1218
15 December 2018 Monthly Year 2
Confidence in the Progress of the Church in China
The History of Relations between the Holy See and China
.12 o Europe in an Exercise of Social Imagination
The Popular Conscience of the Church: A brief itinerary from OLUME 2, N 2, OLUME
V Ecclesiam Suam to Evangelii Gaudium
2018 Restorative Justice in Brazil
Justice in the Global Economy: Building sustainable and inclusive communities
A Family Affair: Kore-eda Hirokazu’s film Shoplifters
Nelson Mandela: His life and legacy
CONTENTS 1218
BEATUS POPULUS, CUIUS DOMINUS DEUS EIUS
Copyright, 2018, Union of Catholic Asian Editor-in-chief News ANTONIO SPADARO, SJ
All rights reserved. Except for any fair Editorial Board dealing permitted under the Hong Kong Antonio Spadaro, SJ – Director Copyright Ordinance, no part of this Giancarlo Pani, SJ – Vice-Director publication may be reproduced by any Domenico Ronchitelli, SJ – Senior Editor means without prior permission. Inquiries Giovanni Cucci, SJ, Diego Fares, SJ should be made to the publisher. Francesco Occhetta, SJ, Giovanni Sale, SJ
Title: La Civiltà Cattolica, English Edition Emeritus editors Federico Lombardi, SJ ISSN: 2207-2446 Virgilio Fantuzzi, SJ Giandomenico Mucci, SJ ISBN: GianPaolo Salvini, SJ 978-988-79386-2-0 (paperback) 978-988-79386-3-7 (ebook) Contributing Editor 978-988-79386-4-4 (kindle) Luke Hansen, SJ
Published in Hong Kong by Contributors UCAN Services Ltd. Federico Lombardi, SJ (Italy) George Ruyssen, SJ (Belgium) P.O. Box 80488, Cheung Sha Wan, Fernando De la Iglesia, SJ (Spain) Kowloon, Hong Kong Drew Christiansen, SJ (USA) Phone: +852 2727 2018 Andrea Vicini, SJ (USA) Fax: +852 2772 7656 www.ucanews.com David Neuhaus, SJ (Israel) Camilo Ripamonti, SJ (Italy) Publishers: Michael Kelly, SJ and Vladimir Pachkow, SJ (Russia) Robert Barber Arturo Peraza, SJ (Venezuela) Production Manager: Bert Daelemans, SJ (Belgium) Rangsan Panpairee Thomas Reese, SJ (USA) Grithanai Napasrapiwong Paul Soukup, SJ (USA) Friedhelm Mennekes, SJ (Germany) Marcel Uwineza, SJ (Rwanda) Marc Rastoin, SJ (France) Claudio Zonta, SJ (Italy) CONTENTS 1218
15 December 2018 Monthly Year 2
1 Confidence in the Progress of the Church in China La Civiltà Cattolica
7 The History of Relations between the Holy See and China Federico Lombardi, SJ
17 Europe in an Exercise of Social Imagination Camillo Ripamonti, SJ
26 The Popular Conscience of the Church A brief itinerary from Ecclesiam Suam to Evangelii Gaudium Jorge R. Seibold, SJ
35 Restorative Justice in Brazil The educational method of APAC prisons Francesco Occhetta, SJ
44 Justice in the Global Economy Building sustainable and inclusive communities GianPaolo Salvini, SJ
54 A Family Affair: Kore-eda Hirokazu’s film Shoplifters Virgilio Fantuzzi, SJ
57 Nelson Mandela: His Life and Legacy Anthony Egan, SJ ABSTRACTS
EDITORIAL 1 CONFIDENCE IN THE PROGRESS OF THE CHURCH IN CHINA
La Civiltà Cattolica
In his “Message to the Catholics of China and to the Universal Church,” Pope Francis explains the significance of the agreement signed in Beijing between the Holy See and the authorities of the People’s Republic of China in September 2018. By doing so he assumed responsibility for the agreement and clarified any possible doubt about its intention and spirit. Commenting on the text, we highlight here five aspects of the Message: the complete continuity between the approach of Pope Francis and that of his two predecessors; the importance of the papal mandate for episcopal ordinations as a guarantee of the unity of the Church; the fact that the union of all the bishops with the pope is the premise for the full reconciliation of the Church in China; the fundamental perseverance of Chinese Catholics in fidelity to the pope, making the agreement possible; the important innovation of the recognition by the Chinese political authorities of the value of the religious bond between the pope and the Church in China.
ARTICLE 7 THE HISTORY OF RELATIONS BETWEEN THE HOLY SEE AND CHINA
Federico Lombardi, SJ
From the 19th century to today, relations between the Holy See and China have experienced many ups and downs: from the French protectorate of missions in China to the dramatic Boxer Rebellion and then diplomatic relations; from the rise to power of Mao Zedong to the reforms implemented by the new regime and now the dialogue currently underway. Since the beginning of his pontificate Pope Francis has repeatedly expressed a lively and cordial affection for Chinese people, and contacts have multiplied in recent years. The rest is current affairs.
ABSTRACTS
ARTICLE 17 EUROPE IN AN EXERCISE OF SOCIAL IMAGINATION
Camillo Ripamonti, SJ
The bi-directional integration of migrants, involving those who welcome migrants and those who are welcomed, is a challenge for the foreseeable future of a Europe that wants to foster a pluralist society. By applying creativity and imagination to build cohesive and supportive communities, civil society in Italy, Belgium, Germany, France, Spain, Malta, Poland, Portugal and Romania, for example, has been establishing synergies between citizens and migrants, enabling them to live in new national contexts. The Jesuit Refugee Service in Europe, for years working in the field to favor dialogue and inclusion of migrants within communities, has mapped out some of these experiences, which are clearly at odds with some disruptive forces that are increasingly prevalent today. The author is the director of Centro Astalli, the Roman center of the Jesuit Refugee Service.
LIFE OF THE CHURCH 26 THE POPULAR CONSCIENCE OF THE CHURCH A BRIEF ITINERARY FROM ECCLESIAM SUAM TO EVANGELII GAUDIUM Jorge R. Seibold, SJ
In this article we try to show the link between Ecclesiam Suam of Paul VI and Evangelii Gaudium of Pope Francis regarding the popular conscience of the Church. After its first Conference in Rio de Janeiro (1955) the Latin American Church became increasingly aware of the remarkable cultural, political and economic changes on that continent. It rediscovered the value of popular piety, basic ecclesial communities and the importance of dialogue between faith and culture. These discoveries were taken up by Pope Francis in Evangelii Gaudium. The author is emeritus professor of philosophy at the USAL, University of San Miguel (Argentina). ABSTRACTS
FOCUS 35 RESTORATIVE JUSTICE IN BRAZIL THE EDUCATIONAL METHOD OF APAC PRISONS
Francesco Occhetta, SJ
The educational method in prisons run under the Association of Protection and Assistance to the Convicts (APAC), founded in 1972 in São Paulo (Brazil), does not provide any reduction in sentencing for parole, but offers the possibility of a humane rehabilitation: the inmates, called “recuperandi” (recovering people) are locked up in structures without bars and without guards; recidivism has been reduced from 85 percent to 15 percent, while management costs have decreased by a third compared to those of the state sector. This applied model of restorative justice, in which “people are not their mistakes,” as we read on the walls of APAC prisons, remains a strong human-centered challenge for criminal law. Rehabilitation includes reaching out to the deepest core of the person, namely, the spiritual life. Civil society takes an active part in the recovery process.
FOCUS 44 JUSTICE IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY BUILDING SUSTAINABLE AND INCLUSIVE COMMUNITIES GianPaolo Salvini, SJ
Requested in June 2016 by the previous Superior General of the Jesuits, Fr. Adolfo Nicolás, and written by a group of Jesuits and lay experts, this article presents a document dedicated to the issue of justice throughout the world, especially from an economic point of view. The current economic system has multiplied the number of goods and services but has distributed them in a very uneven and unfair manner, increasing those inequalities in the world that create the premises for new conflicts. A series of reforms that could reduce inequalities and the most unjust mechanisms is indicated in order to improve the situation of the world’s poorest, those discarded by the system.
ABSTRACTS
ART, MUSIC AND ENTERTAINMENT 54 A FAMILY AFFAIR: KORE-EDA HIROKAZU’S FILM SHOPLIFTERS
Virgilio Fantuzzi, SJ
Following a shoplifting spree in a supermarket, a poorly dressed man and a boy (father and son?) stumble across a cold and abandoned child. They take her home with them. Home is a shack where we find a father who is not a father, a mother who is not a mother, a sister who is not a sister, and an elderly woman everyone calls ‘granny.’ Her pension sees that everyone lives together. As in previous films, and again in ‘Shoplifters’ – winner of the Palme d’Or at the 2018 Cannes film festival – Japanese director Kore-eda Hirokazu reflects on the nature of blood ties that do not always coincide with affective bonds.
PROFILE 57 NELSON MANDELA: HIS LIFE AND LEGACY
Anthony Egan, SJ
The year 2018 saw the centenary celebrations of the birth of Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela. Co-winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 and the recipient of many honors, he was the first president of post-apartheid democratic South Africa (1994-1999) and is recognized by consensus as one of the greatest statesmen of the 20th century. This article examines his career, his leadership style, his faith and some of the posthumous controversies about him, concluding that his greatness remains intact, despite his many flaws. The author is professor of Ethics at the Steve Biko Centre For Bioethics at the University of the Witwatersrand (Johannesburg). LCC 0119:
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For educational and bulk rates, please email [email protected] Confidence in the Journey of the Church in China
La Civiltà Cattolica
With his “Message to the Catholics of China and to the Universal Church,”1 September 26, 2018, the most authoritative voice, the pope himself, explained the significance of the agreement signed on September 22, 2018, in Beijing between the Holy See and the authorities of the People’s Republic of China, assuming 1 responsibility for it all. The message is clear and removes all possible doubt about the intention and spirit that animated Pope Francis in encouraging and guiding his collaborators along the path of delicate negotiations that led to this first important result. Contrary voices have not, in fact, been missing; contrary sentiments, doubts and perplexities have been expressed. The pope is fully aware of them and takes responsibility (cf. “Message of Pope Francis to the Catholics of China and to the Universal Church,” No. 1). Francis serenely and confidently proclaims his words not only for those who rejoice, but also for those who suffer. We permit ourselves to underline some aspects of the ample and rich papal text.
* * * Above all, Pope Francis places himself in full continuity with his two most recent predecessors. They had explicitly desired and undertaken the path of negotiations with the Chinese authorities for the good of the Church in China. Indeed, his Message contains many citations from the famous “Letter of the
La Civiltà Cattolica, English Edition Vol. 2, no. 12, December 2018. DOI: 10.32009/22072446.1812.1
1.http://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2018/ 09/26/180926b.html LA CIVILTÀ CATTOLICA
Holy Father Benedict XVI to the Chinese Catholics” of 2007, and he takes crucial points from it, not only on relations with the authorities, but also on the life of the Church in China and its mission. There is not, therefore, any doubt that Francis intends to walk in the footsteps of St. John Paul II and Pope Benedict: “Through this process, the Holy See has desired – and continues to desire – only to attain the Church’s specific spiritual and pastoral aims, namely, to support and advance the preaching of the Gospel, and to reestablish and preserve the full and visible unity of the Catholic community in China” (Ibid., No. 2). In the second place, precisely because the pope is the servant of the full and visible union of the Church in the world 2 and in all the regions of the world, the first of the questions to be addressed was that of episcopal nominations. This union, in fact, is realized and guaranteed through the communion between the pope and bishops. It is, therefore, essential that in every part of the world the bishops are ordained with the mandate of the pope, in union with him, and that the faithful are at peace and assured of their abiding in that union. Even if the details of the recent agreement, which still remains provisional, were not made known, it is clear that its goal is precisely one of guaranteeing that new ordinations take place with the pontifical mandate. Moreover, today, with the reconciliation offered by the pope to the seven “official” bishops and with their readmission to full ecclesial communion, there are no longer any bishops who are not in communion with the pope. This has not been the case for 60 years and was the reason for much suffering, not only for all the popes who have succeeded since then, but also for the people of God in China and for the entire people of God, because – as Pope Francis loves to say – “if one member suffers, all the members suffer together” (1 Cor 12:26). Pope Francis maintains that this step of reconciliation was not taken lightly but, as he states, “after carefully examining every individual personal situation, and listening to different points of view, I have devoted much time to reflection and prayer, seeking the true good of the Church in China” (Ibid., CONFIDENCE IN THE PROGRESS OF THE CHURCH IN CHINA
No. 3). The pope has taken up before God his responsibility for the safeguarding of the unity of the Church. In the third place, the union between the Chinese bishops and the pope is obviously an essential premise for the growth and solidifying of communion within the Catholic Church in China, overcoming “the divisions of the past that have caused, and continue to cause great suffering in the hearts of many pastors and faithful.” The invitation of the pope is warm and intense: “All Christians, none excluded, must now offer gestures of reconciliation and communion” (Ibid., No. 6). This is the same spirit which, 11 years ago, the letter of Pope Benedict had already insisted upon for the renewal of the ecclesial community, and which Pope Francis had again encouraged during the extraordinary Jubilee Year of Mercy, 3 which was so echoed among Chinese Catholics. A reconciled Church, of one heart in its mission of proclaiming the Gospel and of Christian witness in the most populous nation in the world: this is the principal destination for this path, along which the agreement is just the first step. The possibility of proceeding without insurmountable difficulties to episcopal nominations, thus better guaranteeing the ordinary government of dioceses, permits the continuation of that service of evangelization for which the Church exists, forming clerics and the faithful in a way ever more adapted to the pastoral needs of Chinese society today, responding to its spiritual, moral, human and social necessities with the promotion of the Christian virtues and, especially, the active charity so highly esteemed in Chinese society (cf. Ibid., No. 4).
