Journal of Arts, Vol. 27, Number (1), pp1-20 ,king Sand Univ., Riyadh (2015 /1436H.)
The Contribution of Arab Muslims to the Provencal Lyrical Poetry: the Troubadours in the Twelfth Century
Yahya Saleh Hassan Dahami
Assistant Professor of English, Department of Theoretical Courses, Faculty of Sports , Sana'a University, Currently: Department of English, Faculty of Science and Arts , Al Mandaq, Al Baha University
)Received 7/6/1435H; Accepted for publication 27/7/1435H)
Keywords: Arab Muslims, Contribution, Mawashahat, Zajal, Troubadours, Provencal, Poetry, Twelfth Century, Renaissance, literature Abstract:This study is a historical-analytical attempt to demonstrate the influence and contribution of Arab Islamic Mawashahat and Zajal on the Provencal lyrical poets – the Troubadours that sprang in south of France during the eleventh century. The study consists of three parts in which the first part represents the main part. It sheds light on the influence of Muwashashah and Zajal on the poetry of troubadours. The second part deals with the nature of troubadours and their relation with the poetry of Muwashashah and Zajal. It is supported with five troubadour poets. The last part goes back to the beginning of the European Renaissance in the twelfth century. The European Renaissance started in Italy decades after translations of Islamic heritage, literature and science from Arabic into Latin then from Latin to other European languages. The eighth through the eleventh centuries witnessed the glorious ages of Islamic civilization and sciences in which great portion of it was shifted to Italy during and after the crusades. Thence, different parts of Europe were enlivened with the movement of translation and multi travels and cultural exchange. One of the changing factors is poetry as a branch of literature. The Influence of Arab Muslims of that the muwashshahis almost certainly Andalusia derived from a simpler form of folk poetry, Andalusia was the connecting link the zajal, which is entirely in the local between the Islamic world – from the Arabic vernacular. It is true that in the literary peninsula and North African countries – and record the zajal appeared later than the the European countries. muwashshah(Pierre Cachia 2004, p 35). It is in Andalusia – presumably because it ―However, it is with Andalusian strophic was not completely Islamized or Arabized – poetry, the muwashshah and zajal … that that, in the tenth century, a small breach is ghazal makes some of its most innovative found in the fortified walls of classicism. contributions‖ (Roger Allen. 2000, p 108). This was in an innovation: an elaborate kind Arab Muslims in Andalusia, from the of strophic poem known as the muwashshah beginning of the eighth century, wrote one composed entirely in the classical language of the brilliant, gleaming and shining except for the closing line or couplet, which chapters in the intellectual ancient times is in a mixture of Arabic and during the medieval Europe. Throughout the Spanish.…What is even more significant is middle of the eighth and the commencement 1
Yahya Saleh Hassan Dahami: The Contribution of Arab Muslims to the Provencal Lyrical Poetry 2 of the thirteenth centuries, the Arabic- The poetry of Arab Muslims in Andalusia Muslim-speaking people were the major has acquired new receptivity and developed bearers of the torch of culture, knowledge new metrical forms to present the and civilization throughout the world. magnificent nature and the age. Courtly love Islamic inauguration of Spain was not an poetry manifested a great romantic emotion army event as it was an event of civilization through its ballads and love poems that in which the Islamic civilization has merged preceded the attitude of the European and fused with other ancient civilizations Middle Ages. ―Local influence made itself such as the Roman Empire and others which felt primarily in lyrical poetry, where the resulted from this interpenetration a new Spanish Arabs created new forms not prosperous civilization called the Andalusian previously known in the Muslim East. These Civilization reached and affected the had a considerable influence on early European mind as well as deeply affected Spanish Christian poetry and possibly also ‖on the other literatures of Western Europe .(سائدة عبد الفتاح the Spanish life (212 ،1002 Moreover Muslims were the medium (Bernard Lewis. 2002, p 139). through which ancient science and In Andalusia, love poetry such as Al Muwashahat - muwashashah –and philosophy were revived and put on the 1 stage of life for everyone, supplemented and zajal have been developed at the transmitted in a manner that made the commencement of the tenth and eleventh Renaissance of Western Europe possible. centuries. Both were grounded on a refrain Philip K Hitti, in his book, History of the for the chorus. They were known also as Arabs assures that the Arabic Spain did a songs. Music and song are clear great contribution. Moreover, ―In his music characteristics of this sort of poetry. Al- history, F´etis too insisted on the folk nature Muwashahatwas originally invented in of troubadour melodies in particular, taking Andalusia and from there it spread into this one step further back and east, so to Africa, East and north to Europe. speak, by declaring that ‗the songs of the One of Al-Muwashahat pioneers is Abe- troubadours and trouv`eres … were inspired Bakribn-Quzmain (1160). He was a famous by those of the Arabs‖ (Haines John. 2004, p wandering minstrel from Cordoba – 187). Cordova. He used to travel from a city to In addition to that, Hitti declares that the another singing the sort of praise which is passion for poetical composition was fervent later on called zajal. Al-Muwashahatis in the Arabic language. Arabic verse was defined as; "The Arabic poetic form muwashashah was first developed in Spain countless in number and is transmitted from th th mouth to mouth. It was of great attraction 9 c.