MYANMAR National Strategy and Action Plan (NSAP)

MYANMAR

National Strategy and Action Plan (NSAP)

October 2016

Forward

Mangroves are unique intertidal ecosystems that occur primarily in tropical regions of the world. They support genetically diverse communities of terrestrial and aquatic fauna and flora, and their ecosystems are of direct and indirect environmental, economic and social values to human societies throughout the world. Sustainable development of mangrove ecosystems implies the maintenance and rational use of the natural resources to ensure ecological resilience and economic opportunities for present and future generations. Since the recent decades, new findings have shown that the mangrove ecosystems are recognized as high carbon sequestration and sinks that attract climate change mitigation initiatives in the world. Most importantly, after the Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004, the whole world has been awakened by the role of mangroves serving as a significant function in protecting coastal regions from such huge waves and catastrophic storms. Again, as most obvious event happened in Myanmar, the deadliest impacts of Cyclone Nargis highlight the values of mangroves that saved thousands of people in the Ayeyarwady Delta.

Mangroves in Myanmar extensively grow throughout the coastal strip of the country providing ecosystem goods and services to coastal communities in particular and to the people of the country as a whole. The most extensive mangroves thrive in the Ayeyarwady Delta, the Tanintharyi Coastline and the Rakhine Coastline. They stand for the seventh largest extent in the world, and the second largest in the Asian region. In this context, mangroves are considered to be one of the key components in coastal conservation and management. Without well-conserved and managed mangroves, other related coastal resources such as coral reefs and sea grasses would not have well survived. These coastal ecosystems are interconnected to each other. Therefore, the mangroves together with

adjoining coastal ecosystems are one of the natural capitals of the country providing tangible and intangible benefits for the sustainable development.

Therefore, Myanmar endeavors to improve closely working together with Asian countries and the Indian Ocean Ring Countries as well in the task of managing mangrove ecosystems for sustainable purposes; establishment of procedures and methodologies for assessing the status of mangrove ecosystems and for managing them, implementing national legal provisions and strengthening institutional setup for the protection and conservation of mangrove ecosystems.

Mangroves for the Future (MFF) is a partnership-based initiative promoting investment in coastal ecosystems for sustainable development. MFF works towards achieving the vision of a healthier, more prosperous and secure future for all coastal communities. Being endorsed as a MFF full membership in October, 2014 is a milestone to move forwards the effective conservation and management of coastal resources in Myanmar. NSAP is a product of a long collaborative process by the National Coordinating Body (NCB) including governmental organizations, UN agencies, INGOs, NGOs, academic institutions, and private organizations. The experts in mangrove and coastal-related sectors also made their invaluable contributions including comments, suggestions, consultations, updated data and discussions. The development of NSAP has opened a new chapter and created a new platform in practicing effective conservation and protection, sustainable management and wise use of coastal resources emphasizing mangrove ecosystems.

The sustainable management of coastal resources means developing the balance among economic, social and environmental aspects, more than just an economic progress of a country. In this regards, the NSAP offers us opportunities to harmonize all three aspects of economic, social and environmental approaches. The NSAP prioritizes five collective actions; environmental profiling, capacity development, integrated coastal management (ICM) policies and frameworks development, civil society engagement and management of marine protected areas (MPAs). Parallel to these frameworks, five cross-cutting issues, which are very important for the current needs of the coastal society in Myanmar are also considered; knowledge management and communications, responding to climate change,

community resilience, gender equality, and private sector partnership. What we need to do now is to translate those identified action plans to actual implementation on the ground.

With the great expectation on the effective conservation and management of coastal resources in Myanmar, I sincerely and earnestly urge all the segments of society to commit the effective implementation of the action plans prescribed in this NSAP for mangroves for the future program in Myanmar.