* * * However, one cannot overlook a fourth fundamental reflection, which we wish to express thus: if today, after many years, an important step forward along the path toward the unity of the Church in China has finally been taken, the credit for this does not only go to the pope and to his collaborators, but more so to the Chinese Catholics. If in so many decades, pressure from Rome for the autonomy of the Chinese Catholic community has never caused a true separation, if it has never LA CIVILTÀ CATTOLICA
brought about a situation of true “schism,” if a profound love for the pope and a desire to be united to him have always animated the great majority of the Chinese faithful, clerics and episcopate, notwithstanding the difficulties and at times the different choices made in problematic situations, then this is to the undeniable credit of Chinese Catholics. Pope Francis puts this in practice in the opening of his Message, when he says that the sentiments which live in his heart “are sentiments of thanksgiving to the Lord and of sincere admiration – which is the admiration of the entire Catholic Church – for the gift of your fidelity, your constancy amid trials, and your firm trust in God’s providence, even when certain situations proved particularly adverse and difficult” (Ibid., No. 1). In summary, 4 if the representatives of the pope have been able to dialogue effectively with the Chinese authorities, this is owed to the fact that they, over time, have become mindful that Chinese Catholics did not want to be and could not be separated spiritually from the pope. Therefore, Chinese Catholics truly have the right to bishops who are faithful transmitters of this profound spiritual bond. And Pope Francis – with an implicit allusion to the agreement – adds a very important observation on the active role that “bishops, priests, consecrated men and women, and lay faithful” will have to play in “seeking good candidates” for episcopal service (Ibid., No. 5). We may be sure that the pope, in harmony with his vision of the Church as “a holy, faithful People of God on a journey,” is not at all distant from or indifferent to the sufferings and sentiments of Chinese Catholics, but rather he bears them in mind and wants them to become the protagonists of their history and their mission. Finally, the pope also turns explicitly and with respect to “the leaders of the People’s Republic of China,” with the invitation “to continue, with trust, courage and farsightedness, the dialogue begun some time ago,” and assuring them of his dedication, and that of the Holy See, to “the growth of genuine friendship with the Chinese people” (Ibid., No. 10). The Chinese authorities have not remained indifferent to the cordial expressions of respect that Pope Francis has made many times for the Chinese people and the greatness of CONFIDENCE IN THE PROGRESS OF THE CHURCH IN CHINA its culture, and they also appreciate his global commitment in favor of the integral development of peoples and persons, and care for the environment and peace in the world. The fact that the provisional agreement guarantees the pope the right to confer his mandate before the ordination of new bishops is a step forward of very great significance, which should not at all be underappreciated. This implies, in fact, the recognition, from the point of view of the political authorities, that the bond between the pope and the Church in China through communion with the bishops, being of a religious and not of a political nature, does not represent any danger to the unity or harmony of the country. On the contrary, this bond is good for the vitality of the Catholic community that lives and works in China, and, hence, for 5 the good of the entire country. Such a recognition appears novel and courageous in a context traditionally cautious in the face of influences from without, and very promising for the future of the journey to be undertaken. Realistically, the pope hopes then that constructive dialogue between ecclesial and civil authorities also takes place on the local level, given that even now difficult situations remain.
* * * However, as Pope Francis loves to say, “time is superior to space,” that is, it is important to put in practice processes of dialogue and encounter, realistically and patiently, always animated by the trust and hope of being able to go farther. No one ought to think that with the first step one has achieved all that one may desire for the good of the Church in China, but it is certain that without a first step one will never move any farther along the path. It is necessary “to become pilgrims along the paths of history, trusting before all else in God and in his promises” (Ibid., No. 2). The Papal Message is addressed, significantly, not only to the Catholics in China, but also to the Universal Church, so that it may accompany “our brothers and sisters in China with fervent prayer and fraternal friendship” (Ibid., No. 9), and it concludes with an LA CIVILTÀ CATTOLICA
intense invocation of the Virgin Mary that she may concede China “days of blessing and of peace” (Ibid., No. 11). Indeed, if the significance and the spirit of the step taken with the agreement of September 22 is correctly and positively understood, the support for and solidarity with the pope of Chinese Catholics and of the whole people of God will make a very precious contribution so that the journey undertaken runs smoothly and ever more consistently produces fruit.
LA CIVILTÀ CATTOLICA
6 The History of Relations between the Holy See and China
Federico Lombardi, SJ
Relations between the Holy See and China since the 19th century have seen changing fortunes: from the Opium Wars to the French protectorate over missions in China, from the dramatic Boxer Rebellion to diplomatic relations being established, from the rise to power of Mao Zedong to the 7 reforms of the new regime, up to the dialogue of today. This intricate history can be briefly summarized by looking at its principal phases.
Western imperialism and the French protectorate Following the first Opium War (1839-1842), in the context of the weakness of the Chinese Empire and the assertion of the political, military and economic might of Western powers in China marked by “unequal treaties,” a French protectorate was established over the missions of the Catholic Church, referring to both foreign and native Catholics (Whampoa Treaty of 1844, and then of 1856). In much of Chinese society the link with France (especially for Catholics, while analogous authority issues arose for other Christian denominations) strengthened the perception of Christianity as a foreign religion, leading to xenophobic hatred toward Christians. This would tragically explode in the Boxer Rebellion.
La Civiltà Cattolica, English Edition Vol. 2, no. 12, article 2, December 2018. DOI: 10.32009/22072446.1812.2 FEDERICO LOMBARDI, SJ
For its part the Holy See was conscious of the need to form an indigenous clergy,1 and from the middle of the 19th century a discussion began on the issue of relations between the Holy See and China. In 1886, during the papacy of Leo XIII, there was an attempt to establish “amicable relations,” the result of an initiative taken by the Chinese. However, the pope did not send a nuncio. This was not only due to opposition from the French government but also out of fear of negative consequences for the general support for missions among French Catholics. Even so, it became increasingly clear that the French protectorate influenced the perception of the Church. In 1900-1901 the xenophobic explosion of the Boxer 8 Rebellion – in which approximately 30,000 Catholics were slaughtered – on the one hand showed the need for protection, given the lack of reliability of the Chinese government of the time, and on the other, that the Western protectorate fostered hatred for Christianity among many Chinese.2 In 1912 the Empire ended and the Republic of China was founded.
The new view of Catholic missions: Benedict XV and Pius XI The papacy of Benedict XV (1914-1922) was very careful and showed foresight on the question of missions and the need to overcome the conditioning of the Church in the colonial era. China had an important place in this scenario. Christianity was no longer to be perceived as a foreign religion. Beijing resumed the initiative for diplomatic relations with the Holy See. Rome responded positively and aimed to affirm its right to have diplomatic relations with non-Christian nations as well, but France put pressure on Beijing (not on the Holy See, with which it had broken off diplomatic relations that were not reestablished until 1921), and the initiative had to be postponed.
1.Cf. The missionary instruction Neminem profecto of Gregory XVI, published in 1845. 2.An article by the future Secretary of State, Cardinal Gasparri, published anonymously in La Civiltà Cattolica in 1904, helps us understand that the French protectorate was considered a troublesome legacy of the past. THE HISTORY OF RELATIONS BETWEEN THE HOLY SEE AND CHINA
The famous apostolic letter of Benedict XV, Maximum Illud, of November 30, 1919, was considered the magna carta of the new course for missionary reform. It was drawn up mainly on the basis of the experience in China. Pius XI moved forward decisively along the lines outlined by his predecessor. In 1922 he appointed and sent Archbishop Celso Costantini as the first apostolic delegate in China. The delegate renounced any European protection, presided over the famous Council of Shanghai in 1924, and prepared the way for the first ordinations of six Chinese bishops. Pius XI would personally ordain them in Rome on October 28, 1926, the Feast of Christ the King, as a clear demonstration of the desire to create a local Church in China. Archbishop Costantini also made various attempts to establish diplomatic relations – in 9 1926, 1929 and 1933 (the year he returned to Rome, where he would become the Secretary of Propaganda Fide from 1935 to 1952). These attempts were not successful. Yet this period brought great progress in inculturation and would give rise to the definitive closure of the “Chinese Rites” controversy that in previous centuries had had very negative consequences for the situation of the Catholic Church in China.3 Constantini was succeeded as apostolic delegate by Archbishop Mario Zanin. Among the principal documents of Pius XI on the issue of missions and China we should recall the encyclical Rerum Ecclesiae (February 28, 1926) and the apostolic letter to the vicars and apostolic prefects of China, Ab ipsis Pontificatus primordiis (June 15, 1926).
Diplomatic relations with the Republic of China The extremely turbulent political situation in China saw the Japanese invasion, the rise of the Communist Party, and internal conflict. Then the Second World War broke out. Yet the papacy of Pius XII continued along the same lines regarding the Church in China and diplomatic relations with the Republic of China. In 1942 the “unequal treaties” were definitively abolished, as was the French protectorate. Also in 1942 diplomatic relations
3.Cf. Instruction Plane compertum of Propaganda Fide, in 1939. FEDERICO LOMBARDI, SJ
between China and the Holy See were announced. In 1946, in the first Consistory after the end of the Second World War, the first Chinese cardinal was announced, Thomas Tien Ken-sin, a Divine Word Missionary. That same year the episcopal hierarchy in China was also established. Its structure is still indicated today in the Pontifical Yearbook (20 archdioceses, 85 dioceses, and 34 apostolic prefectures).4 In 1946 Archbishop Antonio Riberi was accredited as the “internuncio” to the Nationalist government of Chiang Kai- shek, in Nanjing. When the new regime took over in 1949, he did not move to Taiwan with the previous government, but remained on the mainland and invited foreign missionaries to remain as well. 10 The People’s Republic of China and the conflict with the Catholic Church In 1949 the communists led by Mao Zedong took power. The People’s Republic of China was established. On July 1 the Holy Office condemned communism. The move was aimed above all at the situation in Europe; the condemnation had general force and showed the Church’s position toward the ideology of the new regime. In the first years of the new Republic, the developments in the country were very complex (Korean War, agrarian reform, five-year plan, etc.). As regards the issue of religion, the “Guangyuan Manifesto” of November 30, 1950, is important as it launched the Three- Self reform movement: self-governing, self-supporting, and self- propagating. This idea had a certain success among Protestants but not among Catholics. In January 1951 the Religious Affairs Office was created. The internuncio Riberi was forced to leave the country on September 5, 1951, after a violent press campaign against him. All of the foreign Catholic missionaries were also expelled between 1951 and 1954.
4.On September 22 of this year, in concurrence with the announcement of the signing of a provisional agreement between China and the Holy See on the nomination of bishops, the establishment of the new diocese of Chengde was also announced. THE HISTORY OF RELATIONS BETWEEN THE HOLY SEE AND CHINA
With the apostolic letter Cupimus imprimis (1952), Pius XII responded to the Three-Self Movement. In practical terms, the movement failed in regard to the Catholic Church, and a new anti-imperialist movement, based on love of the fatherland and religion was launched. In September 1954 the first Constitution of the People’s Republic of China was adopted, which formally guaranteed freedom of religious belief. With the encyclical Ad Sinarum gentem (1954), Pius XII condemned the “patriotic movement” in all its forms. With respect to the previous letter, this was a more explicit and detailed condemnation. In 1955 the bishop of Shanghai, Ignatius Gong Pinmei, was arrested along with many others. At the same time some Catholics decided to enter and participate in political life. 11 In 1956-1957 Mao Zedong launched the “Hundred Flowers” campaign to improve the relationship between the government and the masses. The arrested Catholics were freed and there was a brief improvement in the atmosphere. In this context in 1957 the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association was founded. Between the end of 1957 and the beginning of 1958 the first ordinations of bishops without a papal mandate took place. That is when so-called “official Catholicism” began. By October 1958, over 20 bishops would be ordained under this arrangement. With the encyclical Ad Apostolorum principis (1958), Pius XII defended the patriotism of the Chinese Catholics but rejected the Patriotic Association. As for the ordinations without a papal mandate, it was explained that they were illegitimate but valid. At the beginning of his papacy, in referring to the situation in China, John XXIII spoke of a “schism” (Consistory, December 15, 1958; and January 12, 1959 and May 17, 1959), but his attitude subsequently changed. Between the end of 1958 and the beginning of 1960, a more in-depth reflection led him to the conviction that he should not speak of a “schism” due to there being no desire for a schism on the part of the Chinese clergy. The Chinese situation in 1959-1960 was complex: the “Great Leap Forward” launched by Mao in 1958 had failed; Mao had to resign as head of state; there was the insurrection FEDERICO LOMBARDI, SJ
in Tibet; the break between China and the USSR occurred, with the departure of all Russian technical personnel; and the anti-US political line was strengthened. In this context in 1960 a public trial took place of bishops Gong Pinmei, sentenced to life in prison, and James Edward Walsh, an American and the only foreign bishop remaining in China, who had been arrested in 1958. In January 1962 the second Congress of the Patriotic Association insisted, in very harsh terms, on a Church that was totally independent from Rome. John XXIII thought of inviting the Chinese bishops of the People’s Republic to Vatican II but ultimately decided against it. At the Council, though, 60 bishops exiled from mainland 12 China were present, 49 of whom were foreigners.
The Cultural Revolution and the prohibition of all religious activity The papacy of Paul VI (1963-1978) for the most part coincided with the dramatic moment of the Cultural Revolution and the period in which Western countries and the UN recognized the People’s Republic of China and no longer Taiwan (Republic of China). Paul VI, on the other hand, decided to preserve the recognition of Taiwan. In 1970 during his great trip to Asia and Oceania, Paul VI visited Hong Kong, the first and only pope to set foot on the territory of continental China. In 1966 Mao Zedong launched the Cultural Revolution. This would mean the prohibition of all religious activity, the closing of all places of worship, and a prohibition of religious practices. The members of the Patriotic Associations would also be harshly affected. Mao died on September 9, 1976, and subsequently the “Gang of Four” was arrested and tried, marking the end of the Cultural Revolution.