– 10 c. Its Kharja or refrain was not the where all listeners admired them, whatever classical tongue but in Romance or people were, high or low, rich or poor. colloquial Arabic, known as the Mozarab Poetry in Arabic language is full of music 1Zajal is a kind of improvisatory love lyrics, later on known as a and exquisite accent. literary form. 3 Journal of Arts, Vol. 27, Number (1),king Sand Univ., Riyadh (2015 /1436H.) dialect. This form was popular in the 11th – Christians and Jews prosper under Arabic 12th c. it may have been the forerunner of the Islamic law. Provencal lyric." (Cuddon J.A. 1998, p Sicily formed with the Moroccan counties 522)―The Arabic zajal (known in Spanish as in North Africa and Andalusia a unified the zéjel) was a popular verse form that culture of private imprint of the Islamic originated in Muslim Spain in the 12th Arabic heritage in which several century. Like the muwashshah, the zajal was transportations assisted in keeping it for a strophic form—that is, it was built of long. Telling about Sicily, ―It had been one several stanzas, usually five to six or more‖. of the wealthiest states in Europe in the (Jay Ruud. 2006, p 707) twelfth century and its rulers had controlled Zajal in its general meaning, first, the central Mediterranean, or had at least evolved as a sort of imitation of the original bullied people into thinking that they did. native songs especially when Arabs were The royal palace had played host to an mixed with the natives in cities and exceptionally lively troubadour and organized mixed weddings and ceremonies. scientific court culture‖. (Clifford Backman They – both – Arabs and native people of R. 2002, p 3) Andalusia needed public folk songs to be Andalusia and Sicily played a pioneer sung in such weddings, festivals, in the time role in the European Renaissance through of making juice and in the seasons of shifting and moving their heritage. People of harvest. The next step was the attempt of Andalusia used to have a great care of narrowing the gap between the classical language and its arts and literature. Arabic poetry and the public folk songs in People of Andalusia have taken great care which women, youngsters, craftsmen, in learning; they put scholars in an elevated laborers and laymen of low class became position. The Andalusians did not have able to sing such mixed songs in vernacular schools to help in learning but they used to Arabic language without skimming it from have mosques – Masjeds – as their schools; the foreign dialects acquired from neighbors, scholars and teachers were not paid because which became part of their language. their objectives were increasing and It is believed that Andalusia and the extending knowledge. It is not strange the Moroccan States were two related parts of illiteracy in Andalusia was rare and different one world known to the orient citizens as the from the rest of Europeans where illiteracy Islamic West. These parts continued during was wide except the high class of priests and the Middle Ages to represent one civilization monks who were able to read and write. mixed in its connections with human Learning was not restricted to men only but relations, immigration, marriage, thought, women also had a great portion in learning social aspects, politics and trade. It is also and contributing in the cultural movement .(ص 12- 11يونس طركي سلوم البحاري said that, in the early medieval years or (1006 during the advent of the Renaissance, Toledo Woman also occupied an elevated rank was a multi-cultural Muslim town, where and gained great luck of learning which Yahya Saleh Hassan Dahami: The Contribution of Arab Muslims to the Provencal Lyrical Poetry 4 assisted her to have a high rank in the inaugurated North Africa, they found a kind society. It has been said that around a of music that is different from theirs. A hundred and seventy women of the suburb of number of historians and researchers support Cordova were working daily on handwritten the idea that music during pre-Islam was part copies of the Holy Quran using the Kofi of that world. They believe that music came bond (a style of writing). One of them is from the Arabian Peninsula and transformed Ishraq Al Orodia, during the fifth century by the Arab-Muslim tribes who migrated to Hijri calendar, who memorized ‗Al Kamel‘ North Africa then to Andalusia. (the Complete) written by Al Mbered and This new branch of poetry, also ‗Al Nawader‘ (Rear Anecdotes) by Al Muwashashah, tones with the environment Gali (Abo Ali Ismael ibn Al Gasem Al in which, flirtation, drink and singing were Gali). widely spread in Andalusia. Muwashashah is The poetesses were prominent as a sign a category of verse that includes more than of poetry in Andalusia and as a result of the one rhyme and more than one rhythm. The numerous poetesses in addition to their poets designed a category full of metrical intellectuality and smartness. The magical variety and fascination. Mwashashahis women poetry was connected with the name derived from the Arabic verb ‗washaha‘ that of Waladh (483 Hirji calendar), the daughter means ‗decorated‘. It was named with such a of Khalif Al Mustakfi in which her forum name because of the decoration, retouch, was attended by the pioneers of verse and symmetry and workmanship as if poets prose, one of them is Ibn Zaidon (463 H) resembled the women‘s scarf that is studded who penned some of the most beautiful and with pearls, jewels and gems. delicate verse. As Ibn Khaldun mentioned, this kind of People of Andalusia regulated verse for art was evolved in the third century – Hejri several traditional purposes such as calendar by two poets from the village of flirtation, promiscuity, asceticism, Cabra in Andalusia. They are Mohammad mysticism, praise, satire, and lamentation. ibn Hamoud Al Thurair and They developed the theme of lamentation; as MagdmibnMoa'afa. Furthermore, the critics a result, they revived pathos poetry on Ribera and Garcia Gomez think that ancient cities and kingdoms. The poets lived Muwashashah is a traditional imitation of and felt the political age then versed the romantic poetry used to be sung. The poets poetry of 'evocation'. They also expanded kept from their verse the foreign Kharja the portrait of the Andalusian environment because the 'Mawashah' – a single stanza – and introduced the art of mawashashat and consists of three parts: opening – one or two Zajal. lines matching the next in rhyme, a group of It is said that the muwashshah roles and Kharjah. The idea is supported by and zajal are lyrical songs that have their Aimn Yousef Ibraheem Jarar in his theses origins in the Arab countries, but were The Poetical Movement in Andalusia: The improved in Andalusia. When Muslims 5 Journal of Arts, Vol. 27, Number (1),king Sand Univ., Riyadh (2015 /1436H.)
