper. Differences between from the USA in Nepal, namely the Rapti them may also explain some perceptions Valley project and resettlement schemes. around the apparently more ineffective Therefore, the resettlement project response to the disaster during the flood always had the objective of resettling than the earthquake response during the disaster victims, particularly in its pioneer ‘autocratic’ period. phase (1954-56), which was also reflected in Nepal’s first five-year plan. However, the nature of these two disasters was completely different. Stille w
45 New Angle: Nepal Journal of Social Science and Public Policy Vol. 3(1), December 2014 can draw a conclusion that there was also The flood of 1954 was a big disaster a transition in the common belief toward event after the state’s entrance into the a natural disaster being an ‘act of god’ ‘modern’ developmental era. The extent to a disaster being ‘a result of a natural and expansion of the impact of the flood process’ when we pass from the time of was so large that the state had to be the great earthquake of 193415 to the time involved in responding to the crisis. The of the flood of 1954. The ‘natural hazard’ modernising state was also practicing so oriented approach to the flood disasters is called democratic policy making through still a dominant approach in Nepal (Dixit, the AA, which included representatives 2003, p.163) and it has been advocated from different groups and parties and from that there is a need to go toward the different parts of the country. This made ‘alternative approach’ which considers the issue more vibrant for policy making disasters as result of not only the natural despite the absence of any prominent civil process, but also and more importantly society groups. Based on the nature of the socio-economic structures and political disaster and type of political arrangement processes. If we place all these three of that time, the heavy involvement of conceptions of natural disaster (act of the state was apparent. It was mainly god, act of nature and intersection of for the post-disaster relief operation. nature and society) in a hypothetical The state experimented with at least linear progression, the incidence of 1954 five different central level government may lie somewhere at the initial stage managed institutions. However, the of the second conception. That may be state had very limited capacity in terms the reason for the state’s substantial of its administration and resources. response to the disaster, particularly by forming top-down institutions (such as a To some extent, it became successful relief committee) and exerting all energies in regularising the trade of necessary into the relief operation. We still have items in the valley and in restoring the top-down administrative mechanisms main supply line. Besides that, the state like the Prime Minister’s Relief Fund and was largely unsuccessful in carrying out the Central Disaster Relief Committee, substantial relief and recovery operations all having their district and local level through these top-down institutions. branches for addressing disasters (for The failure then largely contributed to detail of current structure of disaster the already eroding legitimacy of the response, please see Poudyal Chhetri, incumbent government. The government 2001, pp.67-68). Such arrangement must had been facing opposition not only from have originated since then, a topic which parties outside the cabinet but also from requires further research. inside the ruling alliance. All these factors ______15 Rana (2041 BS: 92-93) lists common beliefs about the earthquake of 1934 which can be regarded as defining the disaster as an ‘act of god’.
46 Sharad Ghimire Flood of 1954 combined to create favorable conditions history when the cultivation of foreign- for the new monarch to run the country aid-led development had just begun. with increased authority through his Donors, mainly USOM, were about to personal direct rule. Therefore, flood-like launch concrete development projects disasters on the one hand attracted the related to rural development and health state to be engaged in relief operations in Nepal. The disaster became a good whereas on the other hand, they created opportunity to begin and greatly expand more challenges for the state itself. Here, such projects. Since the state could not the involvement of civil society and utilise the fund provided by USOM for the business was very limited in the relief relief operation, it was then channeled to operation. This may be due to the source projects like the Rapti Valley project and of information used in this research. resettlement projects in which the flood Further research could be carried out on victim were made the main beneficiaries. the aftermath of the flood in the field with It is not clear whether only the flood more in-depth ethnographic study (an victims from the affected areas were ethno-history of the flood). served through the initial phases of these From the study, I want to draw another new projects. However, it is clear that the 16 conclusion, which is related to foreign aid- ‘aapati’ (emergency situation) became led development. The disaster occurred in a justification to launch big development a particular time of Nepal’s developmental projects in Nepal.
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