Initial attempts at new relations during the papacy of John Paul II The beginning of the papacy of John Paul II in 1978 essentially coincided with the rise and the reforms of Deng Xiaoping. THE HISTORY OF RELATIONS BETWEEN THE HOLY SEE AND CHINA
In 1979 came the first signs of a thaw in attitude inthe religious sector. In 1980 some churches reopened in various cities. The Office of Religious Affairs was reconstituted, as were the five religious Patriotic Associations, which held their national congresses. The Catholic Patriotic Association was the third, followed by a conference of representatives, which in turn created a “Board of Chinese Bishops” that was never recognized by Rome. At the start of the 1980s, the interned bishops and priests were freed. On February 18, 1981, from Manila where he was on an apostolic visit, John Paul II addressed a greeting to all of the Catholics in China. But in June the Vatican was accused of interference, due to the recognition of Deng Yiming as the archbishop of Guangzhou. The bishop of Baoding ordained 13 three bishops without consulting with the Holy See. On December 12, 1981, Cardinal Agnelo Rossi, Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, authorized Chinese bishops who were “legitimate and faithful to the Holy See” to ordain other bishops, if necessary, without previously consulting with Rome. This privilege, which had already been granted in the past to European countries under communist rule, would lead to abuses however, and the conflicts between the “underground” and the “official” or “patriotic” Churches would be heightened. In 1982 at the 12th Congress of the Communist Party, the famous “Document No. 19” was circulated, on the control of the five officially recognized religions (Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Protestantism and Catholicism). In the new Constitution, Article 36 stated that “religious bodies and religious affairs are not subject to any foreign domination.” Yet in 1982 various activities of the Church resumed. The Jesuit Aloysius Jin Luxian – who would later be ordained bishop of Shanghai – was able to reopen the seminary in Sheshan, which had been without educational facilities for three decades. At the end of the decade, approximately 200 new priests were ordained. Various confiscated assets were returned, and convents of nuns were gradually opened, along with permission to conduct charitable and educational activities. FEDERICO LOMBARDI, SJ
There was also an increase in the contacts between the Church in China and the bishops’ conferences and Catholic institutions of other countries. Yet since there were ambiguities and tensions in the relations with the Patriotic Association and its members, in 1988 Cardinal Jozef Tomko, Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, sent the Western bishops’ conferences some directives on the relations between “underground” and “patriotic” groups – the “Eight Points” – which would be the subject of much discussion. In the same year the government put rumors into circulation regarding imminent contacts with the Vatican for diplomatic relations, but in reality the aim of eliminating “Underground Christianity” continued. 14 Starting in 1989 with the events of Tiananmen Square and the crisis of communism in Europe, Chinese mistrust began to grow toward John Paul II, who in the meantime created Gong Pinmei a Cardinal. Since 1988 the latter had been granted permission to seek medical treatment in the United States. The government’s traditional line of control over religion continued in the 1990s as well. However, after the end of the Cultural Revolution, many “patriotic” bishops in the new environment requested recognition from Rome through private channels, and obtained it. Thus the idea of a possible “schismatic” Church faded. In January 2007 the final statement of a meeting at the Vatican of a Commission on China declared “almost all the bishops and priests are in communion with Rome.” This showed an important change in the situation. In the Church in China there were some figures who were great pastors, recognized by the government and at the same time in communion with Rome, such as the bishop of Shanghai, mentioned earlier, Aloysius Jin Luxian. In the year 2000 new difficulties arose in the relations between the Holy See and the People’s Republic of China, especially as regarded the ordinations of new illegitimate bishops in China and the canonization in Rome of 120 Chinese martyrs of the Boxer Rebellion precisely on October 1, the day of the national holiday of the People’s Republic. THE HISTORY OF RELATIONS BETWEEN THE HOLY SEE AND CHINA
John Paul II worked hard to overcome those difficulties, in particular with a Message that had considerable resonance on the occasion of a Conference on Matteo Ricci at the Gregorian University (October 24, 2001). The pope addressed China, the Chinese and their authorities, extending a hand of friendship and esteem, recognizing “errors and limits of the past” and expressing in strong terms hope for the future: “For all of this I ask the forgiveness and understanding of those who may have felt hurt in some way by such actions on the part of Christians,” along with the express hope “that concrete forms of communication and cooperation between the Holy See and the People’s Republic of China may soon be established.” In 2005 a new regulation for religious affairs took effect, but above all we should recall the laudatory declaration of the 15 Minister of Foreign Affairs in Beijing on the occasion of the death of John Paul II, which was followed by a resumption of direct contacts.
The papacy of Benedict XVI: the pope’s letter Despite the contacts, new tensions arose and in 2006 there were new cases of “illicit” ordinations to which the Holy See reacted. The contacts cooled down. On May 27, 2007, Pope Benedict XVI sent an important letter “To Bishops, Priests, Consecrated Persons and Lay Faithful of the Catholic Church in the People’s Republic of China,” rich with pastoral concerns. The pope insisted on the unity of the Church, abolished all special faculties (for example, for “underground” ordinations of bishops), and expressed his hope for dialogue with the government authorities. On May 7, 2008, at the Vatican, in Paul VI Hall, an exceptional concert was dedicated to Benedict XVI by the China Philharmonic Orchestra of Beijing, with the chorus of the Shanghai Opera. It was a significant moment of so-called “cultural diplomacy,” which also included other initiatives, such as historical and artistic exhibits (at the Vatican and in China) and the participation of scientists or experts at scientific or cultural conferences. FEDERICO LOMBARDI, SJ
However, while for some years the ordinations of bishops had taken place with the consent of Rome, between 2010 and 2011 some new illicit ordinations took place, to which the Holy See ultimately reacted with particular firmness (July 16, 2011).
The papacy of Francis and the resumption of contacts From the beginning of his papacy, Pope Francis has repeatedly shown intense and cordial interest in the Chinese people, contributing to the creation of a new, more relaxed atmosphere that allows for an actual resumption of the Holy See’s dialogue with the Chinese authorities. There are evident signs of this new atmosphere, such as the permits granted to the papal airplane to fly over Chinese territory on the occasion 16 of the apostolic journey to Korea (May 14 and 18, 2014) and the messages sent by the pope to the Chinese president. The interview Pope Francis granted to the Asia Times, published on February 2, 2016, was also important, with many expressions of the pope’s esteem for the Chinese people and culture. Contacts have multiplied in recent years and the channels of communication now appear more stable and effective. On multiple occasions some Chinese press organs and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs itself have published conciliatory declarations in regard to Pope Francis, both at the time of apostolic trips and as comments on the pope’s public statements. The rest is current affairs. Europe in an Exercise of Social Imagination
Camillo Ripamonti, SJ
“Following the 2015/16 peak of refugee arrivals in Europe, attention has now shifted toward effectively integrating migrants into their new communities. While migration policy remains a national responsibility, central and local authorities recognize that integration needs to happen where people are, 17 in their workplaces, in their neighborhoods, and in the schools where they send their children. Behind every migration statistic, there are individuals or families starting a new life in a new place. Local authorities, while coordinating with all levels of government and other local partners, play a key role in integrating newcomers and empowering them to contribute to their new communities.” This is the opening of a report published April 18, 2018, by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, titled Working Together for Local 1 Integration of Migrants and Refugees. The formulation of this title is particularly significant. “Working together” expresses the need not only for a multidisciplinary approach, but also for different local stakeholders to come together to manage migration flows. The aim of this shared work is integration, which is back in the limelight after a time when – for too long – we failed to look beyond a perspective focused only on emergencies. Finally, the decision to group migrants and refugees together is also interesting.
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1.Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Wo rk ing Together for Local Integration of Migrants and Refugees, Paris, OECD Publishing, April 18, 2018, available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264085350-en. CAMILLO RIPAMONTI, SJ
The United Nations has launched intergovernmental negotiations that will lead to the definition of aGlobal Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) and a Global Compact on Refugees (GCR): two separate documents that need to be deeply integrated in a unified vision.2 How is Europe responding to this global reevaluation of the challenges around migration? What resources can we draw on to lay the foundations for an “effective integration” that can reach beyond statistics and have a real impact on people’s lives? In his homily for Christmas Midnight Mass in 2017, Pope Francis used these words to outline his perspective: “This same faith impels us to make space for a new social imagination, and not to be afraid of experiencing new forms of relationship, in 18 which none have to feel that there is no room for them on this earth. Christmas is a time for turning the power of fear into the power of charity, into power for a new imagination of charity. The charity that does not grow accustomed to injustice, as if it were something natural, but has the courage, amid tensions and conflicts, to make itself a ‘house of bread,’ a land of hospitality.”3 A new social imagination, a new imagination of charity: there are no better expressions to describe what is happening on the Old Continent far from the media spotlight. An attempt on the part of civil society – for this is not a Christian prerogative but a prerogative of men and women of good will – to build communities of solidarity through imagination gives rise to a fecundity, a creativity that dares to take risks because it is born from the dialogue of life that does not subvert diversity but enhances it. This is more urgent than ever at a time when human diversity, geographic provenance and, sadly, skin color are used to divide. On December 14, 2017, in his address to mark the
2.Cf. Dicastery for Promoting Integral Human Development, Migrants and Refugees Section, Responding to refugees and migrants: twenty action points for the Global Compacts, available at http://jrs.or.id/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/20- Action-Points-for-the-Global-Compacts.EN_.pdf. Pope Francis has particularly emphasized these negotiations, referring to the two intergovernmental documents in his Message for the 51st World Day of Peace, No. 5, (cf. w2.vatican. va) January 1, 2018. 3.Francis, Homily for the Solemnity of the Nativity of the Lord, Vatican Basilica, December 24, 2017; italics added for emphasis. EUROPE IN AN EXERCISE OF SOCIAL IMAGINATION accreditation of some new ambassadors to the Holy See, Pope Francis said: “The international community faces a series of complex threats to the sustainability of the environment and of the world’s social and human ecology, as well as risks to peace and concord stemming from violent fundamentalist ideologies and regional conflicts, which often appear under the guise of opposing interests and values. Yet it is important to remember that the diversity of the human family is not itself a cause of these challenges to peaceful coexistence. Indeed, the centrifugal forces that would drive peoples apart are not found in their differences, but in the failure to set out on the path of dialogue and understanding as the most effective means of responding to these challenges.”4 19 Building communities of solidarity Creating or strengthening a culture of welcome that promotes integration – intended as a two-directional process between those who welcome and those who are welcomed – requires not only laws to define its procedures, but also, and perhaps most fundamentally, the creation of a shared ethos. This is not just the sum of our baseline values of coexistence, but the fundamental idea that we cannot do without this coexistence in diversity: a sense of belonging based on solidarity and not identity, a feeling that we are part of a community where mutual responsibility is more than a mere sense of duty, and is configured as an awareness of the common good. The responsibility for integration does not rest with one group alone, but with multiple stakeholders, including immigrants, governments that welcome, institutions and communities, to name but a few. The integration of migrants into Europe must be based on dialogue, on shared rights and responsibilities, and must ensure full participation under the law in the support and inclusion of everyone in society. This precious process – slow and not always linear, in fact often characterized by
4.Francis, Address to new non-resident ambassadors accredited to the Holy See: Yemen, New Zealand, Swaziland, Azerbaijan, Chad, Liechtenstein and India, December 14, 2017. CAMILLO RIPAMONTI, SJ
interruptions and regressions – must be built up from the grassroots through a journey in which all stakeholders are open to involvement and change. Public responsibility is particularly important in this process, though the contribution of private citizens is significant and often essential. The increasingly numerous welcoming projects interact with their surrounding areas – which is to say communities, municipal authorities, local services, opportunities and resources – potentially creating changes of different kinds, be they cultural, social, political, economic or organizational. This can be for better or for worse: without appropriate management to harmonize developments across the region, welcome can fail to foster social cohesion and instead become 20 a trigger for nascent conflicts, fueling policies and social models resistant to welcome. Last year, during a speech given to representatives of municipal authorities, the pope said: “I understand the unease of many of our citizens in the face of the arrival of many migrants and refugees. This can be explained by the innate wariness toward the ‘foreigner,’ a wariness aggravated by the wounds caused by the economic crisis, the unpreparedness of local communities, the inadequacy of many measures adopted in a climate of emergency. Such unease can be overcome by offering spaces for personal encounter and mutual knowledge. Therefore, all those initiatives that promote the culture of encounter, the reciprocal exchange of artistic and cultural riches, and the knowledge of places and communities of origin of the new arrivals, are all welcome. I rejoice in the knowledge that many local administrations represented are among the main advocates of good reception and integration practices, with encouraging outcomes that deserve to be widely disseminated.”5 This is, in fact, the direction of the project Promoting best practices to prevent racism and xenophobia toward forced migrants through community building, which ran for two years in nine European countries. The project was led by JRS (Jesuit Refugee
5.Francis, Address to members of the National Association of Italian Municipalities (ANCI), September 30, 2017. EUROPE IN AN EXERCISE OF SOCIAL IMAGINATION
Services) Europe in partnership with JRS Italy, Belgium, France, Germany, Malta, Portugal and Romania, as well as Jesuits in Poland and Spain. The aim of this project was to identify and promote good practices in preventing racism and xenophobia through community-building initiatives, enhancing the personal experiences of migrants involved in various activities, and raising awareness in their environments. The I Get You report, published as part of this project, involved a stage of mapping good practices in participating countries.6 Each project partner identified a significant, representative sample of the outlook in its own country. Below are some of the results that emerged from an analysis of this research. 21 Creativity for Europe In the nine participating countries, 315 community- building initiatives were identified: 62 in Italy, 55 in France, 50 in Germany, 37 in Belgium, 31 in Spain, 31 in Portugal, 20 in Malta, 15 in Romania and 14 in Croatia. The range of participating countries is significant, since it also includes some that have manifested greater resistance to welcoming and integrating migrants in the past few years. Most of the initiatives identified are not particularly sizable, but certainly important in preventing racism and xenophobia. With regard to migrant numbers, the countries most represented in these initiatives are Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, Pakistan, Nigeria, Somalia, Sudan, Gambia and Mali. Most of the migrants are young people of working age, and over 50 percent have lived in Europe for over a year. The initiatives have received significant levels of public funding in Romania (53 percent), Portugal (39 percent) and Croatia (36 percent). In Germany, France, Spain and Italy, over 50 percent are funded by private donors. Across Europe, these initiatives touch on different themes. An important sector is employment: for example, in Antwerp and Liege the project “Duo for a Job” sees various professionals
6.Cf. http://www.igetyou-jrs.org/. CAMILLO RIPAMONTI, SJ
lending their skills, as well as their social and professional networks, to help train young migrants over a six-month period. Results show that 56 percent of the 770 “duos” enabled the migrant to find a job within 12 months. Another significant sector is sport: in Croatia, the football team Zagreb 041 is fighting racism and prejudice by fielding refugees as players. This is more than just a football team: it is a place of encounter for people of different cultures, origins and religions. After matches, which usually take place on the weekend, the team organizes events for players and their friends, involving members of the local community. For refugees, this is a great opportunity to show off their skills, as well as expanding their social networks. 22 Centers for integration have also been set up in particularly difficult areas such as the city of Plauen, in eastern Germany. This initiative – under the slogan Integration, not isolation – offers various services focused on encounter and integration with the local community, and works in collaboration with other projects in the area. The inclusive approach of this initiative is unique, creating spaces of encounter between different marginalized communities and vulnerable people, including, for example, youth with disabilities, job seekers and disadvantaged members of the local community. Its aim is to build a community that is inclusive for everyone, in contrast with the attempts made by some political factions to create competition between locals and refugees.