H.E. U Ohn Win The Union Minister Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation The Republic of the Union of Myanmar

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The National Coordinating Body (NCB) in Myanmar thankfully acknowledges the Mangroves for the Future (MFF) Program of International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to have unanimously endorsed Myanmar as a MFF full member country at the MFF 11th Regional Steering Committee Meeting in October 26, 2014 held in Cambodia. Thanks are also due to Dr. Kyaw Tint, Chairman of Myanmar Environmental Rehabilitation- conservation Network (MERN) for providing the necessary start-up activities for the preparation of the National Strategy and Action Plan (NSAP) in Myanmar, and to PYOE PIN program by Department for International Development (DFID) at the Embassy of United Kingdom in Myanmar for providing the funds for formulating the National Strategy and Action Plan for Mangroves for the Future Program in Myanmar. We are also grateful for receiving full support and contributions from all members of National Coordinating Body (NCB) from the government departments, UN agencies, INGOs, NGOs, academic institutions, and private sector. Without their invaluable contributions including comments, suggestions, consultations, updated data and discussions, it would be difficult to accomplish the NSAP for the MFF program in Myanmar. For U Aung Thant Zin, Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Myanmar Environmental Rehabilitation-conservation Network (MERN), and Mr. Saroj Srisai, the outreach coordinator of MFF program in Myanmar, and the experts and consultants from the MFF program of IUCN, they all deserve our gratitude for their enormous endeavors from the beginning to the end of the NSAP formulation process. Without the agreement and endorsement by the Board including the funding partners and the MFF full members, Myanmar would not have become a MFF full member in 2014. Therefore, we greatly acknowledge the institutional and funding to the MFF Program, UNDP, IUCN, FAO, UNEP, Wetlands International, DANIDA, NORAD and SIDA as well as the representatives of the existing MFF full members, Bangladesh, Cambodia, India,

Indonesia, Maldives, Pakistan, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam, respectively. Most importantly, the NSAP would not have been possible without the support and guidance of the Minister and Deputy Ministers from the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry. The National Coordinating Body is also indebted to the MFF Secretariat Office in Myanmar for its technical and financial supports in conducting a series of NCB meetings and stakeholder workshop which finally and collectively achieved the formation of the NSAP in Myanmar. We also thank experts from the MFF Secretariat for editing NSAP in Myanmar, and for his invaluable comments and suggestions to improve NSAP Myanmar.

Nyi Nyi Kyaw, Ph. D

Director General, Forest Department

Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation

Chairman, National Coordinating Body in Myanmar

TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………………………...…………i ABBREVIATIONS...... iii

SECTION I: INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXTUAL SETTING ...... 1 1.1 MANGROVES FOR THE FUTURE - A LONG-TERM VISION IN THE INDIAN OCEAN REGION ...... 1

1.2 THE MYANMAR CONTEXT – RELEVANCE OF MFF IN MYANMAR ...... 2

SECTION II: CURRENT STATE AND TRENDS OF MYANMAR COAST ...... 4 2.1 BIO-PHYSICAL SYSTEMS ...... 4 2.1.1 Myanmar Coastal Regions ...... 4 2.1.2 Climate ...... 5 2.1.3 Key Coastal Habitats ...... 6 Mangroves ...... 6 Coral Reefs ...... 7 Seagrass Beds ...... 9 2.1.4 Fishery Resources ...... 10 2.1.5 Marine Wildlife ...... 11

2.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC SYSTEMS ...... 12 2.2.1 Demography and the Well-being of Coastal Populations ...... 12 2.2.2 Fisheries ...... 13 2.2.3 Aquaculture ...... 13 2.2.5 Extractive Industry ...... 14 2.2.6 Marine and Coastal Tourism ...... 15

SECTION III: CHALLENGES IN CONSERVING AND MANAGING COASTAL AND MARINE ECOSYSTEMS ...... 16 3.1 THREATS TO NATURAL RESOURCES ...... 16 3.1.1 Coastal Land Use Change ...... 16 3.1.2 Overexploitation of Mangroves for Fuelwood and Charcoal Production ...... 17 3.1.3 Overfishing ...... 17 3.1.4 Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing ...... 18 3.1.5 Potential Tourism Development ...... 18 3.1.6 Climate Change and Natural Disaster ...... 19

