beach at Ostia, sailed up the Tiber, and pillaged the areas these grounds by the inhabitants of the March of Ancona of outside the Aurelian wall, including the basili- (Registres, no. 73) and the of Tarragona (no. cas of ST. PETER’S and ST. PAUL’S OUTSIDE THE WALLS. 3731), and gave out authorizations for trading to the in- The response was swift and effective. After GREGORY IV habitants of the diocese of Cuenca (no. 3303), Mallorca built, unsuccessfully, a fortress at Ostia (Gregoriopolis), (no. 3731), and the Empire of Constantinople (nos. LEO IV fortified the Leonine City in Rome and in 854 re- 6586 and 6831). built and fortified Centumcellae on the present site of Religious and intellectual relations had to be ap- Civitavecchia (Leopolis). JOHN VIII fortified St. Paul’s proached with similar subtlety. Any attempt at mission- Outside the Walls and acquired a navy. In 849, another ary activity was vain, but a better acquaintance with raid was checked by the fleets of Naples and Amalfi off Islam was soon acquired. The Qur’an was translated on Ostia. the initiative of the abbot of Cluny in 1141–3. Ignorance The danger was more serious in southern , whose was rife, and on both sides. Yet for all the Christians who political dismemberment would later ensure the Nor- continued to believe that Muhammad worshiped Venus mans’ success. Here the Saracens settled in. In 838, they and Apollo and that the “Mohammedans” were pagans occupied Brindisi and Taranto; from there, the au- or heretics, there were many intellectuals of the 13th tonomous Byzantine duchy of Naples called on their help century who proclaimed their admiration for Arab sci- against the Lombards of Benevento. In 841, they de- ence. stroyed Capua and settled in Bari for some 30 years. The The real contacts were through rather than emperor’s son, Louis II, came down to fight them, aided Rome, yet the papal court was in a good position to be- by the Byzantines. The results were mixed. John come acquainted with Islam. Anasthasius Bibliothecar- VIII pursued the struggle, with the agreement and in the ius in the 9th century was still receiving Byzantine place of the new emperor, Charles the Bald. He suc- works of uneven reliability. Nonetheless, GREGORY VII ceeded in drawing the bishop of Naples away from the wrote in 1076 to Prince Al-Nasir on the of a Saracen camp. Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi paid them trib- bishop in the Algerian port of Bougie: “We owe this ute. Various Saracen bands set up camp as far as Sabina charity, you and I, to each other even more than we owe and the mouth of the Garigliano. it to other peoples, since we recognize and confess, in a The great abbeys were sacked: San Vicenzo of the different way it is true, one God whom we praise and Volturno in 881, in 883, Farfa in 897. worship each day as the creator of the ages and master of Pressure came to a head in the years 880–910, threaten- this world.” Words written for the occasion, certainly, but ing Roman pilgrimages and devastating the great estates. which nevertheless reflect the clear-eyed consciousness The papacy reacted with the aid of the Roman barons, the of a common Abrahamic origin. Byzantine fleet, and the cities of the Campagna, brought Olivier Guyotjeannin together by JOHN X. In August 915, the raiders’ lair at Garigliano was attacked and destroyed and the area Bibliography around it mopped up. The danger moved toward northern Cahen, C. Orient et Occident au temps des croisades, Italy and Provence and pulled back to the extreme south Paris, 1983 (with bibliography). of Italy. Cilento, N. “I Saraceni nell’Italia meridionale nei secoli In the 11th century, the papacy supported various oper- IX e X,” Archivo storico per le provincie napoletani, ations in which “reconquest” contested with piracy. In 77 (1959), 109–22, repr. in Italia meridionale 1016, BENEDICT VIII personally took part in the naval longabarda, Milan-Naples, 1971, 135–66. battle of Luni, which allowed the forces of Pisa and Toubert, P. Les Structures du Latium médiéval, Rome, 2 Genoa to win Sardinia. Papal consent may have been vols., 1973 (BEFAR, 221), 311–12, 970–3. given in 1087 to the short-lived sack of Mahdia () von Wartburg, W. Franzözisches etymologisches and certainly, in 1092, to the Pisan seizure of Corsica. In Wöprterbuch, 11 (1964), 217–21. 1113–14, Paschal II gave the Cross to the participants in a raid, organized by Pisa, against the Balearics. Now cru- sade was in the air. SCHISM. Throughout the history of the Catholic From then on, the papacy had to act on another front. It Church, and, as defined by it, schism has in its broadest had to continually renew the basically ineffective prohibi- sense meant a separation from the ecclesiastical commu- tion against Christian trade with Islam: wood, arms, tex- nion. However, it differs from APOSTASY and HERESY in tiles, horses, slaves (Slavs, who were also Christians— that the separation does not involve a question of truth of one cannot always be particular), as well as spices, belief or a doctrine demanding submission. In the re- precious textiles, and gold. Letters registered by the papal stricted sense that has prevailed in , the term chancery under INNOCENT IV (1243–54), demonstrate signifies refusal to submit to the pope or to be in com- how the pope lifted the incurred on munion with the members of the Church subject to him