Community building in Italy In Italy, the creation of community-building initiatives is tied to the presence of refugees in local communities. In the past three years, the number of local administrations involved in welcoming forced migrants has grown, because asylum seekers are now redirected as soon as they arrive in Italy’s southern ports, and shared between all the various regions of the country.7
7.The agreement reached in 2014 between government, regions and local authorities, resulting in law No. 142/2015, attempted to overcome the emergency-based logic of the welcome system through a shared plan for the distribution of migrants across different regions based on regional access to EUROPE IN AN EXERCISE OF SOCIAL IMAGINATION
As part of this research, 62 Italian initiatives were identified: 25 in northern Italy, 28 in central Italy, and 9 in southern Italy. Most of their beneficiaries are asylum seekers or people under international protection, and their countries of origin – Mali, Nigeria, Gambia, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Eritrea – match the principal nationalities of asylum seekers in Italy in the past three years. Beneficiaries are between 19 and 25 years of age. In 69 percent of these initiatives, the migrants involved have been living in Italy for at least one year. Thirty seven percent say that organizing intercultural activities is their principal remit, while 19 percent focus on projects promoting shared living and welcome. These projects are highly varied, but could be summarized as “diffused welcome experiments.” This formula seeks to facilitate the creation of positive relationships 23 with the migrants’ surroundings – within families, parishes and religious establishments, in independent apartments or appropriate institutions. 11 percent of the Italian initiatives focus on activities aimed at improving access to employment and professional training. In Italy, therefore, the initiatives identified touch on various sectors. From a methodological point of view they are strongly characterized by the promotion of active participation, seeking in different ways to create synergies and reciprocity. This is the case with Casa dei Venti in Rome, where the aim is to develop a strong sense of belonging by promoting autonomy, but also co-responsibility in the management of activities and shared spaces; or with Progetto Tandem in Parma, where co-housing apartments open to university students and people under international protection enable the development of new and more effective forms of proactive, shared citizenship.
national funding for social initiatives. This system of regional quotas, introduced in 2015, effectively helped to rebalance the presence of asylum seekers across Italy, which had previously weighed primarily on the southern regions (in 2013, Sicily, Apulia and Calabria collectively hosted almost 70 percent of Italy’s asylum seekers). Under the current legislation, every region is obliged to host a fixed number of migrants; prefectures, working within regional coordination groups, are responsible for allocating the required places within their areas of jurisdiction. CAMILLO RIPAMONTI, SJ
Better integration is fostered by the presence of migrants in urban, non-isolated areas, and by the creation of smaller groups. Many initiatives are aimed not only at refugees, but rather at all the vulnerable populations within their local communities. This raises awareness of diversity, creating communities that are generally more inclusive and supportive. Food, sport and art are powerful factors of aggregation that have not lost their power of attraction, despite a general weakening in the capacity of public entities to manage these activities directly. It is interesting to note that initiatives started as a way of responding to the concrete needs of forced migrants and facilitating their journeys toward integration can become an opportunity to rethink and improve the quality 24 of life for all members of a community, and particularly for the most vulnerable. There are two conditions required for this to happen: on one hand, an effective valorization of the resources offered by migrants, so as not to encourage the purely utilitarian interpretation of their presence that considers them merely useful in resolving a problem for the welcoming community, perhaps as a way of “repaying” the welcome received; on the other hand, a willingness to look beyond traditional systems of service, seeking to promote activities based on “doing together” rather than “doing for.” In this way, forced migrants are not the exclusive – or even primary – beneficiaries. The beneficiaries of these activities include all members of their communities. Their shared aim is to create a context that welcomes everyone, and to strengthen relationships of collaboration and attentiveness toward the needs of their neighbors, regardless of any classification. The desire to feel part of a community, to share an interest or cause, to give meaning to time can be particularly pressing for a recently arrived foreigner, but is equally felt by many citizens, perhaps disillusioned with traditional politics or similar forms of engagement. A final element that appears particularly relevant to the prevention of xenophobia – and particularly of Islamophobia, which is rising alarmingly in Italy – is interreligious dialogue, EUROPE IN AN EXERCISE OF SOCIAL IMAGINATION which has been incorporated in various community-building initiatives. In most cases, this element is somehow implicit, a collateral effect of mutual encounter and of the friendships established with forced migrants, who are often Muslims. This type of response, creative and based on solidarity, clearly contradicts the image of Italy as a frightened and diffident country that is heavily influenced by the media, an image often evoked by politicians. Certainly, the challenges to welcome and the crises that are increasingly visible across the country contribute to dividing public opinion. It is equally clear, however, that diffused welcome, aimed at small groups and open to the effective participation of citizens, can decisively facilitate the management of welcome, while effectively preventing the rise of hostility and indifference. 25 The Popular Conscience of the Church A brief itinerary from Ecclesiam Suam to Evangelii Gaudium
Jorge R. Seibold, SJ
At the beginning of his exhortation Evangelii Gaudium (EG), Pope Francis cites the encyclical letter Ecclesiam Suam (ES) of St. Paul VI, citing these significant words: “Paul VI invited us to deepen the call to renewal and to make it clear that renewal 26 does not only concern individuals but the entire Church. Let us return to a memorable text that continues to challenge us: ‘The Church must look with penetrating eyes within herself, ponder the mystery of her own being’ (ES 26).” Pope Francis adds, still quoting from Ecclesiam Suam, that this self-awareness “is the source of the Church’s heroic and impatient struggle for renewal: the struggle to correct those flaws which her own conscience, in self-examination mirroring her exemplar, Christ, points out to her and condemns.” He also states, “The Second Vatican Council presented ecclesial conversion as openness to a constant self-renewal born of fidelity to Jesus Christ: … ‘Christ summons the Church as she goes her pilgrim way to that continual reformation of which she always has need, in so far as she is a human institution here on earth’” (EG 26). This text of Pope Francis invites us to consider the concept of “awareness” that Paul VI develops in the first part ofEcclesiam Suam. Our brief literary itinerary will begin, then, with the encyclical of Paul VI and continue to the exhortation of Pope Francis, with the goal of reflecting on the concept of the “popular conscience” or “self-awareness” that the Church has of herself.
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The self-awareness of the Church in Ecclesiam Suam of Paul VI Ecclesiam Suam was the first encyclical letter of Paul VI. He promulgated it on August 6, 1964, after beginning his pontificate in June 1963, and before the conclusion of Vatican II on December 8, 1965. The pope did not have the intention of making this encyclical a “solemn proclamation of Catholic doctrine or of moral or social principles” (ES 7). Rather, he aspired to present “a sincere message, as among brothers and members of a common family.” By no means was he presenting a text to block the work of Vatican II but, on the contrary, he desired to write down some personal reflections. He said, frankly, “there are three policies that principally exercise my mind” (ES 8). The first is connected with the “self-awareness” of 27 the Church, in an effort to better carry out her mission. The second concerns the “renewal” that the Church must embody, in order to correct her defects and in this way arrive at the perfection to which Christ calls her. The third thought, which springs from the first two, concerns “relations,” the dialogue that the Church must undertake with “the surrounding world in which it lives and works” (ES 12). These three themes constitute the framework of Ecclesiam Suam. Here, we will make reference only to the first of these, the topic of the “awareness” that the Church has of herself. Paul VI begins the first chapter of ES remarking how “it is a duty of the Church at the present time to strive toward a clearer and deeper awareness of itself and its mission in the world, and of the treasury of truth of which it is heir and custodian” (ES 18). This vital and necessary task comes before any beginning or proposed goal or reform. In philosophy, when we speak of “conscience” (awareness), we refer to a knowledge that any subject, individual or collective, possesses, having the understanding of possessing this knowledge. The same phenomenon can lead one to distinguish two types of awareness, without separating the two. For example, with a skin burn, one awareness is more “external,” when attention is drawn to the “object” – in this case, to what caused the burn, perhaps a fire or some incandescent JORGE R. SEIBOLD, SJ
object. There is also a more “internal” awareness, when greater attention is focused on what the subject has experienced or suffered personally. In this case, we speak of the “interior awareness” that a subject has of him or herself in the concrete circumstances of life. Modern philosophy considers both of these aspects, as both are present in any human situation.1 Human knowledge is equally tied to the world in which we live as much as it is to the knowledge of ourselves, both things we experience in many varied ways, depending on the nature and origin of what is engaging us. The Church, in updating her “self-awareness,” engages in an act of “reflection on herself” that does not take place in a vacuum, but rather within the fabric of the divine 28 constitution given to her by Jesus Christ, her founder, and of the historic variables that she has had to face in carrying out her mission in the world. When she, as a community of believers, perceives the diverse realities presented to her by the world, she cannot forget that the essential cornerstone for affirming her ecclesial self-awareness is her faith in Christ. Therefore, Paul VI recommends, in the first place, cultivating a permanent “vigilance” because by the express will of the Lord this vigilance must always be present and operative in the mind of the faithful, and must be determinative for the moral conduct that distinguishes the Christian in the world (ES 21). Therefore, it is important that the Church conserve intact her attachment to Christ through faith, hope and charity. Paul VI invites the entire Church to renew this explicit act, aware of the fact that, today, there are many reasons to do so, stemming from the profound exigencies of the historical moment in which the Church lives. The pope, in fact, is aware that “the modern world is in the grip of change and upheaval. It is undergoing developments that are having a profound influence on its outward way of life and habits of thought. The great advances made in science, technology
1.For a more complete presentation of this complex human phenomenon from a Hegelian perspective, cf. J.R. Seibold, “La Fenomenología del Espíritu de Hegel, doscientos años después,” in Stromata 63 (2007) 207-231. THE POPULAR CONSCIENCE OF THE CHURCH and social life, and the various currents of philosophical and political thought pervading modern society, are greatly influencing people’s opinions and their spiritual and cultural pursuits” (ES 26). All of this presents a serious challenge to the Church, which is in the world: The faithful “run the risk of becoming confused, bewildered and alarmed, and this is a state of affairs which strikes at the very roots of the Church. It drives many people to adopt the most outlandish views. They imagine that the Church should abdicate its proper role, and adopt an entirely new and unprecedented mode of existence” (Ibid.). In order to prevent such risks, Paul VI affirms that it is necessary to encourage a return to the awareness that the Church has of herself, an awareness that binds her to the mind of Christ, 29 safeguarded in the Sacred Scriptures and in Tradition. This does not mean rejecting modern thought and the advances achieved through legitimate research. On the contrary, Paul VI praises the important contributions of modern thought that have helped the Church to acquire a greater self-awareness. He comments upon these advances, beginning with the age of the Council of Trent, and particularly cites the Ecumenical Council of Vatican I, in which “the doctrine concerning the Church is one which must claim the attention not only of pastors and teachers, but also of the faithful, and indeed of all Christians. This doctrine is a necessary stepping-stone to the understanding of Christ and His work. It is precisely because the Second Vatican Council has the task of dealing once more with the doctrine de Ecclesia and of defining it, that it has been called the continuation and complement of the First Vatican Council” (ES 30). In this brief review, special reference is reserved for the encyclical Mystici Corporis of Pope Pius XII (1943), which at the time renewed the theology of the Church. Subsequently, its teaching revealed itself to be important for understanding the Church as the Body of Christ and as the People of God, themes treated by the Second Vatican Council that would later influence the recognition of the spiritual and mystical practices of the peoples of Latin America. JORGE R. SEIBOLD, SJ
From such a deepening of the mystery of Christ and his bond to the Church in her self-awareness come various “fruits” that, as Paul VI points out, will be “so to say, the very blueprint of our pontificate” (ES 34). The pope exhorts the entire episcopate, the faithful and even those who have do not yet have the fullness of the faith to strive to put these fruits into practice. Paul VI has no doubt: “the first benefit we trust the Church will reap from a deepened self-awareness, is a renewed discovery of its vital bond of union with Christ” (ES 35). External structures do not give vitality to the Church as “people of God”; rather, this vitality comes from her intimate bond with Christ. The pope returns to the doctrine expressed 30 by Pius XII in the encyclical Mystici Corporis. It is necessary to recognize Christ himself in the Church: “For it is indeed Christ who lives in the Church, and through her teaches, governs, and sanctifies; and it is also Christ who manifests Himself in manifold guise in the various members of His society” (Ibid.). This presence of Christ makes itself evident in the humble people, as we will see further on in regards to “popular piety” and “popular mysticism,” although these expressions do not expressly appear in ES. There is, nevertheless, a text in which Paul VI anticipates these expressions, when he writes: “Christ communicates to his mystical members the marvelous gifts of truth and grace. He uses it, too, to impart an external, visible structure to the Mystical Body in its pilgrimage through the world, and to give it its sublime unity, its ability to perform its various tasks, its concerted multiplicity of form, and its spiritual beauty” (ES 37; emphasis added). This experiential presence of Christ in the souls of all believers makes them live a spirituality not based on external signs, but on the transformative power of the Lord. The virtues and gifts are signs of the Spirit who animates the people of God. The Holy Spirit is the source of the spirituality of the Church and introduces her to the mystery of God. Further on, Paul VI states: “the cultivation of Christian perfection must still be regarded as the richest source of the Church’s spiritual THE POPULAR CONSCIENCE OF THE CHURCH strength. It is the means, so peculiarly its own, whereby the Church basks in the sunlight of Christ’s Spirit. It is the Church’s natural and necessary way of expressing its religious and social activity. It is the Church’s surest defense and the cause of its constant renewal of strength amid the difficulties of the secular world” (ES 38). From this is derived the importance of baptism, which opens the door to ecclesial and virtuous life in all who receive it and cultivate it. The pope says as much at the end of the first chapter, dedicated to “self-awareness”: “Those who are baptized and by this means incorporated into Christ’s Mystical Body, His Church, must attach the greatest importance to this event” (ES 39). The project that the pope entrusts to all is just that, to strengthen this awareness by which the faithful will feel 31 themselves to be a living part of the Body of Christ and of the Church: this is “already being implemented everywhere in the Church” (ES 40). In the two following sections in ES, respectively titled “Renewal” and “Dialogue,” Paul VI treats some questions that, later in his pontificate, will be of great import for the work of the Church.
