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In the Name of Development: Conflict, Displacement and Gender Transformation in Sudan

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IN THE NAME OF DEVELOPMENT: CONFLICT, DISPLACEMENT AND GENDER TRANSFORMATION IN SUDAN AMANI EL JACK A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN WOMEN'S STUDIES YORK UNIVERSITY, TORONTO, ONTARIO April 2008 Library and Bibliotheque et 1*1 Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-39005-4 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-39005-4 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par Plntemet, prefer, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform, et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. this thesis. Neither the thesis Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de nor substantial extracts from it celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement may be printed or otherwise reproduits sans son autorisation. reproduced without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne Privacy Act some supporting sur la protection de la vie privee, forms may have been removed quelques formulaires secondaires from this thesis. ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. Canada Abstract This dissertation is a study of the gender relations of displacement that are the result of the complex interplay between militarized conflict and development-induced displacement in southern Sudan. The dissertation specifically examines the shifts in gender perceptions and roles before and after the forced displacement of Dinka and Nuer refugees from the oilfield territories in southern Sudan to Kenya and Uganda. Drawing on interviews conducted with Dinka and Nuer refugee women, men and children in Kenya and Uganda, I argue that militarized conflict in combination with forced migration and large-scale development significantly transforms gender relationships. It also provides a context within which to understand and make visible the changing nature of gender relationships of power among the Dinka and Nuer refugees. Extreme violence, associated with the combined phenomena of militarization and development-induced displacement in southern Sudan, has both positive and negative consequences in the lives of refugees. A significant number of the research participants indicated that their experiences of forced displacement have produced radical changes in their ways of life. Displacement has caused physical dislocation, iv disruption of social and cultural traditions and material dispossession. The Dinka and Nuer refugees have been separated from their everyday practices and their familiar environment; they have experienced profound injustices, loss, trauma, marginalization and gender-based violence. All of these experiences have led to drastic changes in behaviour, perception and lifestyles. Nevertheless, displacement has also resulted in positive transformations in the lives of Dinka and Nuer. Many of the research participants have attained some level of education and vocational training in Kakuma and Rhino refugee camps, as well as in cities such as Kampala and Nairobi. Indeed, displacement has created new responsibilities for women that have enabled them to re-evaluate, reconfigure and significantly alter oppressive gender roles and relationships, as well as the perceptions that others may have of them as women. A considerable number of these Dinka and Nuer women have become sole breadwinners in their households. This new status reorders some of the social and cultural perceptions that previously shaped their lives. These women are now using their newly acquired skills to challenge patriarchal values and structures within their households, refugee camps, communities and beyond. v Dedication Three strong women, in a male dominated Sudanese society, have great influence on my life: In the loving memory of my mother, Amna Al Sharief To my, aunt and second mother, Moniera kamil To my grandmother, Haboba Haja vi Acknowledgements My first and foremost gratitude goes to the Dinka and Nuer women, men and children who gave me permission to study their daily experiences of oil-induced displacement, war, exile and gender transformation in Sudan. I am particularly indebted to the women who participated in this research for their selfless sacrifice of time; for openly sharing their wounds with me; and for teaching me a great deal about courage, resilience, and strength. My sincere thanks go to Professor Wenona Giles, my supervisor and mentor, whose gentle yet poignant guidance gave profound meaning to my work. My doctoral research would not have been possible without her constant support, understanding, and reminders to move forward despite all health and personal challenges. Her confidence in me as a student and researcher gave me the courage to persist with this work. I am very grateful to my dissertation committee members: Professor Pablo Idahosa and Professor Ananya Mukhrjee Reed. Since the early stages of my doctoral studies, Professor Pablo Idahosa has challenged and inspired me to think beyond the confines of development- induced displacement discourses and articulate its ethical dimensions and its everyday relevance to marginalized communities across the globe, vii particularly in our beloved Africa. Professor Ananya Mukhrjee Reed's support and knowledge allowed me to question some of the most prevalent assumptions about agency and human development. In the course of my doctoral studies, I have been privileged to travel to several countries, meet inspirational women, and affiliate with academic institutions such as the Department of Women and Gender Studies at Makerere University in Kampala, Uganda and the Ahfad University for Women in Omudurman, Sudan. This dissertation would not have been possible without the support and assistance of women's groups in Kenya and Uganda such as the Sudanese Women's Association in Nairobi (SWAN); and the Sudanese Women's Voice for Peace (SWVFP); and the New Sudan Indigenous NGO Network (NESI-Network); all of which helped me to gain the trust of the Dinka and Nuer communities in Kenya, Uganda and in refugee camps such as the Kakuma Refugee Camp. I am grateful to have received generous awards such the Ontario Graduate Scholarship (OGS); the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Doctoral Research Award; the York University SSHRC Funded Project: "International Development Ethics and Population Displacement: The Nature and Extend of Canada's Obligations in viii Developing Countries", Centre for Refugee Studies; and York University Dean's Academic Excellence Scholarship. I am blessed with a wonderful family and friends whose love and support has guided me through my doctoral studies. I am forever grateful to my husband Dareer for his endless love, unconditional support, and for listening to my stories. Moreover, my daughters Rawan and Razan's kisses and hugs made this process enjoyable. I am very grateful to my uncle Khalid Sharief and Hassan Sharief for their continuous support and generosity, as well as for my brothers Kamal, Tarig and Asim Awad El Jack for their love and support. I am grateful to my good friends and colleagues Mawahib Ahmed, Azza Anis, Shukria Dini, Datejie Green and Punam Khosla for their friendship, support and being there through this process. Thanks to Datejie Green and Earl Miller for editing various chapters of the dissertation. ix Table of Contents List of Maps: Map 1: Map of Sudan 98 Map 2: Oil Fields in Sudan 148 Map 3: Ethnic Geography in the South 164 Map 4: Refugee camps in Kenya and Uganda 208 Map 5: Kakuma Refugee Camp in Kenya 215 Map 6: Refugee camps in Kenya & Uganda- Rhino 220 Chapter One: Theoretical Frameworks: Gender, Development and Forced Migration 1 Introduction 1 In the Name of Development 5 Literature Review 8 Approaches to Development 8 i) Globalization 9 ii) Development-Induced Displacement 17 iii) Feminist Development Perspectives 30 From Women in Development to Gender and Development 32 Agency and Transformation 38 Mapping Refugee and Forced Migration Perspectives 41 i) The International Refugee System 42 ii) Predicaments of the International Humanitarian System 49 iii) Gendered Relations of Displacement 51 In Conclusion: Gendering Development, Conflict & Displacement- Theoretical Frameworks 57 Chapter Two: Research Methods 63 Introduction 63 Research Questions 64 The Fieldwork 65 x Description of the Interviews: 71 i) Group One: In-Depth Interviews 72 ii) Group Two: Feminist Activists 74 iii) Group Three:
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