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(canon 751 of the 1983 CODE OF ). In short, Church. The bishop of , St. , believed and as a practical matter, the offense of schism, for one that they should be reconciled, after a strict , baptized, consists in separating oneself from the unity of basing his argument on the power Christ conferred on the Church. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the unity the Church to bind and unbind on earth. On this point, he of the Church comes about from the union of its members opposed the Roman theologian Novatian, who advocated among themselves and their union with their head, the uncompromising severity. Condemned by a council pope (Summa theologica, IIa-IIae. Q.39, art. 1). There- summoned by Pope CORNELIUS (251–3) and held in fore, a schismatic is one who separates himself from one Rome in 251, Novatian refused to submit and founded a or the other of these unions, and does so knowingly and schismatic Church that survived up to the 7th century, doggedly (pertinaciter). some of its communities extending to Alexandria. Thus, a clearly declared intention and a demonstration Donatism. Bishop of Numidia in North Africa, Dona- of seriousness are demanded. The baptized person must tus disputed the validity of the accession of Caecilian to give evidence, by clear actions, of his desire for separa- the bishopric of Carthage (312), accusing him of turning tion (unlike schismatic thinking, which is simply a fault, the Scriptures over to Emperor during the not an offense incurring ), and he or she must ex- of the early 4th century. Donatus had an- press a repeated and systematic refusal to acknowledge other bishop elected to the position, to which he himself the authority of the Church (unlike disobedience, which soon succeeded. Condemned by the Council of Arles in can be merely a transitory act). For Catholic schismatics, 314, Donatus attracted a large part of the then important the penalty provided is EXCOMMUNICATION latae senten- Numidian Church into a schismatic movement. This be- tiae (today formulated in canon 1364 of the Code of came even stronger after his exile and his death in 355. 1983). At a colloquy organized by Emperor Honorius in Carthage, St. Augustine won the debate with the Do- of the First Centuries A.D. The early centuries natists, whose last remnants were annihilated in the Van- of the history of the Church were a time of considerable dals’ raids on North Africa from 430. doctrinal and theological turmoil, in which orthodox opinion—which in those days was chiefly that of the The Byzantine Schism. The first great historic rupture most powerful—could be imposed only gradually. As it of the unity of the Church took place in the mid-11th encountered the diverse ideas about heresy coming from century, when the Roman West and Byzantine East—the many quarters, orthodox opinion was able to formulate a Latin and Greek Churches—broke apart. Even today the number of dogmatic positions; at the same time, it was influence of the schism is still felt, despite the efforts obliged to describe its faith in detail. Certain heterodox made by since the pontificate of JOHN XXIII movements, which gained strength as they gained num- (1958–63). bers, had from the 2nd and 3rd centuries been able to find Deep cultural differences between the two groups— institutional expression and to form communities. Thus the use of the Latin or Greek language, the rise of a the first schisms came into being, some of which were northwestern Europe that was largely alien to Byzan- far-ranging in effect. tium, and the opposition of two societies that were Marcionism. Marcion (a. 85–a. 160) came from Asia closed and close to autarchy—unquestionably played a Minor and taught in Rome. A complex personality, he es- major part in this rupture. Yet they cannot be considered poused the ideas of the Docetics (from the Greek dokein, among the immediate causes for separation. These are to “to seem”), a fairly widespread movement at the time, ac- be found