Period of Bani Al Ahmarshedding light on the Arabic precedent the cult of the dame the characteristics of Muwashashah. suddenly arises in south – Western Europe. During the time that the art of (Hitti Philip K. 1964, p. 562) Mawashashah was spread and widened Julian Ribera has searched a lot in the within people of Andalusia, the laymen topic of the influence of Mawashasha and woven the art of zajal with a language close Zajal on the troubadour lyrical songs until he to the language spoken by the laymen. Zajal reached a frank clear link between the went by subsequent roles, started with the troubadour songs and Mawashashah. Ribera folk lyric songs then modified to zajal. has found the connection in more than one Zajalwas used for multi purposes such as face. He found such a connection in the praise, flirtation, mysticism and depiction. outer form. He found the influence in the Before the close of the twelfth century, content and also Ribera discovered the the important legacy in the field of music to influence from historical events and persons. Europe was left to the Arabs. The Arab Many researchers say that the word Muslims of Spain were fond of song writing. 'troubadour' is compounded of two words. Some of the well-known composers of Al The first one is 'troub' derived from Spanish Muwashahat are Abu-al- Abbas al –Tutaili, and its meaning is 'band' or group of singers. died in 1129, Ibrahim ibn-Sahl (1251 or There is also a possibility that this part is 1260), Muhammad ibn Yusuf abu-Hayyan derived from the Arabic adjective (1256 – 1344) and the great ibn-Hani al- ‗TAROUB‘ which means melodious or Andalusi (938 – 973). ‗TARAB‘ which means enjoying music and Both Muwashasha and Zajalwere singing. The second is 'dour' an Arabic word improved into the Castilian Popular verse means houses. It makes it clear that form of villancico that was used for troubadours are some minstrels who used to Christian hymns, and even Christmas carols. travel from a place to another to sing their Thus the arising of such literary work of lyrical love poems. 'platonic love' in Andalusia at the eight Moreover, the system of kharjah in the century marked a clear contribution of poems of troubadours is similar to the Arabic poetry in the origination of courtly Mawashahat and Zajal and the troubadours love of Troubadours who played a great role had the same importance. This is from the in opening the gate for a great literature in aspect of the form, the similarity in content the twelfth century Renaissance. Moreover; is clear that the imagination of Arabic poetry In southern France the first Provencal and its meaning which was embosomed by poets appear full-fledge toward the end of mawashasha and zajalhas transformed and the eleventh century with palpitating love used in the flirtation and other characteristics expressed in a wealth of fantastic imagery. of troubadours poetry. The troubadours, who flourished in the Concerning the historical events and twelfth century, imitated their southern persons it can be clearly seen that ―Occitan contemporaries, the zajal-singers. Following lords were prominent in the early crusading Yahya Saleh Hassan Dahami: The Contribution of Arab Muslims to the Provencal Lyrical Poetry 6 effort, both in Spanish reconquista and in Menndeth Bedal. Furthermore, Maria Rosa Syria, and some settled there, so that many Menocal in her book, The Arabic Role in noble families of Occitania had relative in Medieval Literary Theory, depicts the the Christian states of the Middle East or in influence of the Arabic love poems of Spain‖ (Simon Gaunt & S. K. 1999, P muwashshah in the rising of the 9).Moreover, the first troubadour William of Troubadours courtly love poetry saying; Aquitaine has a wide connection with Arabic Perhaps in consideration the Hispano- culture and traditions. He participated in the Arabic texts as part of the European body of Crusades and travelled to the East in 1101. courtly love poems, a different view might He lived in Palestine awhile where he got emerge. It would appear that the Arabic texts familiarity with Arabic. He acquired good allow us to see, more clearly than could the knowledge of Arabic. Levi Provencal, in his Provencal poetry alone, that the poems book Arabic Civilization in Spainthat was embodying this love ideology could be read translated into Arabic by Dr Al Taher as excellent examples of a condemnation of Ahmad Maki, has narrated a poem of the love whose praises they at first seem to William of Aquitaine that talks of two ladies be singing. (Menocal Maria Rosa. 1990p. he met in one of his journeys where these 109). ladies saluted him with high morals and a It is important here to shed light on the short dialogue occurred between him and the courtly love poetry of the troubadours two ladies. through examining five troubadour poets as In the poem, there are two difficult lines an instance. cannot be understood by critics but The Troubadours Courtly Love Poetry Provencal realized that the difficulty is The troubadours are lyric poets who because their Arabic origin which denotes emerged in the south of France between the that William was acquainted with Arabic eleventh century and the fourteenth century. and talked with the people using their Arabic The troubadours were themselves a language. Such historical connections heterogeneous group of noble poets. Some between the pioneer of troubadours, William of them made their songs as their profession of Aquitaine with the eastern Arabic in life. They were wandering from one place countries, and between Spain and Arabic to another and from a town to another. The poetry confirms that troubadours were Crusades started in 1096 and the influenced by Muashashah and Zajal. Troubadours simultaneously started their If Zajal has appeared before the first singing poems. The troubadours as a group troubadour with two centuries, it is no doubt of poets used to have the chance when peace that troubadours were influenced by Zajal truces were signed to perform their songs. not the opposite. It is a fact confirmed by ―Richard I Lion-hearted, King of England (r. several critics and historians on the 1189–1199). The son of Henry II (r. 1154– concerned topic such as Julian Ribera, A. R. 1189) and Eleanor of Aquitaine, a knight Nickel, Tal Green, Robert Briffault and and troubadour, … was perceived as the 7 Journal of Arts, Vol. 27, Number (1),king Sand Univ., Riyadh (2015 /1436H.) greater monarch on the Third Crusade influenced by it. (Bonner Antony. 