3.2 CONSTRAINTS TO COASTAL MANAGEMENT ...... 20 3.2.1 Information/ Knowledge Gaps and Limited Understanding ...... 20 3.2.2 Inadequate Capacities ...... 20 3.2.3 Policy, Regulatory Mechanisms and Enforcement ...... 21 3.2.4 Governance ...... 21 3.2.5 Grass-Root Support in Coastal and Marine Conservation ...... 22

SECTION IV: STEPS FORWARD TO SUSTAINABLE COASTAL MANAGEMENT ... 22 4.1 INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT (ICM) – CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES ...... 22

4.2 ICM AS AN IMPORTANT APPROACH FOR BUILDING COASTAL RESILIENCE ...... 23

SECTION V: NATIONAL STRATEGY AND ACTION PLANS (NSAP) ...... 24 5.1 MYANMAR NATIONAL COORDINATING BODY (NCB) ...... 24

5.2 MAINSTREAMING EXISTING FRAMEWORKS AND MULTI/ BI-LATERAL AGREEMENTS ...... 25

5.3 STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK AND PRIORITIES FOR INTERVENTION ...... 29 5.3.1 Environmental Profiling ...... 29 5.3.2 Capacity Development ...... 30 5.3.3 ICM Policy and Strategy Development ...... 31 5.3.4 Civil Society Engagement in Conservation...... 32 5.3.5 Management of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) ...... 32 5.3.6 Cross-cutting Issues ...... 33 Knowledge Management and Communications ...... 33 Climate Change ...... 33 Community Resilience ...... 35 Gender Equality ...... 36 Private Sector Partnerships ...... 37

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 48 ANNEX………………………………………………………………….……………………… 51

ABBREVIATIONS BOBLME Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem DoF Department of Fisheries EAF Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries ECD Environmental Conservation Department FD Forest Department ICM Integrated Coastal Management IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature IUU Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated MAPDRR Myanmar Action Plan on Disaster Risk Reduction MCS Monitoring, Control and Surveillance MERN Myanmar Environment Rehabilitation-Conservation Network MFF Mangroves for the Future MFF Myanmar Fisheries Federation MOECAF Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry MONREC Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation MALI Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation MoU Memorandum of Understanding MPAs Marine Protected Areas MYFish Myanmar's Inland and Coastal Fisheries NAPA National Adaptation Program of Action NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategic and Action Plan NCEA National Commission for Environmental Affairs NSAP National Strategy and Action Plan NSDS National Sustainable Development Strategy NWCD Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division PEMSEA Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia PoWs Programs of Work SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SCUBA Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus SEAFDEC Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center SEZs Special Economic Zones UNDP United Nations Development Program UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction WCMC UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre

iii

SECTION I: INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXTUAL SETTING

1.1 Mangroves for the Future - A Long-term Vision in the Indian Ocean Region

Mangroves for the Future (MFF) is a partnership-based initiative that was triggered and established as a strategic and long-term response to the devastating impacts of the Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004 and the continued degradation of coastal ecosystems. MFF’s objective is to strengthen the environmental sustainability of coastal development and promote sound investments in coastal ecosystem management, as a means of enhancing resilience and supporting local livelihoods throughout the Indian Ocean Region. MFF began in 2006 by engaging the counties worst-affected and those recovering from the 2004 tsunami: India, Indonesia, Maldives, Seychelles, Sri Lanka and Thailand. Afterwards, the idea evolved from the MFF Regional for helping other countries that faced threat of the damages in their coastal areas. Having met requirement and criteria, Pakistan, Vietnam, Bangladesh and Cambodia were included, making a total of 10 member countries at the start of 2014. Myanmar became the 11th member country of the MFF programme in 25th Oct 2014. Member countries are formally invited into MFF at their government’s request. Each member country is supported by in- country coordinating staff, and also shares the available funds for national and regional coastal projects. Already, support has been extended to other countries for which poverty, vulnerability to natural disasters and climate change are major concerns. Outreach countries - currently Timor-Leste - are invited to participate in MFF regional events (such as training courses and symposia), and attend meetings of MFF’s Regional Steering Committee as observers. The three dialogue countries of Kenya, Malaysia and Tanzania, although not received financial assistance directly, are provided with information and advice on coastal issues and are encouraged to participate in MFF regional events.