in the religious domain, both theological and cording to which Christ’s humanity was only apparent canonical. and he therefore did not effectively become incarnate. The conflict became crystallized over the question of Marcion also confronted the contrast between the loving the Procession of the Holy Spirit, which the ecumenical God of the Pauline epistles and St. Luke’s gospel, and the councils of Nicaea (325) and Constantinople (381) held terrifying God of the Old Testament. He was excommuni- to proceed from the Father alone. The Roman West later cated in 144. The schismatic Marcionite church, which affirmed that the Spirit proceeded from the Father and was well organized and preached a severe morality, in- the Son (a Patre Filioque), countering Photius, patriach cluded communities in Syria that persisted until around of Constantinople, who in the 9th century supported the the 5th century. decision of the earlier councils, thereby provoking a Novatians. Theologians were divided on the proper temporary schism with Rome. This episode followed a treatment of the so-called lapsi, those Christians who had crisis pitting iconodulists against iconoclasts in 8th-cen- complied with ’s edict of 250 laying down the tury Byzantium, as well as many doctrinal debates over obligation to sacrifice to the pagan gods. Some advocated questions of liturgy (e.g., use of unleavened bread in the the condemnation of the lapsed Christians, whereas oth- ) and ecclesiastical discipline (e.g., priestly ers recommended their pardon or reintegration into the celibacy, wearing of beards by clerics).

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These disputes, which were later considered somewhat three points he considered fundamental: the unique au- specious (“Byzantine quarrels”), nevertheless repre- thority of Holy Scripture (sola scriptura) as against tra- sented for contemporary thinkers fundamental issues dition as the source of faith; justification of the Christian whose solution came with the affirmation of Roman pon- by faith alone (sola fide) and not by works; and the uni- tifical primacy. When LEO IX (1049–54) noted that the versal priesthood of Christians in place of bowing to a old slanders were being hurled against Rome with re- caste of . newed vigor, probably at the instigation of the patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularius, he sent Cardinal The Anglican . England’s geographical Humbert of Moyenmoutier as legate to the capital of distance from Rome, together with notable differences in Eastern Christianity. On 16 July 1054, the cardinal en- the matter of religion—for instance, the traditional inde- tered Santa Sophia in the middle of the and placed pendence of the English vis-à-vis the papacy, on the a bull of Leo IX excommunicating the patri- or the evangelical movements of Wycliffe and the Lol- arch. Shortly thereafter, Michael Cerularius called a lards in the 14th and 15th centuries—no doubt prepared council, known as the synod of Constantinople, which in favorable ground for the ideas of the Protestant Refor- a counterbalancing move issued a general excommunica- mation. Nonetheless, the birth of the Anglican Church tion of the “.” Despite several more attempts, two had little to do with theology. Rather, it resulted from a of which did lead to acts of union (council of Lyon, 1274; personal conflict between King Henry VIII of England council of Florence, 1439), the separation remained in and Pope CLEMENT VII (1523–34), from whom, despite force; the exactions of the Fourth Crusade in 1201–4, in repeated demands, Henry failed to obtain the particular, engendered a lasting hatred of the Latins. of his to Catherine of Aragon. In 1533, Henry VATICAN II, to which observers from non-Catholic had his new union with Anne Boleyn blessed and his Churches were invited, and the meeting—at once hailed previous marriage pronounced null and void by Arch- as “historic” by the media—between PAUL VI (1963–78) bishop Cranmer, primate of England, who had been ap- and Patriarch Athenagoras of Jerusalem (January 1964) pointed to settle the question and was devoted to the certainly marked the beginning of a new era in Rome’s king’s cause. Excommunicated by the pope, who de- relations with the Orthodox world. The solemn declara- clared this second marriage invalid (1534), the king lost tion that the two leaders pronounced on the eve of the no time in arranging for Parliament to pass the Su- close of the council (7 December 1965) officially lifted premacy Act, whereby he appeared as the supreme head the reciprocal of 1054. Each side ex- of the English Church. Schism occurred, despite Henry’s pressed regret for the “historic wrongs” done to the