1972, p. (1189–1192), but he failed to recover 1) Jerusalem.‖ (Kenneth Harl W. 2003, p 46). So, the twelfth century witnessed the The themes of troubadours‘ poetry dealt originating of a tradition of romantic love, chiefly with love, and questions of politics which as it is said, commenced in France and chivalry. Their love poetry was written and spread in the north which affected in the musical Provencal dialect, or what is the relationship of 'masculine-feminine' and called the old French. The troubadour love continued until the second half of the twelfth poems offer advantages in developing music century but its effects and power continued that draws Middle Ages to Renaissance. The until today. Thus, the courtly love tradition majority of the singing poems addressed and affected the literature and history. were directed to ladies. The themes of most The twelfth century came with a great of the poems were about love or what is change especially in the field of literature known as courtly love, love for noble birth and love poetry. The French historian, ladies. Love songs used to depict and portray Charles Seignobos depicts the situation the beauty of women but the poets could not saying; ―love is an invention of the twelfth reach and share their love with those century‖ (Wiener Philip 1973, p 97). It is beloved, its border is the look and love that stands for expressing passion and imagination. sentimental feeling. This meaning for love is Besides the charming love songs, the the nature of the poetry of the troubadours. troubadours wrote poems about politics, and Love poetry is not only written but also about war, satirizing their antagonists also sung. It spread from Poitou, Limousin and composed laments for their dead leaders and Languedoc in the south west of France all friends. Troubadours were critics of their over Europe with astounding quickness. specific community and also active These courtly love poems were new as if commentators on life. They were also they descended from heaven. This new sort musicians. Antony Bonner defines the of poetry in the twelfth century transformed troubadours as the ways of feeling, customs and arts for men who wrote lyric poetry in a language centuries. It could be said that courtly love is Called Provencal during the two centuries a sign of the general revolution, which between 1095 and 1295. It was a poetry effectively operated in the mind of western almost exclusively under the patronage of people during this period of time. In the greater noblemen of the day and is addition, therefore predominantly aristocratic or it has been felt that some explanation is courtly. … it was the first lyric poetry in any required to account for the extreme modern European language, and all other complexity and artificiality of troubadour lyric poetry in Europe either descends from poetry in its most highly developed stage. it or was at one time tremendously Some nine hundred different forms of stanza construction are to be found in the body of Yahya Saleh Hassan Dahami: The Contribution of Arab Muslims to the Provencal Lyrical Poetry 8 troubadour poetry, and few, if any schools of Aquitaine. It is important to consolidate this lyric poetry in the world, can show a higher search with some patterns of troubadours to degree of technical perfection in point of sustain and support this research. It is metrical diversity, complex stanza preferred to start with the first pioneer of construction and accuracy in the use of rime. troubadours known as William of Aquitaine. This result has been ascribed to Arabic influence during the eighth century. 1. William of Aquitaine (Chaytor, H. J. 1912, pp. 6-7) William of Aquitaine was one of the most This new appearance of poetry soon arose famous courtly men. Barbara Smythe, in her in Poitou and Limousin in France with the book Trobador Poets mentions that William first works of Lord William, the duke of or as she writes, Guilhem was born in 1071 Aquitaine (1071 – 1126). After him, and died in 1127. He was also one of the hundreds of the troubadour poets followed greatest deceivers of women; He was a brave his way. The courtly love poetry exalted knight and a good love poet and singer. woman, and celebrated her with the name of Furthermore, he wandered for a long time in 'lady'. ―There were the poetry of the different places of the world seducing troubadours who originated in the south of women. He was an irreverent and immoral France during the tenth and the eleventh man. Several of his lyrics were addressed, centuries. The troubadours used to innovate, though not certain, to ladies specially flirting, praise and describe but their poetry Countess Amalberge. She was his mistress was meager in meaning and does not adhere for a period of time. William of Aquitaine yet, was known as the VII of Poitiers and the )مجيل سلطاى to refrain and one rhyme‖ ،2731 IX of Aquitaine at the same time. 14 13. ) - Besides, William of Aquitaine was a very In the twelfth century, it could be seen powerful feudal lord in France at his time better that the troubadours have contributed and was likely distinguished as the first in the use of language needed to express the courtly love poet. He was excommunicated ambition of the time's soul. The twelfth because he was an enemy of all chastity and century was actually the theater of an virtue. It is necessary to get an example of original uprising in the European mind. It is his lyrical poems explained. a revolution that is manifested with morality One of his best love poems that portray and spirituality, also with the personification the mind of the poet is; that appeared in the lyricism of the With the sweetness of the season Provencal poetry. When forest leaves grow and the birds This genre of literature had not been only Sings, each in his own way encouraged and looked after by noble men in And in a new key, it is then the south of France but, in fact, it started That men draw near with the practice of one of them, a noble and To what they most desire …. a troubadour such as William, the Duke of Our love is like 9 Journal of Arts, Vol. 27, Number (1),king Sand Univ., Riyadh (2015 /1436H.)