The popular conscience of the Church in Evangelii Gaudium In the apostolic exhortation Evangelii Gaudium (EG), published November 24, 2013, Pope Francis takes up what John Paul II had expressed in 1990 in the encyclical Redemptoris Missio, reminding the reader that “missionary activity” represents, even in our days, “the greatest challenge for the Church.” It is a challenge that invites the Church to go outside of itself to preach the Gospel, with renewed energy and fervor, to the faithful, to those who have distanced themselves and have not remained faithful to the baptism they have received, and, finally, “to those who do not know Jesus Christ or who have always refused him.” This statement allows Pope Francis to cite for the first time the Document of Aparecida (DA 548), which affirms that we “cannot passively and calmly wait in our church buildings” and that there is an urgent need to move “from JORGE R. SEIBOLD, SJ
a pastoral ministry of mere conservation to a decidedly missionary pastoral ministry.” This move will be “a source of immense joy for the Church” (EG 15). These words of the pope invite us to enter into his exhortation and, in particular, they invite us to see what it has to tell us regarding “popular piety” and “popular mysticism,” because these themes touch the most intimate knowledge the Church has of herself. Francis looks at “popular piety” through the eyes of the Document of Aparecida, defining it as “a true expression of the spontaneous missionary activity of the people of God… an ongoing and developing process, of which the Holy Spirit is the principal agent” (EG 122). When the pope states 32 that the Church is not merely a social reality, but rather is one intimately animated by the Holy Spirit, he is drawing attention to the re-evaluation of “popular piety” the Church has engaged in during recent years, especially in Evangelii Nuntiandi of Paul VI, published in 1975, and recently confirmed in 2007 by Benedict XVI in the inaugural address to the Conference of Aparecida. In order to demonstrate how “popular piety” is a “spirituality” that leads also to “popular mysticism,” Francis takes up, and explicitly makes his own, the texts of Aparecida, affirming: “The Aparecida Document describes the riches which the Holy Spirit pours forth in popular piety by his gratuitous initiative. On that beloved continent, where many Christians express their faith through popular piety, the bishops also refer to it as ‘popular spirituality’ or ‘the people’s mysticism’ (DA 262).” Then he describes popular spirituality with almost exactly the same words and expressions as Aparecida: “It is truly ‘a spirituality incarnated in the culture of the lowly’ (DA 263). Nor is it devoid of content; rather, it discovers and expresses that content more by way of symbols than by discursive reasoning” (EG 124); he then adds that it is “a legitimate way of living the faith, a way of feeling part of the Church and a manner of being missionaries.” Quoting DA 264, he affirms: “Journeying together to shrines and taking part in other manifestations of popular piety, also by taking one’s THE POPULAR CONSCIENCE OF THE CHURCH children or inviting others, is in itself an evangelizing gesture.” Francis concludes this rich paragraph thus: “Let us not stifle or presume to control this missionary power!” (EG 124). The special meaning the Holy Father gives to “popular piety” is clear; it is a substantial expression of the Church in Latin America that, in his magisterium, is proposed for the consideration of the universal Church. Something similar can be said about “popular mysticism.” Pope Francis refers to this when, in the fourth chapter of EG, titled “The social dimension of evangelization,” he warns that such “popular mysticism” must be safeguarded against any “closure” that could confine it to the “intimate sphere” of the human individual or in an “empty transcendence,” without any connection to social space or the divine self-revelation of Jesus 33 Christ. Referring to popular mysticism, he explains: “the genius of each people receives in its own way the entire Gospel and embodies it in expressions of prayer, fraternity, justice, struggle and celebration” (EG 237). For Francis, both “popular piety” and “popular mysticism” are divine realities fully incarnate in human realities, in a particular way among the people. Because of this, he affirms: “Sometimes we are tempted to be that kind of Christian who keeps the Lord’s wounds at arm’s length. Yet Jesus wants us to touch human misery, to touch the suffering flesh of others. He hopes that we will stop looking for those personal or communal niches which shelter us from the maelstrom of human misfortune and instead enter into the reality of other people’s lives and know the power of tenderness. Whenever we do so, our lives become wonderfully complicated and we experience intensely what it is to be a people, to be part of a people” (EG 270; emphasis added). This is the most profound experience of being “us” in the intimate awareness of being united with others and with God as a people. Evangelization helps make this proximity, this touching and this tenderness that we experience be signs of the divine Love within us. All of this cannot be the work of our hands, but rather is that of God who works in us and, therefore, it is mystical and transformative. JORGE R. SEIBOLD, SJ
Francis defines this experience, described and lived by him in his vast personal and pastoral experience, as “spirituality”: “When we live out a spirituality of drawing nearer to others and seeking their welfare, our hearts are opened wide to the Lord’s greatest and most beautiful gifts. Whenever we encounter another person in love, we learn something new about God. Whenever our eyes are opened to acknowledge the other, we grow in the light of faith and knowledge of God. If we want to advance in the spiritual life, then, we must constantly be missionaries. The work of evangelization enriches the mind and the heart; it opens up spiritual horizons; it makes us more and more sensitive to the workings of the Holy Spirit, and it takes us beyond our limited spiritual constructs” (EG 272). 34 As we recall Ecclesiam Suam and the canonization of Paul VI, this is a good occasion to take up the invitation of Pope Francis to live with a stronger and more heartfelt self-awareness of the Church. Restorative Justice in Brazil The educational method of APAC prisons
Francesco Occhetta, SJ
In the dark world of prisons, an experience exists in Brazil that is like a ray of light: there, prisoners are not numbers, rather they are referred to by name; they have tasks to carry out; they are imprisoned in places without bars and without guards; they do not wear uniforms. In these “alternative jails” run by prisoners 35 – called recuperandi (recovering people) – there have been no riots or cases of corruption, while recidivism has been reduced from 85 percent to 15 percent.1 It does not seem possible, yet experience, data and management costs prove it to be true: the latter have decreased by one third if compared to those run by the State.2 For the sake of clarification, it is necessary to state that the educational method of APAC prisons (Association of Protection and Assistance to Convicts) does not foresee any reduction in the rate of custodial sanction. It follows the Brazilian legal system and it is part of the penitentiary system. However, it offers the possibility of humane re-education, rooted in a positive anthropological foundation where the mentality of revenge is not used to repay mistakes made.
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1.The average world rate of recidivism is around 70 percent. 2.The minimum cost of a prisoner for the Brazilian Finance Ministry in the ordinary public system is R$3,000 (around US$980 per month,); in APAC prisons it is R$950 (around US$300). FRANCESCO OCCHETTA, SJ
At present in Brazil there are 50 prisons managed by APAC, with about 3,500 inmates.3 This method is used in some prison wings in 23 other countries – such as the Netherlands, Norway, Hungary, the United States, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Singapore. In particular, in Chile there are 23 APAC prisons with 2,500 inmates. What lesson could be learned from this method to apply to criminal law and the doctrine of international criminal prosecution?
The birth of APAC prisons in the Brazilian context The first APAC prison was established in the State of Minas Gerais, in the southeast mountain region, thanks to the insight 36 of a lawyer, Mário Ottoboni. It was created in São Paulo in 1972 by a group of volunteers involved in prison pastoral care, forming an association of legal assistance to prisoners; in 1974, it became a civil society organization under private law and an auxiliary justice body. In the 1980s, thanks to Judge Silvio Marques Neto, for the first time, the State entrusted APAC with a prison wing in the São José dos Campos prison in Humaitá, in the State of Amazonas, and then in Itaúna, in the State of Minas Gerais.4 The choice of the Brazilian judiciary to endorse the APAC was in a way a certification of this method. From that moment, the partnership model between the State and a civil society organization was consolidated, and it now represents a “third way of recovery” between the prison facility and the individual inmates. In order to access APAC prisons, inmates with a definitive sentence must submit a written application and must have
3.Forty of these APAC prisons are located in the State of Minas Gerais and 10 are in other States: Maranhão, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraná and Espírito Santo. Some 147 APAC associations have been created that are capable of running a new Center of social reintegration. 4.Under APAC history, it is good to recall the witness of Franz de Castro Holzwarth, a friend of Mário Ottoboni. Both had been called to talk to prisoners during the riot in the Jacarei prison, on February 14, 1981. They were able to free hostages, but Castro Holzwarth was killed, shot 38 times in the confrontation between the police and detainees. In 2009 the process for his canonization was opened. RESTORATIVE JUSTICE IN BRAZIL served a period of detention in a traditional prison. APAC welcomes prisoners who have served several years in prison and who have families in the same district as the prison. Mário Ottoboni expresses his belief as follows: “The human being can be recovered. To make this happen, the inmate must be treated in a human way. Human, but firm.” Spes contra spem, hope against all hope, underlies the project if one considers the situation of prisons in Brazil, which is one of the most dire in the world. In the last 15 years, the prison population has grown by 74 percent. The number of detainees is close to 650,000, while the country holds the fourth place in the world – after the United States, Russia and China – for prison population. Overcrowding has helped to convert Brazilian prisons into “crime universities,” marked by rebellion and repression, corruption of 37 law enforcement agents, poor hygiene and sanitation conditions, lack of the right to defense and a high rate of drug use. The revolt in the Manaus prison on January 2, 2017, in which dozens of prisoners lost their lives, is just one example. The average Brazilian inmate is a poor, uneducated young man, with a difficult family situation, often sick (skin diseases, tuberculosis or HIV/AIDS) or addicted to drugs; only 1 percent of the detainees worked at the time they committed their crime; 43 percent of the inmates are people of color. The absence of State control inside Brazilians prisons is likely to be filled by two criminal organizations – the CCP (Primeiro Comando da Capital, “First Command of the Capital”) of São Paulo, and the Comando Vermelho (“Red Command”) of Rio de Janeiro. These organizations offer detainees protection, money, drugs, privileges and economic support to their families. In return, however, inmates are trained during their detention, and they are recruited when they get out. The social drift that we are witnessing is primarily caused by large numbers. According to Ottoboni, “the best thing would be to have small prisons, where a recovery process could really be carried out. Obviously, building prisons does not get votes, and no city wants them.”5
5.R. Marcoccia, “Il metodo APAC Carceri senza polizia,” interview of Mário Ottoboni, October 10, 2017, in www.terredamerica.com. FRANCESCO OCCHETTA, SJ
Discipline, work, family, education and spirituality The APAC experience requires a culture of justice in favor of rehabilitation and reparation. Prison is meant to be a community in which each partner – institutions, prison administration, lawyers, family members and volunteers – has an active role.6 This is why APAC is recognized as an “auxiliary body of the judicial system, and in this capacity various judges entrusted APAC with the authority to manage various prisons independently ... To do this, APAC signs a joint agreement with the judiciary branch and some state governments (Brazil is a federal system), thanks to which judges can send prisoners to its institutions.”7 Each prison houses about 200 inmates. They spend about 38 eight hours a day in their cells; the rest of the day is used to carry out activities comprising work, study, professional training and prayer. The cells, which are painted blue (the color of the sky), must be kept in order; the time schedule must be respected; every detail contributes to the weekly evaluation. The cell representative monitors behavior and ensures that no episodes of abuse whatsoever take place; a Truth and Solidarity Council, made up only of inmates, meets to examine problems and propose solutions. Order, cleanliness and what makes for a pleasant environment are cared for in detail. The working dimension is experienced within a caring relationship and is carried out according to the terms of imprisonment of the recuperando. “For long sentences much time is devoted to ‘therapeutic work,’ through which we try, above all, to stimulate creativity, thinking and self-esteem of the recuperando. In cases of semi-custody arrangements recuperandi are offered training toward a specific profession or trade. Open custody ensures that the recuperandi carry out a
6.AVSI (Associazione volontari servizio internazionale - Association of Volunteers for International Service) has been supporting APAC since 2009 and it has been encouraging its spread to other regions of Brazil, thanks to European Union funding. 7.J. Restán, Dall’amore nessuno fugge. L’esperienza delle APAC in Brasile, Catalogo mostra realizzata per la XXXVI Edizione del Meeting di Rimini, edited by J. Restán - J. de la Morena - F. Pellicelli - J. Sabatiello, in cooperation with AVSI Foundation, 25. RESTORATIVE JUSTICE IN BRAZIL
working activity outside the center; in this case, work coincides with exercising an activity during the day under specific contract conditions.”8 The benefit of the remission of a sentence is calculated on the days of work actually carried out by the inmate: for every three days of work, a day of incarceration is reduced. The relationship with family members is considered therapeutic: this is why inmates are invited to write, have telephone contacts and meet with them on Sunday afternoons. The APAC pedagogical project can be summarized in 12 points: participation of the local community; the recuperando helps the recuperando; work as therapy; the care of spiritual life; legal assistance; health and psychological assistance; personal promotion; family involvement; the active role of volunteers; 39 the Center for Social Integration (CSI); consideration of merit; days of spiritual retreat. The APAC model cannot be “transplanted”; they only develop in those cultural backgrounds that are able to welcome them and where there is the political will of local institutions, parish support and a civil society that is actively responsible for the recovery of prisoners. The judicial culture is against this model. Many judges and politicians are suspicious because they conceive the time spent serving a sentence only as a punishment. Are arrests and detention really enough to heal a society? In the past, in the State of São Paulo there were 30 APACs; then, little by little, they were closed, and prisoners were transferred to larger prisons. However, the numerous testimonies of recovered prisoners counter the skepticism regarding the social and re-educational function of this model. Punishment theories should stem from experience. Ottoboni adds: “A person who has never lived in prison and refuses to humbly learn with prisoners, will always remain a theoretician who is far removed from reality. Either you learn from living together with them, or you live speculating.”9
8.Ibid., 44. 9.J. Restán, Dall’amore nessuno fugge..., op. cit., 19. Cf. M. Ottoboni, Somos todos recuperandos, Belo Horizonte-MG, 2017, 33. FRANCESCO OCCHETTA, SJ
The experience of forgiveness The writing on APAC walls speaks clearly: “People are not their mistakes.” The aim is to distinguish the people from the crime and give them back the hope they can make a change through the experience of forgiveness that stems from spiritual life and prayer. Forgiveness entails allowing for the recuperandi to recover the disordered threads of their lives and to separate the evil that was done from the good. Bitterness, hatred, resentment, guilt, fear and revenge are some elements of the “inner prison” from which one must free oneself, a sort of prison within the prison. The pain caused by what one has done, lived in front of the victims’ faces, is the condition for envisaging one’s wounds in a larger mosaic. 40 We define this anthropological process of inner re- composition and truth as “forgiveness.” For those who believe, without living this experience before God, the evil done will not be recognized as such, and whoever committed it will continue to self-justify. Valdeci António Ferreira, General Manager of the APAC coordination association explains: “Convicts generally do not feel guilty. They say: ‘I stole, but in this country everyone steals! I did not sell drugs; it was the others who bought them! I did not rape a woman; it was she who provoked me!’ This is why, thanks to the work of volunteers and the support of other inmates who have recovered, we try to put in place the ‘therapy of reality’: everyone must be confronted with the evil he has committed, the mistakes he has made.”10 However, when someone deserves punishment, he is not punished; rather, he is accompanied in an environment of prayer and meditation. Moreover, APAC proposes to recuperandi an experience which is similar to the Ignatian Spiritual Exercises, which lasts for four days and allows for “having the experience of Christ.” The next step is the meeting with the victims, who are active parties in the program. “Taking care of a detainee’s life is the beginning of a real change in society. Reconciliation may arise from this act of reparation made to the victim. In any case, the
10.A. Tornielli, “Apac, la vita cambiata di Daniel nelle carceri del Brasile,” August 24, 2016, in www.lastampa.it. RESTORATIVE JUSTICE IN BRAZIL vicious circle of delinquency and evil is thus broken, making it possible to reintegrate these men and women in their families, in the life of their city.”11 Here we will only recall the experience of Raimunda, the mother of a murdered boy, who is a volunteer and responsible at an APAC reintegration center. “Since the day my son was killed, I plunged into a deep reflection. I was always thinking of the murderer’s family, especially his mother. It must be really sad to look at your son, being aware that he is a killer. When I understood that that mother’s suffering was greater than mine, I decided to forgive him. One day we met on the street, we hugged each other, and she could not stop crying. ... I feel a great sorrow for my son, but even if I hated his killer, he would not come back to life anyway.”12 41 Valdeci António Ferreira says: “APAC is not a factory, nor a machine which produces results in terms of social rehabilitation, as if this long, painful and difficult process were something mechanical, which works regardless of people’s freedom. There is instead a need for a great deal of patience. Everyone needs their time. And time belongs to God.”13 In fact, “APAC prisons are not just a model of recovery of the detainees, but also a real alternative in terms of the expiation of the sentence.”14 A confirmation of this is the strength of many silent testimonies. During his detention, a murderer who did not find peace was wondering: “How will I repair the crime I committed? How can I give back life?” After deciding to donate a kidney, he showed his scar, saying: “I killed a person, but now I have saved another one.” Also Daniel Luis Da Silva, 32, sentenced to 37 years of prison, said: “In prison I experienced hell on earth; I was begging the guards to kill me, so as not to continue living in
11.J. Restán, Dall’amore nessuno fugge…, op. cit., 70. 12.Ibid., 74. 13.Ibid., 72. 14.Fabrizio Pellicelli of AVSI explains: “It is all rooted in self-discipline, trust and respect.” FRANCESCO OCCHETTA, SJ
that way. I did not ask to be born in the family where I was born; it was not my dream to become like this.”15 Good fruits always come from deep roots such as generosity and competence. Except for administrative staff paid by the State, all APAC employees are volunteers: psychologists, social workers, lawyers, doctors, teachers. It is they who give hope to the prisoners with the slogan: “You are not alone, you are not abandoned to your own destiny.”