other, personal loyalty to the Catholic faith. But Cranmer, who although agreement was not reached on the debate over was imbued with Lutheran ideas, caused the Anglican the conception of the government of the universal Church to develop along Protestant lines. Church. In spite of a period of Catholic restoration under the reign of Mary Tudor (1553–8), followed by the search The Great Schism of the West (1378–1417). In spite of for a middle way with Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603), rela- the name by which it is still known, the Great Schism tions with Rome came up against the question of Angli- does not come under the strict definition of schism. At the can . PAUL IV (1555–9) declared these in- time, there was no question of separation with the valid in 1555. Later attempts at reconciliation failed. , but only a conflict over the Thus, when Lord Halifax and Abbé Portal put forward of the choice and election of those who claimed the papal their proposals for reunion (1893–6), LEO XIII see. (1878–1903) confirmed the invalidity—and hence the unacceptability—of such ordinations within the Roman The Lutheran Reformation. This was initiated by Mar- Church, in his (13 Septem- tin Luther, a German Augustinian friar and professor at ber 1896). Dialogue was later resumed on different the University of Wittenberg in Saxony, who in 1517 bases; the latest development was a decision of the Gen- posted a declaration containing 95 points (or “theses”). eral Synod of the Anglican Church to admit women to This stigmatized, in particular, the traffic in the priesthood (11 November 1992), as a result of which that was practiced by Rome and designed especially to fi- some conservative Anglicans asked to be allowed to join nance the building of St. Peter’s basilica. Condemned by the Catholic Church. Pope LEO X (1513–21) in his bull Exurge Domine in 1520, and excommunicated the following year, Luther Old Catholics. On 6 December 1864, PIUS IX an- gradually adopted increasingly radical and uncompro- nounced the (VATICAN I). That was mising positions regarding the person of the pope and the two days before the publication of the encyclical Quanta institution of the Church in its Roman configuration. At cura, which detailed a program for strengthening society the same time, he worked out a theology centered on against modern errors and was followed by the listing of

1395 SCHISM the 80 theses of the Syllabus Errorum. In the pope’s the “old Church” and, with the help of a canonist from thinking, the council would complete the doctrinal work Prague, Johann von Schulte, encouraged a meeting of that he had initiated. university representatives aimed at drawing up a declara- Controversy arose around the council’s bull of convo- tion that would reject the regarding infallibility. cation (Aeterni patris, 29 June 1868), which left out any The movement attracted few supporters, however, save reference to the issue of infallibility as a fundamental among older priests; the young , like the mass of question that the Fathers should debate. Rome’s silence the faithful, were touched only superficially. Seeing it- was interpreted in various ways. Some deemed the self isolated and diminished, the university group re- proclamation of infallibility indispensable in order to de- signed itself to witnessing the solemn excommunication feat the demagoguery of the civil states, most of which of Doellinger (23 April 1871). At the congress of Mu- held revolutionary principles and were proclaiming their nich, in May 1871, Doellinger opposed the constitution hostility to the Church. Others, by contrast, saw in this of schismatic communities, but the majority voted for idea the beginnings of a disguised dictatorship, doomed the creation of parishes to harbor the few thousand to the errors and excesses of despotism. Catholics who had refused to recognize the council. At The debate aroused intense interest in countries of Ger- the peak of its expansion, around 1877–78, the move- man language and culture. These were, although in dif- ment numbered 52,000 members in and Aus- ferent ways, all hostile to an ULTRAMONTANISM that ex- tria, divided among 122 parishes, and in , alted a medieval model of Christianity founded on the 73,000 supporters among 46 parishes. Rather than “Old extreme principles of the bull Unam Sanctam regarding Catholics,” the latter called themselves members of the relations between the Church and the civil powers. Some “Catholic Christian Church.” evoked the humiliation of Henry IV at CANOSSA or “the specter of Charlemagne imposing on the Sax- . At a time when communist governments were ons” (R. Aubert). A minority opposition to infallibility urging the