Supported by national governments, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), NGOs, donor agencies, and the private sector, MFF provides a regional collaborative platform for concerted action in support of Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) and allow member countries to share experiences and knowledge for effectively managing their coastal areas, using mangroves as the entry point. This means coastal ecosystem restoration is placed firmly in the context of integrated coastal zone management, by adopting an ecosystem-based approach to management and development. The conceptual design was however not limited to the flagship ecosystem, rather it embraced other vital coastal ecosystems such as coral reefs, seagrass beds, estuaries, wetlands and beaches within the mandated scope of work. This inclusive approach

reflects the ecosystem-based or reef to ridge management approach which helps coastal managers and communities to adopt and benefit from more integrated management of coastal resources and the ecosystem processes that support them.

Over time, from an establishment Phase 1 (2007-10) to a consolidation Phase 2 (2010-13), MFF has grown from a targeted response to the tsunami to becoming a wider response to the current and emerging challenges for coastal management in the Indian Ocean and South China Sea regions. In both phases, 15 Programs of Work (PoWs) were used as a reference to guide the strategic direction and focus for developing proposals under MFF’s project facilities. The experiences from the two phrases demonstrated that the regional priorities shared by most of MFF’s member countries concern coastal rehabilitation, livelihood support, resilience-building and empowerment, with climate change as a key cross-cutting issue. Reflecting the growing concern about natural disasters and climate change in the MFF region, Improving Community Resilience to Natural Disasters and Climate Change, has been elevated to become the Outcome Objective for Box 1: MFF Programmatic Approach Phase 3 (2014-18), with the intention of Phase 1 and 2: Vision: Healthy coastal ecosystems mainstreaming resilience-building and climate for a more prosperous and secure future for coastal communities. change adaptation. MFF will continue to Phase 2: Mission Statement: To promote healthy engage directly with regional governance coastal ecosystems through a partnership-based, people focused and policy relevant approach that institutions (ASEAN and SAARC) and builds and applies knowledge, empowers communities partnership programs (such as BOBLME, and other stakeholders, enhances governance, secures livelihoods, and increases resilience to natural PEMSEA and SEAFDEC) to advocate for the hazards and climate change. MFF model as an integrated ocean-wide Key hallmarks: - Enhancing coastal resilience through living approach to coastal resources management. infrastructure; The uniqueness of MFF, presented in Box 1, - Basing policy influence on grounded knowledge; - Involving stakeholders beyond government; and, makes it both effective, and distinguishes itself - Facilitating knowledge-sharing via inclusive platforms from other regional initiatives on coastal management.

1.2 The Myanmar Context– Relevance of MFF in Myanmar

Myanmar is the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia with a long coastline and large marine territory. Despite a significant role of marine and coastal resources in the country’s economy and livelihoods, Myanmar has positioned itself far from achieving sustainable coastal management.

Challenges relate to educational, regulatory and institutional aspects. The defining characteristics and conceptual framework of ICM evidently exhibits the appropriate approaches and mechanisms to effectively address these shortcomings. Within this context, MFF can serve as institutional and programmatic roles to facilitate progress towards establishing National ICM Arrangement for Myanmar. To date the Myanmar Environment Rehabilitation-Conservation Network (MERN), a network of 20 NGOs engaged in coastal rehabilitation activities established in response to Cyclone Nargis in 2008, continues to be the lead partner for mobilizing MFF in the country. IUCN has provided support to MERN for developing a coastal situation analysis, organizing multi-stakeholder workshops on coastal conservation and, in collaboration with government agencies (Forest Department (FD) and Department of Fisheries (DoF)), drafting a strategy for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of the Coastal and Marine Ecosystems in Myanmar in 2012 (an “informal” NSAP). Further assistance to Myanmar has been provided through joint training and capacity building workshops provided by MFF and the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) Project. ICM training courses run by Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) in Thailand help develop professional relationships and networks and provide entry point to foster further dialogue and exchange between the two countries. In Phase 3, outreach support will be provided to Myanmar to help establish MFF governance structures in the country and give Myanmar the opportunity to progress towards full membership during Phase 3.