The hawthorn branch is spread all over the jungle to cover as a Which, at night, trembles warm blanket every part of the boughs and Beneath rain and ice leaves of trees. Until day comes and the sun spread The poet describes a day in the morning Through the boughs and green leaves. he cannot forget when after the war, his lady I still remember one morning shared with him love as a reward after the When our war ended battle but it is not only that, he was rewarded And she made me a gift beside love with a ring as a symbol of love. Of her love and ring. The gift is binary, abstract and concrete, love May God grant that I live long enough and ring and both of them go together. To have my hands beneath her cloak. It is a wish of all lovers to spend as much I care little for whatever evil talk of time with their beloveds. Here, the Could part me from my bon Vezi, portrait is the same where the poet desires to For I know well how words be with his lady and enjoy love but in a Can spread from mouth to mouth. sense. The poet troubadour, in this poem, Let others vainly boast of love; shows his audacity simultaneously with But we two hold the bread and knife. indifference with what is going to happen. (Bonner Antony. 1972, pp. 38-9) Even if evil takes his life by the rumors that Naturally, the poets– old and modern – are spread by mouths. It is believed that start their singing love poems with stories can move like storms specially those portraying the surroundings and nature to bad or immoral stories. A sort of pride illustrate the beauty of trees and birds obsesses the poet despising other poets. singing in the forests and woods with rivers William of Aquitaine shows that he is the and the musical sound of water which can be luckiest knight. He frankly tells about his a lovely warm environment for lovers. Here love. in the above poem, the poet William goes the same course as an introduction to his 2. Jaufre Rudal deep love description of his woman. The second troubadour example is Jaufre The poet describes the love with his lady Rudal de Blaia or Blaye. He was the Prince as a bird shivering because of cold at night of Blaia – a town on the right bank of the under the open sky that showers rain and the Gironde Bordeaux and the sea. He was a weather is cold and snowy. Here it is an noble man and of gentle origin. Rudalisis image of what love does in the bodies, minds influenced by the poetry of the Arabs, ―the and hearts of lovers where trembling is most famous love-song, JaufreRudel‘s understood as a sort of mixed feelings shown celebration of amor de lonh, was inspired by not only by the body but also through the a journey to the Holy Land‖ (Simon Gaunt abstract feelings of the heart. The process & S. K. 1999, p 9). When Rudal heard the continues all during the night but when the pilgrims, who returned from Antioch, talking day time is advent, the bright ray of the sun about the Countess of Tripoli and her Yahya Saleh Hassan Dahami: The Contribution of Arab Muslims to the Provencal Lyrical Poetry 10 beauty, he fell in love with her even before During the twelfth century, nature was seeing her. He wrote her several beautiful described through images and symbols. poems. Once he took the Cross and went to Poets used to portray the beauty of woods the sea desiring to meet her. He became ill at and forests with all their dwellers and the time he reached Tripoli and was about to components – trees, birds, pouring water die. Therefore, he was taken to an inn. When through fountains and rivers. In brief, all the Countess heard about him and his what pertains seasons and time. Here in voyage, she came to him, beside him and in these lines, the troubadour describes her arms she embraced him. He recognized summers' days especially in the month of that she is the countess and once upon a May where nights are short and days are sudden quickly recovered his sense of smell long. The long days have a privilege that it is and sight, for that he thanked and eulogized possible to spend time enjoying listening to God for allowing him to see her. the beautiful songs of birds even from far Immediately he died between her arms. away. When listening and enjoying the The countess ordered him to be buried in music, the poet sets his thought free to recall the 'knights Templars'. She then made him a love once was shareda long time ago. great ceremony and on the same day the The process of evoking his love with the Countess became a nun as a result of the beloved makes the poet depressed and when grief she felt after the death of Prince Jaufre he walks, his steps are heavy and distressed. Rudal in her love. From that day onward, With such a feeling, he finds it difficult to she used the veil because of the sadness she cheer him up again owing to loneliness. The felt after his death. It is said that he has last stanza of the poem confirms that the participated in the second crusade of 1147. main idea is a far-off love. It shows a clear In order to understand Jaufre Rudal term of Jaufre's yearning for his unseen perfectly, it is necessary to examine an beloved. Such a story of love between the example of his lyrical poetry. One of Rudal troubadour Jaufre and his Countess of love poems is explained as follows: Tripoli is close to a myth but these lines When in May the days are long, I like above make the story probable. To hear birds' sweet song from far away, And then, when I have gone, 3. Peired'Alvernhe I can recall a love from far away. The next troubadour is Peired'Alvernhe. I go forth cheerlessly, with bowed head, He was the son of a burgher. He is from So that song or hawthorne flowers Clermont. He was known for being Move me less than winter ice. handsome, gifted, well-read and of pleasant I have faith that the lord will grant character. He wrote and sang many I see this love from far away; wonderful love poems. d'Alvernhe was But for every good, it brings greatly honored by all great barons of his Two evils, since it lies too far away. (p. day and by the most beautiful ladies too. He 63) discarded the church to be a jongleur. He 11 Journal of Arts, Vol. 27, Number (1),king Sand Univ., Riyadh (2015 /1436H.) praised himself a lot where it can be felt messenger is not only positive but also clearly in his songs. Here is an example of encouraging. The bird indulged itself his lyrical love poetry that expresses his mutually and expressed its admiration by mood: singing which is the language of love. This Nightingale, fly beautiful love song expresses the nature of To where my lady dwells ideal descriptive poetry. The poet And tell her of my estate communicates with his beloved through the That she may tell you hers; possible means at that time, the bird, the Thus will I know only means of quick and secret messenger. How she fares. It is not only man, who wrote courtly love But she must not forget me poetry but also woman has her influence in And somehow this field even if it is not so much popular. Persuade you Here is a woman representation of a very To stay there with her. passionate love poem. She is Lady Beatritz When the gentle bird saw de Dia. Her beauty appear before him, He began sweetly to sing 4. Beatritz de Dia That song reserved for evening, She is a lyric poetess from Languedoc of But then he stopped the mid-twelfth-century. She is somewhat an And prepared himself exception in which she shows deep emotions To tell her usually sung by males. 'I Live in Grave Calmly Anxiety' is a love poem by Beatritz which That to which she deigned to listen … (p exemplifies the twelfth century southern 70) France lyric tradition. She sings; The poet starts his singing by addressing I live in grave anxiety the bird of melodious sound – nightingale. For one fair knight who loved me so. He commissions the bird as a messenger to It would have made him glad to know the place where his beloved lives to convey I love him too-but silently. a message proudly telling about his clear I was mistaken, now I'm sure, property but his love is implicitly When I withheld myself from him. understood. He asks his beloved to show her My grief is deep, my days are dim, rank and love too. He hopes that they are My love for him surpasses all both of the same caste to make sure that she The loves that famous lovers knew treats him equivalently. My soul is his, my body, too, The poet warns the nightingale not to be My heart, my life, are at his call. seduced by the beauty of his lady which My most beloved, dearest friend, might makeit stay with her instead of flying When will you fall into my power? back to the lover with a positive reply of That I might lie with you an hour, what he desires. The result returned by the And love you 'til my life should end! Yahya Saleh Hassan Dahami: The Contribution of Arab Muslims to the Provencal Lyrical Poetry 12
