GA Research Packet | LEBMUN

Home , 2000 Camp David Summit

FORUM: GENERAL ASSEMBLY

TOPIC 1: The question of the safe and free passage of commercial vessels through the Persian Gulf

TOPIC 2: The question of basic human rights to agricultural land, natural resources, and water in Palestine-Israel Conflict

LEBMUN ‘21 | 2 CONTENTS

TOPIC 1 4 Introduction 4 Key Terms 5 Key Actors 6 Background 7 Recent Developments 8 Previous Attempts to Resolve the Issue 8 Suggested Solutions 9 Avenues of Discussion 9

TOPIC 2 10 Introduction 10 Key Terms 10 Key Actors 11 Background 11 Previous Attempts to Resolve the Conflict 13 Suggested Solutions 13 Avenues of Discussion 13 Bibliography 14

LEBMUN ‘21 | 3 TOPIC 1: The question of the safe and free passage of commercial vessels through the Persian Gulf

INTRODUCTION

The Persian Gulf To figure out what the conflict happening in the Persian Gulf is, one must first understand the significance of this body of water. The Persian Gulf is a key passageway for vessels (see definition in ‘Key Terms’ section below), whether they be commercial (for trade) or naval (military).

The Persian Gulf is bounded by multiple wealthy Arab states including Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, which is the reason for it being a longtime flourishing trading hub, crucial for access to vital trading routes in the Middle East region.

So what’s the deal with the Persian Gulf? Each Gulf state has maritime territories in the Persian Gulf, which are based on the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea (UNCLOS) Treaty. However, because of how valuable these territories are, nations will ofen try their best to place the most claims. Maritime territorial claims made by the Gulf states have led to escalating tensions in the region. The disagreements over which nation has sovereignty over which areas have even resulted in violent action, which raises the question, “How safe is it for commercial vessels to pass through the Persian Gulf?”

LEBMUN ‘21 | 4 KEY TERMS

Nautical Miles Unit of measurement for distances at sea. 1 nautical mile is equal to 1,852 metres.

Maritime Anything referring to the sea (trade by sea, territories in the sea, naval matters).

Territorial Waters The maritime territory of each country (right next to their shores) that extends 12 nautical miles from land.

The Contiguous Zone An area 12 nautical miles from the end of territorial waters where other nations must be cautious.

Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) Extending 200 nautical miles from the shore is the “Exclusive Economic Zone” (EEZ), where the respective nation has somewhat of a control over trade and passing ships. All ships are allowed to pass in this area, but the respective nation can regulate ships under the pretext of environmental concerns.

International Waters Any area that is outside of territorial waters. International waters do not belong to any nations. Vessels from all nations are allowed to freely and safely pass through international waters.

Commercial Vessels Vessels are ships or large boats. Commercial vessels refer to ships used for trade or carrying passengers (ex. Cargo ships, cruise ships). The tensions stemming from the Persian Gulf Dispute have resulted in the compromising of the safety of commercial ships passing through this body of water.

The Strait of Hormuz The Persian Gulf’s narrowest point, the Strait of Hormuz, is only 30 nautical miles in diameter. This has led to disputes and conflicts on who has the authority over this waterway.

LEBMUN ‘21 | 5 KEY ACTORS

Which countries are bordering the Persian Gulf, and what do they claim as their territorial waters? The countries that surround the Persian Gulf are Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. Each country has their own respective maritime territories in the sea.

Key Actors & Geography In the map included, the divided sections of each claimant in the Persian Gulf Dispute are shown with the red lines. The red center line indicates the division of the Persian Gulf between the Arab (Gulf) States and Iran (both sides of the conflict). EEZs and territorial waters are shown in this map as well, along with a disputed area marked by dashed lines between Dubai and Iran.

Current Western Involvements The United States Navy and British navy among others parade their warships and aircraf carriers throughout the Persian Gulf in attempts to provoke Iran.

LEBMUN ‘21 | 6 BACKGROUND

Iran’s capture of an international ship (2009) The points ‘1’ and ‘2’ along with text refer to an incident that occurred on the 25th of November, 2009, when Iran took an international ship captive under the pretext that it had “violated Iran’s international waters”. It’s important to note that this conflict existed well before US sanctions on Iran but the sanctions significantly intensified this conflict.

US-Iran Relations Several merchant ships in the Persian Gulf were damaged in two incidents in May and June 2019. Western nations blamed Iran, while Iran denied involvement. In June 2019, Iran shot down an American RQ-4A surveillance drone flying over the Strait of Hormuz (see map lef), leading to a sharp increase in tensions between the two nations and nearly resulting in an armed confrontation. In July 2019, an Iranian oil tanker was seized by Britain in the Strait of Gibraltar on the grounds that it was shipping oil to Syria in violation of European Union sanctions. Iran later captured a British oil tanker and its crew members in the Persian Gulf.