* * *
The UN has recognized the APAC method at a global level. Renowned people such as Cardinal Paulo Evaristo Arns, Bishop 42 Ivo Lorscheiter and Archbishop Luciano Mendes de Almeida have supported this method, and the Brazilian Episcopal Conference considers it as the best example of prison pastoral care. In its own small way, APAC makes Pope Francis’ dream come true. He has affirmed that “the mercy of God is able to transform hearts, and is also able to transform prisons into an experience of freedom.”16 Even the media has been studying this model since two famous men served their time in an APAC prison: Bruno Fernandes de Souza, goalkeeper of the popular Flamengo football team, accused of having planned the barbaric murder of his lover, Eliza Samudio; and Marcos Valério, an advertising executive involved in the Mensalão political scandal during the Lula government. While filming a video about an APAC prison, a journalist asked one of the inmates: “José, you escaped from all the prisons where there were prison officers, but from here, however, you’ve never tried to do it. How come?” The answer was: “Because no one flees from love.”17
15.A. Tornielli, “Apac, la vita cambiata di Daniel nelle carceri del Brasile,” op. cit. Cf. G. Meroni, “Apac: il carcere senza chiavi da cui nessuno fugge,” August 23, 2016, in www.vita.it. 16.Francis, Letter according to which an indulgence is granted to the faithful on the occasion of the extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy, September 1, 2015, in http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/letters/2015/documents/papa- francesco_20150901_lettera-indulgenza-giubileo-misericordia.html. 17.J. Restán, Dall’amore nessuno fugge…, op. cit., 77. RESTORATIVE JUSTICE IN BRAZIL
Marta Cartabia, vice president of the Constitutional Court, declared: “The most problematic issue of traditional justice from a conceptual point of view, as Paul Ricoeur noted, ‘is that even the most civilized actions of justice, and particularly those made in the criminal sphere, still maintain the visible sign of that original violence that is revenge.’ In the situation that we have inherited, we must push our reflection on justice forward; we must experiment with new forms that integrate and better accomplish the thirst for justice that is always inexhaustible.”18 For criminal law, this model represents a strong process centered on the person. Rehabilitation includes the deepest aspect of the human being, his spiritual life. Civil society takes an active part in this recovery process.19 In Italy, some first timid 43 steps are being taken to establish communities similar to the APAC ones and to establish alternative sentences rooted in restorative justice.20
18.M. Cartabia, “La giustizia riparativa. Prospettive,” August 24, 2017, in www.meetingrimini.org. 19.The Rimini Meetings have the merit of presenting the APAC model in Italy, during two conferences, on August 23, 2016 and August 24, 2017, chaired by Marta Cartabia. 20.The Comunità Papa Giovanni XXIII in Rimini is using this method in working with some inmates in the last period of their sentence, before their social rehabilitation. Justice in the Global Economy Building sustainable and inclusive communities
GianPaolo Salvini, SJ
In June 2016, Fr. Adolfo Nicolás, then Superior General of the Society of Jesus, sent a document to his fellow Jesuits proposing a greater commitment to the cause of global economic justice in order to better serve our brothers and sisters victimized by 44 unjust economic and social structures.1 The document was inspired by Pope Francis’ eloquent and critical appeals – in speeches, homilies, and other writings – for us to address unjust economic systems. “He insisted that we identify the cruel and unjust forces of a mercantile economy that leave so many people behind and deprived of basic necessities.” To this end, a group of economists, theologians, Jesuits and lay experts from all over the world, summoned by the Secretariat for Social Justice and Ecology and the Secretariat for Higher Education, met at the General Curia of the Society of Jesus and drafted a document titled, “Justice in the Global Economy: Building sustainable and inclusive communities.”2 The purpose of that document was not to treat every important question exhaustively, but rather to serve as a basis for further dialogue, research and concrete action for advocacy. Even at the level of individual Jesuits, communities and local
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1. Letter of Fr. Nicolás to the entire Society recommending a document we intend to present, Rome, April 19, 2016. 2. The text can be found in Promotio Iustitiae, published by the Secretariat for Social Justice and Ecology of the Jesuit General Curia, No. 121, 2016/1. The document was edited by Fr. Patxi Álvarez, and the editorial coordinator was Concetta Negri. JUSTICE IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY institutions, care must be taken so that these topics are not overlooked because we mistakenly believe they are beyond our power to change since, individually and collectively, we seem so small and insignificant; that is, we deem ourselves too small and too weak to confront such large-scale problems. “We must remind ourselves that true progress is possible with a united and persistent effort to change habits, institutions and structures.”3 Pope Francis has said on many occasions that the human race finds itself at a critical crossroads. The possibility of moving forward is given by the fact that increases in access to education at all levels, better healthcare assistance, more advanced technology, and faster communications systems over the last decades have made it possible for many to reach a significantly higher level of well-being (cf. Evangelii 45 Gaudium, 52). At the same time, the pope has tirelessly insisted that too many people barely get by. Therefore, the global human community finds itself at a turning point: Will the economic gains benefit all, or will they be enjoyed exclusively by a privileged minority? The pope’s diagnosis leads us to pass severe judgment on the road we are traveling: large swaths of people share no part in the higher standard of living possible today. The pope’s best-known affirmation – for its dire tone if nothing else – is that we must say “‘thou shalt not’ to an economy of exclusion and inequality. Such an economy kills” (Evangelii Gaudium, 53). The pope makes the provocative statement that “inequality is the root of social ills” (Ibid., 202) in that it perpetuates poverty and exclusion. To confront it, we must reject the absolute autonomy of markets and financial speculation and turn our attention to solving the structural causes of poverty. In a way similar to St. John Paul II, Pope Francis proposes the virtue of solidarity, defined as “a firm and persevering determination to commit oneself to the common good; that is, to commit to the good of all and of each individual.”4 There are
3. Letter of Fr. Nicolás cited in footnote 1. 4. John Paul II, Encyclical Letter Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, No. 38. GIANPAOLO SALVINI, SJ
indeed hopeful signs that a change in attitude to help the poor is possible. The document, comprised of five short chapters, is directed to that optimistic end.
The signs of the times Poverty rates remain high despite notable economic growth over the last several years. The poverty level has been reduced from 44 percent to 12.7 percent. Nevertheless, there are still 2 billion people living on less than two dollars per day. Inequality has been growing at a constant rate. The overwhelming majority of people have experienced only marginal gains. About half of the world’s population has no access to “wealth”: that is, they lack accumulated assets. Indigenous peoples 46 and marginalized ethnic minorities have been victims of discrimination if not simply excluded systematically from the process of development. Women are more subject to poverty and economic disparity than men. The nature of work is also in a phase of transformation, and this transformation tends to benefit those with a higher level of education and minimizes opportunities for those lacking such an education. Financial markets have experienced enormous expansion, exacerbating inequality in development. The private sector has become increasingly more important. The violence afflicting us in modern times is often provoked by economic factors. The role of the media, both commercial and social, has risen dramatically. This allows for a democratization of information and more widespread awareness of situations, but access to the media is too often restricted to the privileged few. There are, however, signs of hope. These are most notable in relationships formed at the level of the global economy, and these positive signs can be weighed against the list of challenges. Many local communities are working in creative ways to establish economies that are more just and inclusive. These communities are often led by women or marginalized minorities. A new global civic society is emerging, expressions of which can be found in transnational associations, united through mass communication and sustained by local communities. Some JUSTICE IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY governments and commercial organizations are clearly showing a willingness to contribute to sustainable development, which is now understood in a new way that places the human person and care for the environment at the center. There is widespread effort to persuade large companies to assume responsibility as they search for greater balance between economic, environmental and social values. This shows that the accumulation of capital has enhanced the desire to monitor business activity. Many people, communities, and government leaders today are fostering – or could foster – a more just global economy.
The main challenges today Economic growth and the concomitant increase in the production of goods and services have an impact not only on 47 the developed world, but also on many countries that are still in various phases of development and that have had a greater price to pay for development than nations already industrialized. The number of persons who live in conditions of extreme poverty has been cut in half five years prior to the target set out by the Millennium Development Goals (set for 2015). This has allowed for a decrease in the rate of poverty from 44 percent in 1981 to 12.7 percent in 2012, even if the overall number of people remains unacceptably high. Living in a state of severe need remains the plight of nearly a billion people. Moreover, the poor are often lacking the education and human contacts they need to participate in civil society. The poor are often stigmatized and considered unworthy of the social support they need to pull themselves out of their present conditions. In some social classes there is virtually no hope of mobility. Some nations are in a state of stagnancy and others in complete decline. Sadly, in sub-Saharan Africa the number of persons in poverty doubled from 1981 to 2010 and now stands at 414 million. The worldwide infant mortality rate for children below the age of five has been reduced by more than 50 percent, except in sub-Saharan Africa and the developing regions of Oceania. This figure causes great concern because half of the global demographic growth between now and 2050 will occur in Africa. On the other hand, life expectancy throughout the GIANPAOLO SALVINI, SJ
world has increased from 65 years for men and 69 for women (2000-2005), to 68 years for men and 73 for women (2010- 2015), and it is still on the rise. According to the Christian faith, every human person possesses an inherent dignity and sacredness that merits respect and social support. The scandal of poverty presents a serious challenge to the Church and society. Jesuits should particularly heed the invitation to exercise greater care for the poor in a spirit consonant with St. Ignatius, and with due awareness of the Society’s commitment to serving the poor from its very conception. “Bringing justice to the poor is a key aspect of the Christian and Jesuit vocation.” Poverty is aggravated by the increasing inequality 48 between the wealthiest elements of society and the rest of the population, an inequality that has been steadily increasing in almost every country since 1980. The benefits of economic development are being distributed in a decisively unequal way, especially within individual nations. According to the International Monetary Fund, “less than 100 individuals in the world have more wealth than half of the world’s population.” Women are at a greater risk of poverty and economic disparity than men. In many developing nations, while 80 percent of men earn an income, only half of the women of working age earn an income. Also, the situation of young people is not entirely encouraging since they often do not have easy access to the workforce and they find it virtually impossible to support a family. Young people’s limited access to the workforce is notable in places like Europe, but it also exists in the Middle East and elsewhere. This also is the result of an uneven playing field among businesses (i.e., oligopolies and monopolies), and of unregulated and deregulated financial transactions. The search for an “acceptable” level of inequality is not much of a consolation. The experience of countries such as Sweden, Slovenia, Montenegro, Hungary and Norway shows that the phenomenon of increasing inequality can be avoided. Political choices, when they are supported by a commitment to social solidarity, can result in less inequality and a reduction of poverty. JUSTICE IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY
The negative picture outlined above is partially due to the unequal growth of financial markets, which in turn gives birth to financial instruments that go well beyond the “real economy” of goods and services, creating new possibilities for the manipulation and abuse of trade mechanisms. Many governmental leaders and institutions have tried in vain to invoke the regularization of this delicate sector at national and international levels. The economic wounds suffered as a result of poverty and inequality divide society in increasingly dangerous ways because they work together to undermine hopes and prevent actions oriented toward initiating a positive change in the social arena. At the same time, economic inequality and exclusion increase pressures that lead to migration. 49 Injustice becomes a form of violence when the privileged use their power to keep others in a state of poverty, or even deprive them of the little they possess. Social exclusion, which is one facet of inequality today, renders the connection between economic injustice and conflict in a particularly dangerous way, especially when one considers the enormous amount of resources available to us. Jesus’ invitation to his disciples to be peacemakers is therefore closely connected to his call to be promoters of justice. This is a truth reaffirmed again and again in numerous documents of the Church. Scientific analysis, as explained in the encyclical Laudato Si’, affirms that the current rate of mining natural resources is unsustainable. If consumption continues at the current rate, we will face serious risks for both ecological stability and for the well-being of humanity. But the breakdown of the environment and society can still be checked if we have a greater awareness of these risks and take up concrete initiatives to avoid dangerous scenarios. This is all the more necessary insofar as the poor are the most vulnerable to the damage caused by deforestation, non-sustainable agriculture, pollution and decreasing amounts of arable land. It is quite conceivable that one day we will see millions of people turned into true refugees as a result of environmental degradation. GIANPAOLO SALVINI, SJ
The biblical story of creation highlights the intrinsic worth of natural resources and the value of living creatures in such a way that economic activity, politics and institutions should serve to protect the dignity of all men and women. Often, however, human action only enflames “conflict,” as can be seen in nature due to its finiteness.