formation of “national churches” free of any took shape as the debates continued at the heart of the Roman influence (Hungary, , Czechoslovakia), in council itself. Its leader was Cardinal von Schwarzen- 1951 the media made much of rumors regarding certain berg, of Prague, a friend of the theologian Jo- maneuvers of the Beijing government. Under the leader- hannes Friedrich, who himself had been the pupil of ship of Chou En-lai, it was exhorting Chinese Catholics Ignaz von Doellinger (1799–1890), of the theologi- to proclaim an independent Church. This would be done cal of Munich and a distinguished intellectual fig- in the name of a threefold autonomy—economic (tze- ure of the time. The primate of Hungary, as well as the yang), administrative (tze-chich) and (tze- virulent Bishop Josip Strossmayer of Croatia, feared ch’uan). Underlying the movement was the desire to Roman centralism as a cause of dissension between weaken the local Church in matters of doctrine (mani- Church and state in their respective countries. Others, festo of Kuang-Yuan, 13 December 1950). In line with like the German professors Carl Joseph Hefele and Wil- the communist policy of opposition to Western interfer- helm Ketteler, joined the minority out of a more objective ence, Rome was charged with imperialist designs. conviction. Whereas the Chinese Protestant churches had quickly At first, the tone of the controversy was moderate. proclaimed their total independence of ties to any for- From February 1870, following discussion of the addi- eign government in matters of and money, tional text to chapter XI of the schema De Ecclesia, thereby affirming their nationalist sentiments, the which was directly concerned with the definition of infal- Catholics saw themselves accused of a lack of patrio- libility, there was palpable agitation in Germany. The his- tism, with the consequences—loss of employment, po- torian Janssen warned his Roman friends of the imminent lice interrogations, imprisonment—that this implied. danger of the rise of an “old Catholic community,” which The declarations that the Chinese government de- risked provoking “a great ecclesiastical catastrophe.” manded of Catholics therefore took on a schismatic Ignaz von Doellinger, who up to that time had stayed character. The apostolic internuncio in China, Msgr. An- apart from the debate, emerged from silence by publish- tonio Riberi, was suspected of unpatriotic dealings. At a ing a violent article against the planned definition of in- trial organized in the presence of Protestant and Bud- fallibility (21 January 1870). The submission of the epis- dhist dignitaries (June 1951), he was supported by Fa- copate of the German-speaking countries to the ther Tong Che-Tche, a from the diocese of Nan- constitution Pastor Aeternus (voted 18 July 1870) fol- jing, who reproached the repesentatives of the other lowed soon after. It was motivated in part by the danger faiths for their compromises with the Chinese govern- of depreciating ecclesiastical authority in the eyes of the ment. In his encyclical of 7 October faithful if there were prolonged doctrinal opposition. 1954, PIUS XII condemned the attempt to form parochial The scene was not the same in the universities. Ad- councils and local “reform committees” made up essen- dressing the archbishop of Munich, Doellinger evoked tially of layfolk. In so doing, he alluded to those who,

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“seduced by new fallacious ideologies, have recently be- St. Pius X International Priestly , which re- come followers of special and nefarious principles propa- ceived its provisional constitutional approval from the gated by the enemies of all religion.” hands of the diocesan bishop of the see in 1970. In 1976, The pope emphasized both the need for obedience to he was found guilty of ordaining 13 priests without the the civil government, in spite of tortures and imprison- consent of the bishop of Sion, Switzerland, under whom ment, and the denial of the principle of Catholicity and he served. He was suspended a divinis on 22 July 1976 universality contained in the aim of the creation of a “na- and was not granted renewal of the canonical approval tional” Church. The Congregation of Propaganda made conceded to the fraternity. Several proposals tending to public, on 17 March 1955, a decree of excommunication steer the community toward an act of submission to the latae sententiae, drawn up on 1 February 1952 and pope were made by the pontiff himself, in the form of brought against the person of the of Nan- personal letters bearing the respective dates of 29 June jing, the abbé Jean-Baptiste Ly Wei-kuang. To the Holy 1975, 8 September 1975, and 