This document, MFF National Strategy and Action Plan (NSAP), functions as a knowledge and information – the first half helps improving understanding on the current state and trends of Myanmar coast both bio-physical and socio-economic systems, and identifying challenges in conserving and managing coastal and marine resources. The latter half explores steps forward to sustainable coastal management, and determines strategic framework and priorities for interventions. Recognizing a workable agenda and mandate and a holistic framework for action of MFF, it is important for Myanmar to use all the three pillars of the PoWs (Apply Knowledge, Empower Civil Society and Enhance Governance) as essential guidance in its efforts to progress towards desired direction.

SECTION II: CURRENT STATE AND TRENDS OF MYANMAR COAST

2.1 Bio-physical Systems

2.1.1 Myanmar Coastal Regions

Myanmar shares common maritime boundaries in the Bay of Bengal with Bangladesh, India and Thailand. The continental shelf covers approximately 230,000 sq.km with a relatively wider portion in the central and southern parts. The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is about 486,000 sq.km (BOBLME, 2012). From north to south, Rakhine Coast, Ayeyarwady Delta and Tanintharyi Coast are the three coastal zones of Myanmar. The Rakhine Coast (Figure 1) stretches 740 km from the Naff River to Mawdin Point. The upper part is shallow and deltaic while the southern part is rather deep and rocky. Compare to the other areas, its continental shelf is rather narrow. Two rivers flowing into this coastal area are Mayu and Kaladan.

Figure 1 Rakhine Coast extending from the Naff River to Mawdin Point.

From Mawtin Point to the Gulf of Mottama lies the Ayeyarwady Delta (Figure 2). This deltaic coastal zone expands about 460 km and is outlets of the three major rivers including Ayeyarwady, Sittaung and Thanlwin. The western part is adjacent to Rakhine Yoma and the remainder is a flat alluvial plain with a network of tributaries of the Ayeyarwady River. The annual sediment discharge of 250 million tons of the Ayeyarwady River results in the enlarged delta seaward at the rate of 5 km every hundred years(Zöckler, Delany, & Barber, 2003).The Taninthary Coastal area (Figure 3) has the longest coastline stretching over 1,200 km from the Gulf of Mottama to Pakchan River. It is fringed in southern part by the Myeik Archipelago and is also home to more than 1,700 inshore and offshore islands. The coastal plain is narrow and gradually raises towards the east, reaching 2,073 m at Myint Moe Let Khat Taung, the highest peak. Rivers including Ye, Dawai, Tanintharyi and Lenyain put large volumes of

fresh water and sediment into the system (Istituto Oikos and BANCA, 2011; Novak et al., 2009; U Tin Win, 2004).

Figure 2 Ayeyarwady Delta lying from Mawtin Point to the Gulf of Mottama.

Figure 3 Tanintharyi Coast stretching from the Gulf of Mottama to Pakchan River.