A new vision An effective solution to the challenges outlined above must be decisively oriented toward the common good. “The idea of the common good has a long history, but its meaning is rarely spelled out with any precision.” One possible definition is “the interconnected set of social values that are shared by all of a community’s members 50 to at least the degree required by their common humanity.” To give an example, the common good is a healthy and sustainable environment from which both the community as a whole and its individual members may benefit. A true common or shared good is not therefore equivalent to the total aggregate of goods possessed by the individual members of a society. The measurement of per capita GDP does not take into account how the revenue and goods are distributed within the society itself. The various meanings of the word “justice” as conceived by ancient Greek thinkers can also shed light on the situation today. Distributive justice, for example, is the opposite of contributive justice. In fact, it regulates the way in which the common good of a society is distributed or made accessible to its members. Already in 1963, St. John XXIII, in Pacem in Terris, affirmed that the institutions that govern international political and economic interactions are inadequate for the task of promoting the common good among all people. Generally, the principle of subsidiarity must be at work, but “if national communities and civil society are unable or unwilling to take action needed to secure the common good, regional or global organizations of governance can be required to do so.” The common good is therefore considered through the lens of a wider vision of the global human community. Nevertheless, to prevent a distorted use of government power, the decisive involvement of civil society is essential. JUSTICE IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY
Very often, action from below by groups within civil society is essential to confronting extreme poverty and environmental degradation head-on. Nongovernmental organizations, Caritas and many other organizations – many of which are associated with the Church – enjoy a privileged position of leadership in these areas, because the Christian community has global reach, and many of its members are themselves at risk economically and environmentally. Simply by forming a network – something quite manageable given today’s technology – one can contribute to making joint initiatives more effective. The document then proposes a list of reforms at the national and international level to improve the living conditions of the poor. Each of these needs more room than this article provides for a full description. Besides, they are outlined only in a summary 51 fashion in the document itself. The intent of the document seems to be to indicate priorities and the direction we need to move in. Here, therefore, let us simply list those reforms, even if put this way they appear rather vague and generic, perhaps even a bit banal: (1) to encourage public government policies that redistribute wealth; (2) to apply laws that protect the environment and favor a good governance of natural resources, including minerals; (3) a stronger regulation of economic and financial markets; (4) to support political initiatives that reduce the power of high-level lobbying of government and to combat corruption; (5) to promote the creation of decent jobs; (6) to advocate the need for the most developed nations to devote 0.7 percent of their GDP for the development of the poorest countries;5 (7) to stimulate the participation of additional actors in civil society. The document also proposes a brief list of reforms at the international level that actually seem to be included in the preceding list or at least to overlap them: (1) a more stringent regulation of international economic-financial markets; (2) more just trade treaties among states and multinationals; (3)
5. This commitment, which had already been reduced from a minimum of 1 percent to 0.7 percent, was reaffirmed by the United Nations in 2016. Thirty- five countries have adhered to the pledge, but even then it is considered merely an ideal target. GIANPAOLO SALVINI, SJ
a regulation of countries known to be tax havens and the subjection of multinational agencies to stricter financial rules. Obviously, there will never be true change until a deep, interior conversion takes place (cf. Laudato Si’, No. 217). No renewed relationship with nature can take place until each individual undergoes a genuine renewal. A newfound commitment to solidarity will make us more aware of the goods we amass and make us more capable of curbing consumption. Despite passionate appeals to live more simply and to enjoy human relationships and friendship, our ongoing concern for the economy and a better life style continually point us in the other direction. A spirituality that corresponds to the needs of our times must be rooted in a genuine concern for justice that extends 52 beyond our national borders. Our national communities need our participation and commitment in order to come up with just solutions. At the same time, however, our globalized world requires us to go beyond local issues and notice how they connect with questions on a national, regional and even global level. We lack, for example, a culture of hospitality when we deal with people in need, even if civil agencies tend to show greater compassion than larger institutions. The Society of Jesus has a particular mission within this global initiative: it must act as a voice for the poor, listening to them and trying to help them find ways to change their situation. Jesuit institutions must be transformed into instruments of economic justice and reconciliation, trying to resolve the problems hinted at in the Church’s encyclicals on social justice. “We should leverage our commitment and reputations for sound research and clear positions through direct advocacy.” Jesuit institutions must utilize “their network of institutions to turn a spotlight on significant policy issues and to pressure for greater international cooperation in reforms that would make the lives of the poor more humane and just.”
Some observations We have only given a rough outline of a document that on the one hand is generic and almost “as big as the world,” and on the other, notable for its uniqueness. The document JUSTICE IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY does not propose a new economic system, much less a specific alternative to the way that things are done. It neither discusses capitalism nor a market economy nor a planned economy explicitly so as to avoid sterile comparisons. But it does dare to indicate a series of things to bring about a series of incisive reforms that, if put into practice, would challenge whether the economic system should stay the same or if it should become something quite different. Given that the mass media constantly draws attention to the declarations of Pope Francis that emphasize the distortions and the inequalities of the global economic system, the document also repeatedly draws attention to positive things. In the last decades, the world economy has made possible a higher standard of living (even if not for everyone), has 53 extended life expectancy, taken billions of people out of extreme poverty, and accomplished other things. This is why Pope Francis always gives a positive title to his documents (Evangelii Gaudium, Laudato Si’, and so on). Yet he also wants to avoid that, by emphasizing the positive results already obtained, the cry of alarm – the biblical “cry of my people” – goes unheeded and forgotten as we lull ourselves to sleep with the trust we place in the presumed automatic positive development of the economy. The pope wants to emphasize that the heavy burdens of poverty in today’s world are not isolated incidences but are rather “symptoms” causing alarm insofar as they are structural. The text makes compelling and well-informed proposals, even if it only sketches a rough outline of possible interventions. It does not present a single, clear plan of action, which is indeed hard to do in such a dynamic and complex world economy as we have today. It is not intended simply to make us more optimistic, but to show that Christian hope, even in the conflicted and selfish world we now live in, can find positive signs that can bear fruit and render hope itself more meaningful and richer. A Family Affair: Kore-eda Hirokazu’s film Shoplifters
Virgilio Fantuzzi, SJ
With a discreet eye and bristling sensitivity, Japanese film director Kore-eda Hirokazu examines a group of people (a family?) living on the margins of a crowded city. What does living on the margins mean? It means having no roots, 54 surviving by chance, clinging to the fragility of others for fear of succumbing to your own. The filmShoplifters won the Palme d’Or at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival.
Before civil society A middle-aged man, Osamu (Lily Franky) and a boy, Shota (Jyo Kairi) help themselves to goods from the shelves of a supermarket as they believe that the things there belong to no one. “I forgot the shampoo,” says Shota on the way home. They stop to look at a little girl who seems small and sad, numbed by the cold on a terrace. “Is she still here?” they ask each other, before leading her away and taking her home. Home is a wooden shack surrounded by large concrete apartment blocks. It is full of stuff piled high. Hatsue (Kiki Kirin), an elderly lady everyone calls ‘granny,’ and two women, Nobuyo (Ando Sakura) wife of Osamu and her sister Aki (Matsuoka Mayu), warmly welcome the little girl. The scars on her arms are a clear sign of the abuse she has suffered. She has no wish to go back to where she was. And even if at night she wets the bed, a cure for this will be found, just as for every other difficulty.
La Civiltà Cattolica, English Edition Vol. 2, no. 12, article 7, December 2018. 10.32009/22072446.1812.7 A FAMILY AFFAIR: KORE-EDA HIROKAZU’S FILM SHOPLIFTERS
From a legal point of view, this is kidnapping, pure and simple. But Shibata’s family, where the father is not the father, the wife is not the wife, the sister not a sister, the granny not a granny, and so on, has no idea about the law. It lives according to a different set of rules that comes from a time when civil society did not yet exist. Here one recalls Pier Paolo Pasolini and his personal, artistic story. In the 1950s, due to a lack of resources, he lived in a distant suburb of Rome (Ponte Mammolo) among thieves, prostitutes and pimps. He dedicated two novels and the first three films of his directorial career to these suburban underclasses. This group of people had become invisible because nobody was talking about them. They would disappear within a few decades due to rapid changes in society. 55 “In recent years, the gap between the classes has grown significantly. More and more people miss out on the support systems that should look after them,” says Kore-eda in an interview. And he adds: “In Japan, crimes like pension fraud and parents inciting their children to pickpocket are severely criticized. And this is right. But I wonder why people get so angry at minor offenses when much more serious crimes go unpunished. Especially after the 2011 earthquake, I am not at ease with those who continue to say that family ties are important. So I decided to look at the topic and tell the story of a family tied together by crime.”
Happiness insurance Osamu has no great desire to tire himself out. He breaks his foot when working for a day on a building site and is unable to get a disability allowance. He prefers to engage in small-scale theft with Shota. He considers him as a son and hopes in vain that the boy will call him “father.” Shota was abandoned by his parents when he was small. He has no idea how to adapt to his position of being an unwanted child. By small thefts he makes his contribution to family life, but he is unwilling to show affection. He refuses to call the girl they welcomed, Yuri, his “sister.” In the end, he is the one who provokes an accident that brings down the whole castle of well-meaning lies. His journey to adulthood is hard, but he will make it. VIRGILIO FANTUZZI, SJ
Noboyu sees in Yuri the ideal daughter, but she cannot keep her. Aki, her own sister, performs behind the screen of a peep show and falls in love with a regular customer who happens to be dumb. The most extraordinary personality is Hatsue, the “granny” whose pension supports the family. She tells the others: “Without you I would be forced to die alone. You are my happiness insurance.” A news report tells us that the actress who played Hatsue delightfully, Kiki Kirin, died of a tumor in the morning of September 15 after a long battle. I think again of the scene where the granny, during a trip to the sea with her family, covers her legs with sand, almost an omen of her imminent 56 death: she would be found dead in bed the following morning. That delicate act anticipated the burial of both the actress and the character she played. The body of the grandmother is hidden, buried in a garden so that they could continue to receive her pension. A mistake by Shota, as mentioned, brings the attention of law enforcement to the unusual goings on behind the façade of the Shibata family: kidnapping, corpse concealment, murder… Previously, supposedly in “legitimate defense,” Osamu had killed the husband of Nobuyo who heroically assumes all responsibility and ends up in prison. Yuri returns to her true mother who takes no care of her. Shota is looked after in a foster home and attends school. What is striking is the behavior of the authorities: all precision and order, never a misplaced word or improper gesture. But they do not show any heart. Indeed, disorder is missed, that same deplorable disorder which is yet so full of reciprocal care, the disorder of the family that manages – precisely because it is illegitimate – to be family in the full sense of the word. Nelson Mandela: His Life and Legacy
Anthony Egan, SJ
Introduction The 100th anniversary of the birth of Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was celebrated on July 18, 2018. Co-winner of the Nobel Peace Prize (1993) and recipient of numerous honors, Mandela was the first president of post-apartheid democratic 57 South Africa (1994-1999) and has been widely acknowledged as one of the greatest statesmen of the 20th century. In this article I shall examine his career, leadership style, his faith and some of the posthumous controversies about him, concluding that, despite his many faults, Mandela’s greatness remains. Indeed, I shall suggest that he was above all a public figure who embodied many of the central precepts of Catholic Social Thought.
A brief biography Since his life has been comprehensively covered in his autobiography1 and by biographers,2 and since Mandela’s story is widely known, I shall be brief in summing up his remarkable life.
La Civiltà Cattolica, English Edition Vol. 2, no. 12, December 2018. DOI: 10.32009/22072446.1812.8
1.N. Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom: the Autobiography, Boston, Little, Brown & Co., 1995; Ibid., Conversations with Myself, London, Macmillan, 2010; Ibid., No Easy Walk to Freedom, London, Heinemann 1990 [1965]; N. Mandela – M. Langa, Dare Not Linger: the Presidential Years, New York, Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2017. 2.M. Benson, Nelson Mandela, London, Penguin, 1986; E. Boehmer, Nelson Mandela: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008; T. Lodge, Mandela: A Critical Life, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006; F. Meer, Higher Than Hope: The Authorized Biography of Nelson Mandela, London, Hamish Hamilton, 1988; M. Meredith, Mandela: A Biography, New York, Public Affairs, 2010; A. Sampson, Mandela: The Authorised Biography, London, HarperCollins 1999. ANTHONY EGAN, SJ
Born in Mvezo in 1918, near Mthatha, in what is today the Eastern Cape Province, the son of a Thembu chief, after his Xhosa initiation he was given the name Dalibunga (“maker of parliaments”). Although this probably expressed his expected role in the Xhosa community, the name is prescient given his later political career. Having attended Methodist mission schools and the universities of Fort Hare and Witwatersrand, Mandela completed his legal studies as an articled clerk (a legal assistant) in Johannesburg. As an attorney he formed a legal partnership with his friend Oliver Tambo. Both of them became active members of the Youth League of the African National Congress (ANC), a political movement founded in 1912 to extend political and 58 social rights to black people in South Africa. From this base in the more politically militant Youth League, which moved the whole ANC in the late 1940s from a policy of conciliation to a politics of nonviolent confrontation with apartheid,3 Mandela and Tambo became key players in the 1952 Defiance Campaign and the Congress of the People process that led to the creation of the Freedom Charter (a “peoples’ constitution”) in 1955. For their troubles, Mandela, Tambo and 154 other members of the ANC and its sister movements that formed the Congress Alliance were arrested and charged with treason in December 1956. The trial dragged on four years, during which time the ANC was banned (1960), but culminated in acquittals for all the accused in 1961. In the meantime, following the failure of nonviolent protest in the 1950s to convince the National Party government to even start to move away from apartheid, the ANC decided to move to armed struggle. Mandela, who was among the first to consider this possibility (as far back as the early 1950s), was one of the founding members of Umkhonto weSizwe (“Spear of the Nation”), known by its acronym MK, in 1961. Oliver Tambo, his friend, was sent into exile to set up the ANC outside South Africa. Focused initially on sabotage and
3.C. Glaser, The ANC Youth League, Johannesburg, Jacana, 2012, 11-71. NELSON MANDELA: HIS LIFE AND LEGACY avoiding loss of life, MK by the late 1970s embraced (mainly urban) guerrilla warfare, while the ANC tried to build up underground political networks in South Africa.4 Mandela was captured fairly early on and imprisoned for illegally leaving and returning to South Africa without a passport. When the rest of the MK internal High Command were arrested by the security police in 1963, Mandela – revealed to be MK’s commander in chief – was tried with them, convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on Robben Island in 1964. Lucky to be alive (since their actions normally carried a death sentence under South African law) Mandela and his comrades spent the best part of the next 30 years in prison. Mandela used his time studying the psyche of his 59 white captors, while firmly and politely insisting that he and his fellow prisoners be treated with respect. Some warders feared him for this. Many came to respect him. A few even befriended him.5 From the 1970s onward, the South African state realized that apartheid was unworkable. In the 1980s, as both armed and nonviolent resistance increased and international economic sanctions took their toll, the state initiated secret negotiations with the ANC in a variety of places. Cabinet ministers met with Mandela in his prison cell; he spoke openly with them, insisting that the fruits of their conversations be relayed to ANC leaders in exile. Once the ANC and other liberation movements were made legal in 1990 and Mandela was released, negotiations for transition to democracy began. They were not easy. Rival political factions fought for control of political territory in South Africa’s urban and rural areas; these rivalries were allegedly further inflamed by “dirty tricks” operations – organized, some
4.J. Cherry, Umkhonto weSizwe, Johannesburg, Jacana, 2011; T. Simpson, Umkhonto weSizwe: the ANC’s Armed Struggle, Johannesburg, Penguin/ Random House, 2016; R. Suttner, The ANC Underground in South Africa 1950- 1976, Johannesburg, Jacana, 2008. 5.J. Gregory, Goodbye, Bafana: Nelson Mandela, My Prisoner, My Friend, London, Headline, 1995. ANTHONY EGAN, SJ
claimed, by hardliners in government and security. Some even believed it was government policy aimed at weakening the ANC’s position at the negotiating table. Despite this, and despite his deep mistrust of – and at times open hostility to – the incumbent President F. W. De Klerk, Mandela and his team (including current South Africa president Cyril Ramaphosa) brokered a deal. The 1994 General Election in late April, the first to include all races, went off with minimal hitches. On May 10, 1994, attended by thousands and watched live on television by millions worldwide, Nelson Mandela took the presidential oath of office in Pretoria.