15 August 1976. See, he was guilty of having convened a synod of priests On 29 August 1976, a speech given in the Sports from the entire ecclesiastic province of Nanjing and of Palace of made clear the Maurras-inspired having forced the participants to sign a formula of monachist roots of the movement, as exemplified by “peaceful coexistence” between the other protesters, such as Jean Madiran and the abbé Church and the Chinese state. Statistics from the begin- Georges of Nantes, who actually did not see eye to eye ning of 1955 indicated the expulsion of 79 bishops and with Msgr. Lefebvre. The objections put forward by the 7,000 missionaries and , the imprisonment of three movement officially concerned only two documents of bishops and 198 priests from 54 out of the 143 Vatican II: the declaration on religious freedom, and that in all China, and the death of four bishops and 156 on the relations of the Church with other religions. The priests. Vatican spokesman revealed, in a declaration of 27 Au- Pius XII issued a passionate warning against the claims gust 1976, that Msgr. Lefebvre had signed almost all the of the “pseudo-patriotic” movement that it would proceed council texts, in particular those on the liturgy and ecu- to elect and consecrate bishops on its own (encyclical Ad menism. Msgr. Lefebvre had been one of the active apostolorum principis of 29 June 1958). In a consistorial members of the Coetus Internationalis Patrum uniting allocution of 15 December 1958, and later in a Pentecost Fathers of the same way of thinking, and he had prepared message of 17 May 1959, John XXIII evoked the Chinese a series of concerted actions, for example at the time of situation, stating that a “grievous schism” was in the the tabling of modi, or when it came time to vote. First, making. Although there had been no actual formalization he criticized collegiality (11 October 1963, from a some- of schism, the Annuario pontificio indicates that the great what pastoral viewpoint, and 10 November 1963, on its majority of Chinese ecclesiastical districts (29 apostolic principle). Next, he questioned religious freedom (24 prefectures, one apostolic exarchate, and 20 metropolitan October 1964, 20 November 1965, petitioning for a sees) today do not have clergy. delay, 17 and 19 November 1964). He synthesized these propositions in the form of a “profession of faith” (made Msgr. . In 1965, even before VATICAN II public in Rome on 21 November 1974): “We refuse and packed its bags, Msgr. Pailler, the archbishop coadjutor have always refused to follow the Rome of neomodernist of Rouen, had publicly called attention to “independent and neo-Protestant tendency which has manifested itself circles” which, at the instigation of certain unnamed indi- clearly in the and after the coun- viduals, ran the danger of refusing obedience. He feared cil in all the reforms that issued from it.” After being re- that “the end of this year” would see a schism in the ceived by Paul VI at Castel Gandolfo on 11 September Church of . Father Michonneau, considered the 1976, he devoted himself to the leadership of his semi- spokesman of the modernists and an ardent defender of nary at Écône, in the Swiss canton of Valais. Some of his the council’s work, feared for his part “the schism of supporters got into a dispute with Archbishop Lustiger those who keep silent” and who, without necessarily en- of Paris by taking over, without permission, the couraging open dissidence, “would leave the Church on church of St. Nicholas of Chardonnet in Paris, from 27 tiptoe.” February 1977. The rumors were particularly targeted at Mgr. Marcel Defender of a tradition that derived its essential value Lefebvre, who was born 29 September 1905 in from its unchangeability, Lefebvre was able to recruit and was once archbishop of (appointed 22 Septem- sympathizers from among people attached to the liturgy ber 1948, he was the first titular of that see). Shortly after in the Latin language, as contained in particular in the that, he was named bishop of Tulle, in central France, and Mass according to the rite of St. PIUS V and the catechism superior general of the congregation of the Fathers of the of the . He also drew on a latent anti- Holy Spirit, which he joined in 1935. Giving up his epis- semitism by denouncing the “immeasurable and unprece- copal seat, in September 1968 he founded at Fribourg the dented scandal” of the visit of JOHN PAUL II to a Roman