The Killing of Qasem Soleimani The crisis escalated in late 2019 and early 2020 when alleged members of the Kata'ib Hezbollah militia, part of Iraq's Popular Mobilization Forces, killed an American contractor in an attack on an Iraqi base hosting U.S. personnel. In retaliation, the U.S. conducted airstrikes against Kata'ib Hezbollah's facilities in Iraq and Syria, killing 25 militiamen. Kata'ib Hezbollah responded with an attack on the U.S. embassy in Baghdad, which prompted the U.S. to deploy hundreds of new troops to the Middle East and announce that it would preemptively target Iran's "proxies" in Iraq. Days later, the commander of IRGC's Quds Force Qasem Soleimani and PMF commander Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis were both killed in a U.S. drone strike, resulting in Iran's Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei pledging to exact revenge on U.S. forces.

Military Escalations The U.S. deployed nearly 4,000 troops in response to the tensions, and Israel heightened its security levels. On 5 January 2020, Iran ended its commitments to the nuclear deal, and the Iraqi parliament passed a resolution to expel all foreign troops from its territory.

The U.S. and Iran nearly entered into an open conflict on 8 January 2020 when the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps launched ballistic missile attacks on two military bases in Iraq housing U.S. soldiers in retaliation for the killing of Soleimani, a rare direct Iran–U.S. confrontation and the closest to the brink of war between the two nations in decades. Upon initial assessments of no American casualties, the Trump administration curtailed tensions by temporarily ruling out a direct military response but announcing new sanctions on Iran. It was later revealed that more than a hundred U.S. troops sustained injuries during the attacks.

LEBMUN ‘21 | 7 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Seizing of the South Korean-flagged tanker On January 4, 2021, Iran’s Revolutionary Guards Corps seized a South Korean-flagged tanker in the Gulf waters, detaining its crew. Seoul confirmed the seizure of this tanker by Iranian authorities in the waters of Oman and demanded its immediate release. Several Iranian media outlets, including state TV, said the Guards Navy captured the vessel for “polluting the Gulf with chemicals” and also stated that the vessel’s detained crew members included nationals of South Korea, Indonesia, Vietnam and Myanmar. Iran’s state TV said the tanker was being held at Iran’s Bandar Abbas port city. The ship had 20 crew members, according to South Korea’s foreign ministry. The US State Department called for Iran to release the tanker immediately. The incident comes ahead of an expected visit by South Korea’s deputy foreign minister to Tehran. The visit would occur in the days afer, during which oficials would discuss Iran’s demand that South Korea release $7 billion in funds frozen in South Korean banks because of US sanctions.

Seizing of the British-flagged tanker In early 2019, Iran jacked up tensions in this waterway by seizing British-flagged tanker Stena Impero, two weeks afer a British warship had intercepted an Iranian tanker of the coast of Gibraltar.

PREVIOUS ATTEMPTS TO RESOLVE THE ISSUE

Land boundary demarcated by the United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Boundary Demarcation Commission (UNIKBDC) An agreement in 1994 decided by the UNIKBDC, on the course of the Iraq-Kuwait land boundary. The line which they intended to demarcate was in efect a refinement of a detailed demarcation proposal submitted unavailingly by Britain. (Link can be found here)

Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action 2015 (JCPOA) An agreement reached in July 2015, concerning the Iranian Nuclear Program, in Vienna. The agreement was between Iran, the five permanent members of the security council, and Germany, together with the European Union (EU). Iran agreed to eliminate its stockpile of medium-enriched uranium, cut its stockpile of low-enriched uranium by significantly, and reduce the number of its gas centrifuges for 13 years. Iran also agreed not to build any new heavy-water facilities for the same period of time.

International Maritime Security Construct (IMSC) Group of countries, oficially tasked with maintaining order and security in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Gulf of Aden and Southern Red Sea. Formed in September 2019 in Bahrain, by the United Kingdom, Australia, Albania, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Lithuania, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States. It was formed afer multiple oil tankers and merchant ships were attacked by Iran to deter maritime harassment and illegal seizure of merchant vessels in the region's waters. The IMSC's primary task is monitoring international waters of the region to ensure the freedom of navigation of merchant vessels plying their trade in the area.

LEBMUN ‘21 | 8 Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain) ICJ In July 1991, Qatar filed in the Registry of the Court an Application instituting proceedings against Bahrain in respect of certain disputes between the two States relating to sovereignty over the Hawar Islands, sovereign rights over the shoals of Dibal and Qit’at Jaradah and the delimitation of their maritime areas.