The presidency 60 From the start, Mandela insisted that he would serve only one five-year term. (Constitutionally he could have been elected to two). Under his stewardship a new Constitution was adopted in 1997. With clauses that included socio-economic and cultural rights, it was hailed universally as one of the most inclusive and progressive in the world. Emphasizing separation of powers, it provided for state-funded watchdog organizations to monitor government and a Constitutional Court to interpret all present and future legislation in the light of the Constitution. Mandela characterized his term by emphasizing reconciliation and nation-building, uniting a country that had been in low-intensity war for decades and under white racism for three centuries. Two events illustrate his approach: the 1995 Rugby World Cup and the 1996-1998 Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Ordinary governance in the Mandela presidency yielded mixed results. Though committed to narrowing the gap between the majority poor and minority well-off (which generally mirrored black and white citizens), and though he introduced comprehensive programs in public housing and welfare, as well as affirmative action and black economic empowerment, the results were mixed. Some of this was due to bureaucratic incompetence or corruption, as well as problems of implementation: insufficient state delivery capacity in the face of massive need. NELSON MANDELA: HIS LIFE AND LEGACY
Having inherited an economy already limping and in need of foreign direct investment, Mandela and the ANC consciously decided before 1994 not to pursue full-blown socialism, opting for a kind of social democracy. There would be no massive nationalization of industry; land redistribution would follow careful, legal processes based on “willing buyer, willing seller” policies that would not spook investments or risk food security. This ultimately benefitted more the wealthy and middle class (both the “old” white and rapidly growing “new” black bourgeoisie). When he retired from office in 1999, Mandela was the first to recognize that the vision of the Freedom Charter had yet to be realized. In retirement, Mandela concentrated on charitable works he had started as president, using a substantial part of his 61 salary: his Children’s Fund and, in 1999, the Nelson Mandela Foundation, dedicated to education, development and HIV/ AIDS prevention. His very public interventions on the latter issue were a major factor in shaming the South African government into rolling out antiretroviral drugs through the public health service. Despite failing health he remained a high-profile public commentator, voicing strong opposition to the war in Iraq, encouraging reconciliation between Libya and the West, and calling on the dictator of Zimbabwe, Robert Mugabe, to resign. When he died on December 5, 2013, he was mourned worldwide. Many South Africans, including many of his critics, noted with sadness the contrast between Mandela and the openly corrupt presidency of the then incumbent, Jacob Zuma.
Mandela’s legacy: moral capital What, then, of Nelson Mandela’s legacy for today? Following the lead of Tom Lodge, who I would argue is his best biographer because he is both sympathetic and critical, I shall start by interpreting his life from the standpoint of moral capital.6 As opposed to the charismatic cult of personality that emphasizes
6.J. Kane, The Politics of Moral Capital, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001; cf. Lodge, Mandela, esp. 167-225. ANTHONY EGAN, SJ
appealing directly to sentiments in a populist manner, public figures with moral capital combine action and behavior, rooted in deeply-held values and what is possible at the time. They act and speak according to their convictions. People follow them because they have moral authority rooted in who they are. In other words they are followed because the virtues they embody resonate with us. Mandela embodied moral capital, not because he was a secular “saint” – after all, he was married three times, sometimes neglected his family (his attention being focused on the liberation struggle), and with a tendency to anger and stubbornness – but because he acted out of his convictions while keeping focused on what was possible. 62 In the midst of the 1950s, while the ANC remained committed to nonviolence, he saw the need for limited force in the future. Rather than using his charisma to force his views prematurely on his comrades, he bided his time until the hour was right to suggest armed struggle. Even then he insisted on restraint, knowing that it was not simply pragmatic to do so but that long-term good could be best served by seeking reconciliation with the white community that would not disappear from South Africa after liberation. Beyond that, he saw his opponents as human beings whose inherent capacity for good could be mobilized for the common good. In prison and in office, while never compromising his deepest conviction in his own inherent dignity, the dignity of black people and all of humanity, he reached out to the white community of prison guards. Free and later president, while uncompromising in his insistence that he be treated with respect, he sought to understand white fears (including those driven by economic interest) and to address them – not by lies or half-truths but by trying to convince them that the sacrifices they should make to promote equality were not simply retribution for past injustice but ultimately good for them. He tried to reconcile whites to the new South Africa by meeting them where they were – in social spaces like rugby – and drawing them into the wider national community. NELSON MANDELA: HIS LIFE AND LEGACY
This included his tactically brilliant support for the Springboks, the national rugby team, in the 1995 Rugby World Cup held in South Africa.7 Though traditionally a sport of the white minority, with the team itself almost entirely white, Mandela pushed the whole country behind the Springboks – which started out with little hope of winning, but incredibly made it to the final against the seemingly unstoppable New Zealand. On Cup Final Day, Mandela arrived at the stadium dressed in a replica jersey of team captain, to joyous cries of “Nelson! Nelson!” from the predominantly white South African crowd. Against all odds in the dying moments of the game, South Africa won. And the whole country celebrated for three days. That Mandela’s openness of engagement could never be at 63 the price of moral truth is apparent in the process of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) (1996-98).8 Political crimes and social sin could not be covered over in state- sponsored amnesia. Only by facing the past, Mandela believed, could all South Africans build a common future. This was a constant subtext in his speeches during that period. However, somewhat unexpectedly for an overwhelmingly Protestant state, the TRC took on elements of a public and collective secularized sacrament of reconciliation because Mandela instinctively recognized that confession, however imperfectly framed and however deficient in penance, was good for the national soul. The purpose of the TRC was threefold: telling the truth about atrocities committed by all sides (with perpetrators only offered immunity from prosecution for telling thewhole truth); providing reparations or compensation for victims; and, it was hoped, reconciling victim and victimizer. It was only a qualified success. There were moments of remorse, conversion and reconciliation. Many families of people who died found out who had killed their loved ones and where
7.J. Carlin, Playing the Enemy: Nelson Mandela and the Game That Made a Nation, New York, Penguin, 2008. 8.A. Boraine, A Country Unmasked: Inside South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001. ANTHONY EGAN, SJ
they were buried, giving them a degree of closure. Some victims received at least symbolic compensation for their suffering. But there were problems: not enough money to compensate victims, perpetrators who failed to come forward, and the sheer number of cases to examine. Some critics objected that in telling their stories victims were doubly traumatized – with limited opportunity for care afterwards. Conversely, others felt that perpetrators got off too lightly. Still others objected that the TRC, by focusing on atrocities, failed to address the economic, social and cultural harms done by apartheid, let alone considering how these might be redressed. And parts of the liberation movement deeply resented having the atrocities they had committed during their own struggle treated in the 64 same forum as those of the apartheid regime. Nonetheless, Mandela stood by the TRC, even in the face of opposition from sections of the ANC. He insisted that however inadequate its method, however limited it was, the TRC was essential to the well-being of South Africa. No one, on whatever side, could pretend in the future not to know. On matters of the economy, while distressed by the slowness of progress toward equality, he sought to balance his and the ANC’s historic vision of justice with what was perceived to be possible in the volatile global economic climate. While some saw the management of the economy as haphazard during his presidency, many commentators on the left complained that his economic policies were not pro-poor enough. Too much had been conceded to supporters of the previous regime; capitalism and the metanarrative of global neoliberalism had been too eagerly embraced. These criticisms have intensified since his death. Some readers may observe that Mandela’s practice, particularly in his presidency and throughout his retirement, resonate with themes in Catholic social ethics – reconciliation, peace (but not absolute pacifism), economic justice, care for the marginalized, and the common good, among other things – and suggest a deeply Christian worldview. Paradoxically, though he publicly appeared not overly religious, recent NELSON MANDELA: HIS LIFE AND LEGACY research9 has revealed a deep faith from his Methodist childhood that sustained him as a prisoner on Robben Island, and throughout his presidency until his death. Though an irregular churchgoer, he read Scripture, prayed and built up close relationships with religious leaders of all faiths, but – fearful of how some politicians play up their religiosity and conscious of South Africa’s religious diversity – avoided making public personal declarations of his faith.
Posthumous controversy Mandela’s posthumous reputation has taken a severe knock since his death, raising questions about his legacy as a statesman. From the far Left, Mandela has been challenged for his economic policies and his perceived over-readiness to accommodate the 65 white minority in South Africa. A small point of clarification is needed here. The Left in South Africa is both diverse and popular. Founded in 1921, the South African Communist Party (SACP), at the time the only political party that was open to all races, played a very important role in the struggle for liberation. SACP members were usually also members of the ANC and its allied movements, including trade unions, during and after the struggle era. The SACP adopted a two-stage theory of “national democratic revolution” entailing first the creation of a democratic country that would then, second, become a socialist state. A modified form of this was subsequently adapted by the ANC, and remains part of the theoretical vision of the post- 1994 ruling party, though both ANC and SACP in practice seem to embrace a form of European social democracy. The SACP, which has widespread popular support among South Africans because of its reputation for courage in the fight against apartheid and concern for the poor, and more recently for its fierce opposition to the spread of ANC corruption during the presidency of Jacob Zuma, is less hostile to Mandela and his presidency. While critical of mistakes
9.D. Cruywagen, The Spiritual Mandela: Faith and Religion in the Life of South Africa’s Great Statesman, Cape Town, Zebra Press, 2016. ANTHONY EGAN, SJ
Mandela made, and regretful that the 1994 settlement was less socialist than the SACP would have liked, the Party is realistic. It recognizes the limitations that conditions in the early 1990s placed on Mandela and his team. 1994 was not the surrender of a defeated regime to a victorious ANC but a negotiated transfer of power. Moreover, it was negotiated in a period of growing civil conflict that had the potential to turn into violent anarchy. Compromise was essential, even if it compromised the SACP vision. The part of the Left that has most fiercely attacked Mandela’s legacy is a new party, the Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF). Comprised of a breakaway faction of the ANC Youth League led by expelled Youth League leader Julius Malema, 66 and incorporating some former members of grassroots social movements, it frequently argues that Mandela and the ANC betrayed the revolution in 1994. Often using overtly anti-white and anti-minority rhetoric, it has portrayed Mandela as a “sell- out” to “white monopoly capital,” a betrayal that has kept South Africa’s African majority poor. This claim needs examination. Factually there is truth amid the rhetoric: the African majority is still poor and the white minority still controls a disproportionate part of the country’s wealth. But Malema and the EFF are ignorant – whether willfully or through lack of historical knowledge – of the conditions under which Mandela and the ANC negotiated the transition. Most EFF members and supporters are young – born around 1990 or after – and seem to have been poorly schooled in South African history. Similarly the EFF brand of “socialism” (if indeed it is socialism as opposed to what many see as narrow Africanist nationalism and populist redistributivism) lacks the Marxist sophistication of the SACP. The historical roots of this far-left critique of Mandela, beginning even in his presidency, are found in the rise of grassroots social movements of the poor,10 who protested against the slowness or failure of the ANC to deliver essential goods and
10.R. Ballard – A. Habib – I. Valodia (eds), Voices of Protest: Social Move- ments in Post-apartheid South Africa, Pietermaritzburg, University of KwaZulu Natal Press, 2006. NELSON MANDELA: HIS LIFE AND LEGACY services – and their lack of access to jobs and land. Once again, such a critique is at least partly justified: the ANC did not live up to its electoral rhetoric that promised a better life for all; government service delivery was marred by incompetence in some areas, nascent corruption in others. Ironically, this problem was exacerbated after Mandela’s tenure by his successor Thabo Mbeki’s even more rigid adherence to neoliberal economic policies.11 This, combined with Mbeki’s increasingly “imperial” style of leadership, led to Mbeki’s removal from office by the ANC itself. It is ironic that many see Mandela as the cause of the inequalities that intensified under his successor.
Toward an assessment 67 In his brilliant introduction to a 2013 South African reprint of Mandela’s earliest collection of writings No Easy Walk to Freedom, political analyst William Gumede bemoans the political and intellectual poverty of the ANC after Mandela. A new generation of the ANC, he says, seems more committed to “slinging insults at those with whom they differ, double- speak, claiming that they are advancing the interests of the poor but living opulent lifestyles using the very resources meant for such an advancement and often generally seeing the ANC as a career”12 than being committed to public service and serious pursuit of the common good. Ironically, many of those who currently call Mandela a “sell- out” are those that Gumede critiques. Politicians like the recently deposed former president Jacob Zuma and even EFF leader Julius Malema have lived the high life while deploying populist rhetoric, including attacking Mandela’s alleged betrayal of the revolution, to promote their agendas. It is perhaps significant that as the ANC has become more and more corrupt, Mandela’s reputation has been increasingly tarnished.
11.W. Gumede, Thabo Mbeki and the Battle for the Soul of the ANC, London, Zed Books, 2008; M. Gevisser, Thabo Mbeki: The Dream Deferred, Johannesburg, Jonathan Ball, 2007. 12.W. Gumede, “Introduction,” in N. Mandela, No Easy Walk to Freedom, Cape Town, Kwela Books, 2013, 25. ANTHONY EGAN, SJ
What of Mandela’s “future”? Much of it will depend on how well South Africans study their history. A history reduced to tweets and soundbites deployed for populist political purposes will not only distort but probably further undermine Mandela’s reputation. It will also not be well served by whites who naively or self-servingly mythologize Mandela as a kind of “Uncle Tom” who loved and understood them and pandered to their “special” needs, in contrast to the “anti-white” politicians of the present day. Present and future historians have an onerous task: telling the unvarnished and de-mythologized truth, however complex and politically unfashionable it may be, to a community that is fast losing its sense of that history. 68