My heart is filled with passion's fire. Here is another example of women love My well-love knight, I grant thee grace, poetry. The Countess of Die is the wife of … William of Poitiers. She was both beautiful And do the things I so desire. (Hollister and gracious. She fell in love with Warren C. 1969, p.102) Rimboutd'Orange and wrote several Because the beloved did not have enough tremendous poems for him. Her love poems time except one night with her lover, she are of astonishing directness but what was feels as if she is heartrending in the grave. preserved of her poems are only four. In her As women cannot declare their love frankly, love poems she unveiled the sentiment of her the poetess expresses love to her lover but clear passionate and sensual nature. Here is 'silently'. And this strengthens the shy-nature an example of her lyrical poetry. She sings; of women all over the ages. At the beginning For a while a certain knight she was not quite sure of her love toward her Has caused me great distress, lover but now it is sure she loves him. She And I wanted it known, once and for all, realizes that strongly when she is separated How excessively I have loved him; from him after a meeting or so. A love Yet I've been betrayed feeling is expressed to confirm that she is On pretext of not giving him my love suffering the greatest degree of anguish after And ever since, in bed or dressed, she withdraws herself from him. My life's been one of grief. The greatest degree of passionate and How I would like to hold him unexpressive love and feeling is shown in One night in my naked arms … the above lines to describe the mental and For I am more physical state of the lady. Such feelings are In love with him expressed in words that can never be morally Than Flore with Blanchfleur, articulated except from a wife to her And offer him my heart, my love, husband. My mind, my eyes and my life. A question sent to the lover shows the My handsome friend, gracious and poetess desire to have her lover back as soon charming, as possible. Power here means love. When will I hold you in my power? The reader may imagine that the Oh that I might lie with you troubadour poetess desires to spend a time One night and kiss you lovingly! with her lover-knight but this specific time Know how great is my desire shall continue until they pass away. She To treat you as a husband; portrays her love and passion as hot as fire But you must promise me to do that she is ready to give her lover the Whatever I may wish. greatest degree of joy – grace. She hopes to During the period that provincial lyrical share with him what they both wish. love poems thriving the best description of the lovers was through using a famous 5. The Countess of Die preferred title for them. It is the word knight. 13 Journal of Arts, Vol. 27, Number (1),king Sand Univ., Riyadh (2015 /1436H.)
The Countess of Die describes her love and Europe during the fourteenth, fifteenth and feeling by starting to mention that when this sixteenth centuries which is based on the lover knight passed close from her dwelling, ancient Greek learning. In addition, Al she felt great agony because they did not Mawrid: a modern English Arabic have time to meet. She declared her love dictionary, also sheds light on the definition openly. She is not shy or afraid any more to of Renaissance telling that The European tell about her excessive love. Renaissance is a transition movement in The poetess shows her passion through an Europe connecting the medieval and the interrogation describing what she will do if modern age, initiated in the fourteenth she and her knight lover meet. She wishes to century in Italy and continued until the spend joyful time with him. There is a seventeenth century. musical tune resulting from the repetition of According to the dictionary of the History using the Possessive Pronoun 'my' several of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas by times. The poetess describes her lover with Philip Wiener, the Renaissance, means all words admired by ladies such as revival or rebirth, commenced during the charming, handsome and gracious to express fourteenth century in Italy and moved into how handsome he is. A question is asked to Europe by the end of the fifteenth century. show the power of love. The beloved, as an The Renaissance continued coloring and eagle waiting for her prey to be hold in her possibly conditioning several fundamental power. theories about art, scholarship, and morality She answers with exclamation sign till at least the eighteenth century. imagining that if the lover is with her, she The idea is supported by The New would spend a lovely time. The poetess Oxford Dictionary of English which points expresses her huge desire and wish to accept out that the Renaissance occurred during the her lover as a husband. After she promised fourteenth and sixteenth centuries whereas to make her lover happy and cheerful, she The Dictionary of Literary Terms and wants him to promise her and makes her Literary Theory by J. A. Cuddon confirms happy as well. that the commence of the Renaissance "have been pushed further and further back, even Renaissance in the Twelfth Century as far as the 12th c."(Cuddon J. A. 1998, Historians and critics of the Renaissance p.740).Cuddon adds that during the twelfth generally report that the European century, the Romanesque structural design Renaissance commenced in the fourteenth as well as the vernacular literature reached century. Some others opine that its outset an elevated degree of development. There was in the fifteenth century, for instance, was revival of Latin poetry as well as Oxford advanced Learner's Dictionary of classics. The philosophy of Greece and the Current English says that the Renaissance as scientific discoveries of the Arabs were a period of time means revival or giving becoming known after ages of ban by the birth again to literature, arts and painting in church. Greek literature, especially poetic Yahya Saleh Hassan Dahami: The Contribution of Arab Muslims to the Provencal Lyrical Poetry 14 dramas, which narrated stories of multi-gods immediate in its influence on literature was faced a struggle and refusal by the Christian the rediscovery of the ancient literatures via churches. the translations of Greek literature by Arab With all these, the topic is still of much Muslims. In the Middle Ages knowledge of debate where there are some other historians Greek literatures had kept into religious and concerned figures who support the view