1397 SCRIPTOR synagogue in 1986. Condemning, in the same order of Jugie, M. “Schisme byzantine,” DTC XIV (1939), col. ideas, the interreligious meeting in Assisi in 1987, he 1312–1468. made the serious charge that “the throne of Peter and the Nichols, A. Rome and The Eastern Churches: A Study in positions of authority in Rome [are] occupied by an- Schism, Edinburgh, 1992. tichrists.” He insisted on risking the consequences by pro- Pétré, H. “Haeresis, schisma et leur synonymes latins,” ceeding, on 30 June 1988 at Écône, to invest four bishops, Revue des études latines, 1937, 316–25. despite a protocol of agreement that had been negotiated a Sherrard, P. The Greek East and The Latin West: A Study few months earlier with Cardinal Ratzinger (5 May 1988), in Christian Tradition, Limini, Greece, 1992. which stipulated the swearing of an oath of loyalty to the Villier, M. La Question de l’union des Églises entre pope, respect for the ecclesiastical magisterium, and the Grecs et Latins depuis le concile de Lyon jusqu’à celui opening of a positive dialogue on liturgical matters. de Florence, Louvain, 1922. Lefebvre was excommunicated on 1 July 1988. Through his afflicta (2 July), JOHN PAUL II posited that “the [had] given SCRIPTOR. Scribes “of the Lateran palace,” the scrip- proof of patience and to the limits of the pos- tors (scriptores domini pape, scriptores litterarum apos- sible” and called on theologians to deepen and tirelessly tolicarum) originally were engrossers of the pontifical explain the spirit of the Second Vatican Council. A com- documents drawn up in the chancery. Charged with set- mission designed to retain the other members of the ting up in definitive form documents, the text of which brotherhood within the Church was set up on 9 July, with- had been written by the ABBREVIATORS, to whom they out much success. The death of Lefebvre in 1991 did not were superior in the hierarchy, by the early 13th century end the schism; the communities henceforth went under they constituted a college proper. Appointed by the pope, the vague name of “traditionalists” or “integralists” and they were directed by the rescribendarius, who supervised numbered some 20,000 persons in the 1990s. their output and provided them with imperfect documents François Jankowiak (not suitable for a fair copy) to write out, whence their name. Other members of the college—one or two distrib- utores notarum grossandarum—divided among them- Bibliography selves the minutes they had to engross (write in the legal Anzavui, J. Le Drame d’Écône: Analyse et dossier, Sion, style suitable for a fair copy of a document). The college 1976. reached the traditional number of 100 members by the Aubert, R. Le Pontificat de Pie IX (1846–1878) [Histoire 13th century; it was frequently exceeded, then stabilized de l’Église depuis les origines jusqu’à nos jours, ed. A. at 101 in 1436. But in the pontificate of BONIFACE VIII, it Fliche and V. Martin, XXI], Paris, 1952. was noted that out of a total of 110 scriptors in 1310, only Bonnichon, A. “Naissance des schismes,” Études, 1956. about 50 were attested as producers of documents; thus, no. 4, 29–44. the must have been an honorific one for the others. Congar, Y. La Crise dans l’Église et Mgr Lefebvre, Paris, Olivier Guyotjeannin 1976. Congar, Y. Martin Luther: Sa foi, sa réforme. Études de See also . théologie historique, Paris, 1983. de Boüard, M. La France et l’Italie au temps du Grand Bibliography Schisme d’Occident, Paris, 1936. Barbiche, B. “Les scriptores de la chancellerie apos- Decarreaux, J. Byzance ou l’autre Rome, Paris, 1982. tolique sous le pontificat de Boniface VIII Delaruelle, E., Labande, E.-R., and Ourliac, P. L’Église (1295–1305),” Bibliothèque de l’École des chartes, au temps du Grand Schisme et de la crise conciliaire 128 (1970), 114–87. (1378–1449) [Histoire de l’Église et la vie religieuse Schwarz, B. Die Organisation kurialer Schreiberkol- en Occident à la fin du Moyen Age, Paris, 1971. legien von ihrer Entstehung bis zur Mitte des 15. Duchesne, L. Autonomies ecclésiastiques: Églises sé- Jahrhunderts, Tübingen, 1972, Bibliothek des parées, 2nd ed., Paris, 1905. deutschen historischen Instituts in Rom, 37; “Der Cor- Dvornik, F. Les Legendes de Constantin et de Méthode litterarum apostolicarum...vonInnocenz III. vues de Byzance, Prague, 1933. bis Martin V.,” Quellen und Forschungen aus italienis- L’Église et les Églises (1054–1954). Études et travaux sur chen Archiven und Bibliotheken, 54 (1974), 122–91. la douloureuse séparation entre l’Orient et l’Occident of- ferts à dom Lambert Beauduin, Chevetogne, 1954. Gschwind, P. Geschichte der Entstehung der christ- SECRET, PONTIFICAL. The pontifical secret must be katholischen Kirche der Schweiz, 2 vols., Bern, 1904–10. distinguished from many other kinds of secrets, such as Heiler, F. Urkirche und Ostkirche, Munich, 1937. the natural secret, which has to do with things whose di-

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