Iran and Saudi Arabian Agreement 1968 An agreement between Iran and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia concerning the sovereignty over the islands of Al-Arabiyah and Farsi and the delimitation of the boundary line separating the submarine areas. This agreement recognizes a boundary line separating the territorial seas of the two islands. (Link can be found here)

SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS

1. The withdrawal of US forces from Iraq, and bordering countries, as well lifing the imposed sanctions on Iran, could help the conflict die down faster. 2. To implement rules and regulations that Iran and other Persian gulf nations must abide to, regarding access and control over.

AVENUES OF DISCUSSION

● Is Iran justified in taking ships captive? ● Are these ships violating Iran's territorial waters? ● How are the incidents that occur on these waterways a threat to the legitimacy and security of international waters? ● What can other nations do to aid the situation? ● How can we, as the General Assembly, ensure the free and safe passage of international & commercial ships in the Persian Gulf?

LEBMUN ‘21 | 9 TOPIC 2: The question of agricultural land, natural resources, and water in Palestine-Israel Conflict

INTRODUCTION

Almost five million Palestinians live under occupation while the degradation and alienation of their water supply, the exploitation of their natural resources, their limited access to farming land, and reduced access to the sea constantly brings challenges and negative efects to their livelihoods. International law strictly regulates what an occupying power may do with the resources and water of an occupied territory.

KEY TERMS

Oslo Accords A pair of agreements between the PLO and Israel to start the peace process, and move forward. It was aimed at reaching a peace treaty between Israel and Palestine in the near future, but it hasn’t materialized in a way that has allowed for this. It was based on United Nations Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338, and at fulfilling the "right of the Palestinian people to self-determination.”

Camp David Summit Summit hosted by the US in 2000, in Maryland to start negotiations between Israel and the PLO. The negotiations were based on an all-or-nothing approach, such that "nothing was considered agreed and binding until everything was agreed." Most of the proposals were verbal. They ultimately failed to reach a final agreement on the issues:

● Palestinian Territory - Has been used for many years to describe the territories occupied by Israel since 1967, namely the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. ● Jerusalem and the Temple Mount - The temple Mount is located in Jerusalem, but access to it is ofen dificult for Palestinians. But they possess the religious right to be able to go there. ● Refugees and Palestinian right of return - Palestinian refugees’ right to return to the homes from which they were displaced is well established in international law. ● Security arrangements - Any security arrangements and measures which become efective commensurate with the redeployment of the Israeli military forces will not undermine the importance of, nor will they prejudice, the Palestinian development programs and projects for reconstruction and development of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, as well as the moral and physical dignity of the Palestinian people in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. ● Settlements - Israeli settlements currently exist in the Palestinian territory of the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and in the Syrian territory of the Golan Heights. However many of them have been dismantled per a unilateral agreement in 2005

Land Annexation Land annexation refers to forcefully claiming and taking land away from a group of people. Israel has been annexing land from the Palestinians bit by bit, and this is costing Palestinians their homes yearly.

LEBMUN ‘21 | 10 KEY ACTORS

Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) was established in 1964 with the aim of liberating Palestine, achieving Palestinian self-determination, and ensuring refugee return. It was formed at a summit of the Arab League in Cairo, and it supported the use of armed struggle to achieve its objectives.

Palestinian Authority (PA) Palestinian Authority (PA), formally Palestinian National Authority , self-declared State of Palestine, governing body of the Palestinian autonomous regions of the West Bank and Gaza Strip established in 1994 as part of the Oslo Accords peace agreement between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).

The US & Israel Israel–United States relations refers to the bilateral relationship between Israel and the United States. Since the 1960s the United States has been a very strong supporter of Israel, and promoted good relations between Israel and Jordan, Lebanon and Egypt, along with several other states in the Abraham Accords. The relations are a very important factor in the United States government's overall policy in the Middle East, and Congress has placed considerable importance on the maintenance of a close and supportive relationship.

BACKGROUND

Human rights The UN recognizes access to water and sanitation as a fundamental human right and adopted a law in 2010 that states, “The human right to water entitles everyone to suficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and afordable water for personal and domestic uses.”

Military Order 158 In November 1967, Israeli authorities issued Military Order 158, which stated that Palestinians could not construct any new water installation without first obtaining a permit from the Israeli army. Since then, the extraction of water from any new source or the development of any new water infrastructure would require permits from Israel, which are nearly impossible to obtain.