communities. What had been lost in the that the European Renaissance might have Western Empire existed in the East. The started much earlier in the twelfth century. continual advance of the Islamic Othman William J. Long in his book English Realm on the territories of Constantinople Literature sheds light on the beginning of drove westward to Italy. Moreover, Donald Renaissance saying that Renaissance denotes Lemen Clark supports the contribution and the whole transition from the Middle Ages to influence of Arab Muslims on the European the modern world. Renaissance especially in the field of Charles Homer Haskins, one of those literature and its branch of poetry saying: who dealt with this topic in his book, The ―The Poetics had been known to the Middle Renaissance of the Twelfth-century, sheds Ages only through a Latin abridgment by light on the issue confirming that the history Hermannus Allemanus. This was derived of any nation cannot be divided into from a Hebrew translation from the Arabic standardized hundred-year fragments. For of Averroes, who, in turn, knew only a Haskins, the twelfth century Renaissance Syriac translation of the Greek‖ (Clark 1922, started perhaps in the second half of the p. 43). eleventh century. Such an age was known as the age of He depicts the mood of life in this period expressing constitutionalism in political saying that the almost two hundred years of theory and practice. It witnessed the birth of the Twelfth-Century Renaissance passionate love in the contemporary represented an epoch of outstanding sagacity, an expansion of thoughtful augmentation in the European mind, art, rationalism and a quick augment in literature, political affairs, and economical inhabitants. The era appeared with a situation. It perceived the increase of significant movement in the direction of the municipality and trade, the maturation of freedom of serfs, a passionate interest in Romanesque structural design and the conventional literature, the appearance of the innovation and superiority of the Gothic earliest universities, and several other method. experiences of the uppermost historical Mair G. H. in the book of Modern magnitude. English Literature shows the influence of The Middle Ages recognized as a gloomy Muslims on the Renaissance and its advent age in Europe. The period was influenced by saying that the Renaissance was the result illiteracy owing to the control and the of, a numerous and various series of events, pressure of the Church. The Church which followed one another. First and most prevented and prohibited all kinds of 15 Journal of Arts, Vol. 27, Number (1),king Sand Univ., Riyadh (2015 /1436H.) knowledge and teaching in contrary with its fields and disciplines where a new sort of instructions and orders. People in this long civilization emerged. Population rapidly epoch of time were placed between the increased, educational institutions opened hammer of the church and the anvil of kings. accompanied with the gradual political In this time life was static and decline of the Church. It was found during unprogressive. Illiteracy, ignorance, the twelfth century several scholars like backwardness, and superstition were Peter Abelard, Duns Scotus, John of remarkable marks in the Middle Ages. Salisbury, John de Garland at the University In the midst of such darkness, which is of Paris creating a rather uncomfortable full of false notions, superstition, mental atmosphere by questioning certain orthodox repression and moral oppression, appeared a positions in the theology of the Church. beginning and an enlightenment which From this time (the tenth century) people called Renaissance, a revolt or onward, Europe witnessed a quick rebirth. But a question is aroused to ask how transformation, great economic changes this awakening came. Such a question is because of the open flow of trade with the answered by Naresh Chandra in his book Middle East, the new advent of new learning The Literature of English Renaissance where and knowledge of the Middle East and far he says: east and the revival of the Latin and antique While Europe was under the ban of the literature and arts. It could be said that there Church as regards the study of ancient Greek is unequal growth in several parts and philosophy and literature, a new religion had countries of Europe. That is to say, the risen in Arabia in the seventh century...the changes and development that happened in Arab people were temperamentally inclined Italy, France or England might not have to philosophy and learning, and therefore, its happened at other countries of Europe. That mission was not only to conquer and annex means any development in a country or a the geographic world in the name of Islam, nation might not occur the same in another but the world of knowledge and learning and country or nation. culture as well, and for four centuries while The Renaissance of the twelfth century the European mind was deep sunk in might be possibly comprise all the changes ignorance and sloth gave to the people of through which the continent of Europe Islam the intellectual leadership of the passed from almost the mid of the eleventh world.(Chandra 1985, pp. 5-6) century to the time of taking Constantinople As a result of the natural concept that by the Latins in the year of 1204. In addition permanence and alteration are characteristics to the current events that went with it during of the continuous history of human the thirteenth century. development, Europe at the end of the tenth In this specific period appeared a new century and the commencement of the visage of history and culture, a new type of eleventh century, witnessed an important learning and new literature in Latin, great beginning toward development in many development of Romanesque art and full bud Yahya Saleh Hassan Dahami: The Contribution of Arab Muslims to the Provencal Lyrical Poetry 16 of vernacular love poetry in epic and lyric. surmised that the first universities in Europe In this age, learning and knowledge were influenced by the Madrasahs, which flourished through the opening of the mean schools in Arabic language. They were cathedral schools and establishing some famous and spread in Andalusia and universities such as Naples in 1224, Bologna the Emirate of Sicily where Islam was a in 1088 Salerno in Italy, Oxford in England dominant religion that appeals to learning which was founded in the eleventh century, and education. and in France there was Montpellier, that Haskins makes it clear that at the late half was established in the south of France during of the eleventh century, a lot of signs and the twelfth century and Paris was founded in changes of new life in many scopes such as the tenth century. economics, politics, religion, intellectuality A new type of learning and knowledge and new interest in the classics. From this commenced through studying the seven time onward, the vernacular languages were liberal arts which comprise the sciences of running on parallel lines with Latin. Both of geometry, music, arithmetic, astronomy, Latin and vernacular writings went on logic, rhetoric and grammar, and studying together to construct two interpenetrated the Greek and Arabic Muslim scientists. In literatures. Later on and by the passage of addition to the broad study of Latin poetry time, the vernacular languages have got and the formation of the liturgical drama more consideration and started to be which all opened the possibility for a new dominant. philosophy and a science. For better understanding of the beginning Books notably increased in number and in of the Renaissance, the reader may agree fields of study. Through the period of the that history is as a chain of circles or rings twelfth century many fields of learning linked together, the first is a base of the started such as poetry, philosophy, second and the second ring is a foundation mathematics, astronomy and others. Most of of the third; thereby, it could be correct that these sciences were unknown to the people the fourteenth century grows out of the of the Middle Ages and many of these thirteenth century and similarly the sciences recovered from the Arab Muslims thirteenth century comes out of the twelfth and Greeks. During this time arose the best century and so forth. of the Provencal lyrics, as similar to the The famous Dante Alighieri [1265-1321] earlier works of Middle High German. The is one of the greatest Italian poets, and he is Romanesque sculpture have reached and the composer of Divnia Commedia or Divine passed its prime, and the Gothic style has Comedy. He describes and comments been resolutely established at Paris. skillfully on the start of Renaissance and its Several scholars and researchers have splitting from the middle ages saying that the observed some parallels European man during such a period stood betweenMadrasahs and the early European with one foot in the Middle Ages while the colleges and universities. They have thus 17 Journal of Arts, Vol. 27, Number (1),king Sand Univ., Riyadh (2015 /1436H.) other he saluted the growing luminary of the school of translators established in Toledo in Renaissance. the thirteenth century from Arabic into As Haskins clarified that the Renaissance Latin. ―Westerners seemed positively to is well advanced by 1200 and in dealing prefer their Aristotle through the Arabic, with the twelfth century Renaissance the rather than the Greek, tradition‖(Baker 1973, reader is kindly informed to imagine that the p 80). word century should be understood as not To cast light on the point, Renaissance in only the exact period of time attributed to Italy had its part through the Roman and the twelfth century [1100-1199] but also as canon law, and also through the translations covering years that immediately preceded or and transforming knowledge and learning came after. It is accepted to a good extent from the Greek and Arab Muslims. Germany that the revival of Latin classics started in and England are noteworthy, most of the the eleventh century. And it is regarded as a culture spread from Italy and France. continuous advanced process. Andalusia of Spain played a leading part to Furthermore, the new sciences started serve as the connection with the Islamic likely in the mid of the first half of the world. Besides, France was known for its twelfth century in a continuous process of philosophers and monks, with culmination in working till the learning of Arabic and its cathedral schools and University of Paris, Greek is completely absorbed .The revival of it was important for its central location in the philosophy that commenced in the twelfth new Gothic art and its vernacular poets. century has a clear culmination in the On the intellectual and cultural plane, the thirteenth century. Here again it deserves to Crusades achieved but little. Only in Spain be reminded that the development does not and Sicily did positive good come from the carry on equal importance in a specific date clash of faiths. The capture of Toledo in where there might be a progress or 1085 brought Western Christendom into advancement in a specific field in a specific contact with the rich accumulation of place and by the passage of time Hellenic2-Arabic learning; a school of improvement and development continues its translators was set up there, and Arabic progress and spreading. treatises on science and philosophy, and It is the Arabs interest in Greek Arabic versions of Greek thinkers like philosophy and science that conveyed the Aristotle were turned with Jewish help into tradition to Europe, along the strap of Latin and circulated in the rising schools of Muslim civilization stretching from the the West (Saunders 1965, p 167). Greek town Antioch in the northeast Mediterranean to Latin Toledo in the west. Conclusion Historians confirm that the chain of communication elongates from the school of 2 Hellenic is referred to the most gorgeous Greek lady, Helen who translators set up in Baghdad in the eighth caused the famous war between Sparta and Troy. Several century from Greek into Arabic then to a poets praised her beauty in their works such as Christopher Marlowe in his poetic play Dr Faustus. Yahya Saleh Hassan Dahami: The Contribution of Arab Muslims to the Provencal Lyrical Poetry 18
Having in consideration that this eminent meeting between Amir Saladin topic,The Contribution of Arab Muslims to (Salah-ud-Din), Prince and Leader of the Provencal Lyrical Poetry: the Muslims and King Richard I of England Troubadours, is of great debate, the reader during a truce. There is some verification may conceive, with the short evidence that such contacts fashioned an alteration in shown here, that the European Renaissance the philosophy of Europe. started in the twelfth century not in the With these arguments, it is approved that fourteenth century especially in the field of European Renaissance in the field of poetry and literature as such. Moreover, literature in general and lyrical love poetry from this time arose a new life with more in particular emerged during the twelfth desire and freedom to acquire knowledge century or even before with palpable and learning than before. Of course, many contribution of the Arab Muslims of factors played their own role by a way or Andalusia. another, such as the extensive translation of Greek literature and civilization by the Arab- Muslims then the great process of translation
املراجع العربية: of Arabic heritage and literature to Latin املهصوري،أمحد مقبل حممد.املوشحات األندلسية بني ناقديًا قدميا after the crusades. Yet, the weakness of the وحديجا. صهعاء: وزارة الجقافة والسياحة،dominant Church allowed interested .1002 historians and literates to, strongly, acquire جرار،أميو يوسف إبراييم.احلركة الشعرية يف األندلس،دراسة knowledge, science and literature of Arabs ماجستري. نابلس: جامعة الهحاح الوطهية فلسطنيand Greeks, which were banned. .1005 سلطاى،مجيل.املوشحات إرث األندلس الجمني. دمشق: Besides, the courtly love poetry of 2731 troubadours is a clear evidence of the سويلم،سائدة عبد الفتاح أنيس.عالقة اإلمارة األاموية يف األندلس intellectuality and great sense of developed مع املمالك الهصرانية يف أسبانيا )216- 100 يـ/ life from the late eleventh century onward -533 721م( رسالة ماجستري، نابلس: فلسطني. which was led by Arab Muslims who .1002 dwelled in Andalusia – Spain now. It is البيومي،حممد رجب. األدب االندلسي بني التأثر والتأثري، إدارة necessary to imagine a significant dimension الجقافة والهشر جبامعة اإلماممحمد بو سعود اإلسالمية. that is an impact of Arab scholars on the .2760 European intelligence, which is essential, البحاري،يونسطركيسلوم.املعارضات يف الشعر األندلسي دراسة especially after the fall of Constantinople in نقدية ،موازنة بريوت: دار الكتب العلمية. The impact is felt earlier through the .1006 .1204 crusades when the European armed forces, English References including some of the noblest and most Ba'alabakiMunir.Al – Mawrid: A Modern educated personagesparticipated in English-Arabic Dictionary. Beirut: Dar El- battles.There were several encounters with Ilm Lil Malayen. 1992. Arabs not only in the battle but elsewhere Bernard Lewis. The Arabs in History. during the pause of the war such as the Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2002. 19 Journal of Arts, Vol. 27, Number (1),king Sand Univ., Riyadh (2015 /1436H.)
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