Agricultural land Throughout the occupied territories, the agricultural sector has been devastated by Israeli policies, the Palestinian Authority (PA), and flawed donor policies and practices. The farming sector began to be afected when thousands of Palestinians lef their land in the West Bank and Gaza to work in Israel and in the Israeli settlements, partly due to the higher wages ofered as part of the Israeli economic integration and containment policies. Afer the Oslo Accords, an area which constitutes 62% of the West Bank and includes fertile land, natural resources, and water, came under full Israeli military and settler control. In Gaza, Israel’s “security” belt constitutes 17% of the Strip and is also under its full Israeli military control, further limiting their access to farming land. In the map on the right, the diferent geographical features of Palestine/Israel are mentioned. The best farming land, the Plains and Valleys (highlighted on the map in green), is mostly controlled by the Israeli government; there is also adequate farming land within the central mountain range on the lower altitude and flatter areas. LEBMUN ‘21 | 11 Access to water Palestinians living under Israel’s military occupation continue to sufer the devastating consequences of the aforementioned military order even up till today. They are unable to legally drill new water wells, install pumps or deepen existing wells, in addition to being denied access to the Jordan River and fresh water springs. Israel even controls the collection of rain water throughout most of the West Bank, and rainwater harvesting cisterns owned by Palestinian communities are ofen destroyed by the Israeli army. As a result, some 180 Palestinian communities in rural areas in the occupied West Bank have no access to running water, according to the United Nations Ofice for the Coordination of the Humanitarian Afairs (UNOCHA), and even in the towns and villages that are connected to the water network, taps ofen run dry.

Natural resources Historically, Palestine has long had an abundance of natural resources (see map on right), ranging from fresh and groundwater, arable land, and more recently, oil and natural gas. In the seven decades since the establishment of the state of Israel, these resources have been compromised and exploited through a variety of measures. These include widespread Palestinian dispossession of land in the ongoing Nakba, exploitation of water through failed negotiations, and a finders-keepers approach to gas and oil found in or under occupied land. Note: There have been UN resolutions passed regarding this subject like the resolution A/RES/71/247 (2016).

Land-Based & Maritime Resources Palestine contains huge volumes of marine gas reserves. In 1999, the Consolidated Contractors Company and the British Gas Group (multinational gas & oil companies/corporations), formed a consortium to explore the existence of gas reserves of the coast of Gaza, with the help of the Palestine Investment Fund as well. One year later, the consortium discovered the existence of over thirty billion cubic meters of gas in the Gaza Marine and Border Field. The Gaza Marine is wholly located on the Palestinian coast and contains twenty-eight billion cubic meters of gas while Border Field is between Palestine and Israeli territories and contains four billion cubic meters of gas. Using 2010 prices, the gas is estimated at approximately $6.5 billion. Israel has impeded any form of extraction and usage of the gas and therefore, the gas remains untapped.

Additionally, Palestine has vast fishing territories of the coast of the Gaza strip that span a total of 20 nautical miles. Israel’s military has, however, cut Palestinians of, leaving them with access to only three nautical miles as shown in the map above. Today, Palestinians are only given access to thirty percent of the fishing range with restrictions being implemented by the Israeli military force exerted onto all who illegally access restricted regions.

LEBMUN ‘21 | 12 PREVIOUS ATTEMPTS TO RESOLVE THE CONFLICT

Madrid Conference of 1991 Peace conference held in Madrid, from October to November 1991, hosted by Spain and co-sponsored by the United States and the Soviet Union. It was an attempt by the international community to revive the Israeli–Palestinian peace process through negotiations. Israel and the Palestinians as well as Arab countries, including Jordan, Lebanon and Syria were heavily involved. The purpose of the conference was to serve as an opening forum for the participants and had no power to impose solutions or veto agreements.

Oslo Accords (1993) The Oslo Accords were the start of the Oslo process, a peace process aimed to reach a peace treaty based on United Nations Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338, and at fulfilling the "right of the Palestinian people to self-determination." A number of agreements were reached, until the Oslo process ended afer the failure of the Camp David Summit in 2000. The failure of the Oslo agreements can be ascribed to the same reasons that are usually the cause of most agreement failures; both parties felt that Oslo had not delivered what they had expected from it.

Camp David 2000 Summit The 2000 Camp David Summit was a summit meeting at Camp David between United States president Bill Clinton, Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority chairman Yasser Arafat. The summit took place in July 2000 and was an efort to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict through negotiations. The failure of the negotiations was due to the refusal of the Palestinians and Arafat to give up the right of return. The negotiations were based on an all-or-nothing approach, such that "nothing was considered agreed and binding until everything was agreed."