2.1.2 Climate

Apart from the highest uplands in the far north of the country, Myanmar has a tropical to subtropical monsoon climate. Regional variation occurs throughout the year with the hot and dry season starts from March to mid-May, the rainy southwest monsoon season from mid-May to mid-October while the cool and dry northeast monsoon from mid-October to February. July and August are generally regarded as the period of maximum rainfall, with December being the driest month. The mean annual rainfall is around 2,350 mm(Nay Win Oo, 2002). Annual rainfall can be as high as 4,000-6,000 mm along the coastal reaches and in the mountains of Rakhine and Tanintharyi, and ranges between 2,000-3,000mm in Ayeyarwady Delta(Zöckler et al., 2003). Tropical storms regularly develop in the Bay of Bengal between May and

October, threatening the vulnerable, often unprotected coastline and the people living on the coasts. Despite the monsoon, the annual temperature range in the coastal zones is quite low (average 26.6°C, with monthly average maximum of 28°C in March and minimum of 25°C in December), although daily temperatures can vary by around 8°C.

2.1.3 Key Coastal Habitats

With a coastline of over 2,400 km, Myanmar hosts complex and diverse ecological and socio-economic systems (Holmes, Tint Tun, & Kyaw Thinn Latt, 2013). Coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves flourish mainly in the Myeik Archipelago. Estuaries and mud flats are common in the Ayeyarwady delta while beach and dunes occur throughout the Myanmar coastline.

Mangroves

Mangroves cover an estimated area of 467,330 ha (MOECAF, 2011) making Myanmar the fourth largest mangrove coverage in Asia, after Malaysia, Bangladesh and Papua New Guinea(Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2003). Of the total Myanmar primary mangroves, the majority is located on Ayeyarwady flood plains, with the remainder in Tanintharyi and a lesser portion in the Rakhine area. Species distributions and compositions of mangroves differ amongst the three coastal regions. The Rakhine mangroves are made up of Rhizophora mucronata, Rhizophora apiculata, Soneratia alba, Soneratia griffithii, Soneratia apetala, Avicennia alba, Avicennia officinalis, Ceriops tagal, Ceriops decandra, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Bruguiera parviflora, Bruguiera cylindrica, Xylocarpus moluscensis, Xylocarpus granatum, Aegiceros corniculatum, Aegialitis rotandifolia, Nypa fruticans, Heritiera fomes, Kandelia candel and halophytic associates such as Merope angulata, Tamarix troupii, Hibiscus tileaceus and Phoenix paludosa. The Ayeyarwady mangroves consist of Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, Brgiera sexangula, Bruguiera parviflora, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Bruguiera cylindrica, Heritiera fomes, Sonneratia apetala, Sonneratia griffithii, Sonneratia caseolaris, Xylocarpus granatum, Xylocarpus molluccensis, Ceiops decandra, Avicennia alba, Nypa fruticans, Avicennia officinalis, Kanddelia candel, Excoecaria agallocha and other halophytic associates. The mangroves of the Tanintharyi Region comprise of about 50 species. The common species found on Lampi and adjacent islands are Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, Sonneratia caseolaris, Ceriops tagal, Xylocarpus granatum, Avicennia officinalis and Bruguiera parviflora.

Mangrove ecosystems contribute a wide range of goods and services to the coastal population, particularly as charcoal and firewood for cooking, timber for construction, nurseries and artisanal fisheries. The role of mangroves in protecting coastal lands, settlements and infrastructure against the effects of cyclones, typhoons, other storms and tidal surges is also well-recognized. However, over the past three decades over 58% of mangroves have been undergoing over-exploitation, illegal felling, agricultural expansion and conversion to fishponds and shrimp ponds (NBSAP, 2011).Mangrove coverage estimated in 2010 has significantly decreased in the past three decades (Figure 4). The depletion and degradation of mangroves is comparatively greater in Ayeyarwady region than in other areas due to higher population, easier accessibility to the forest and the devastated impacts of Cyclone Nargis (Kyaw Tint, Win Maung, & Tint Tun, 2012; Nay Win Oo, 2002). Although mangroves are the most-studied marine habitat in the country, little has been published regarding their economic value and contribution to fisheries and the livelihoods of people living in the coastal zone.

Figure 4 Changes of mangrove forest cover in Myanmar between 1980-2010 (MOECAF, 2014).

Coral Reefs

Coral reefs in Myanmar remain largely unexplored and the species diversity and health of this ecosystem is poorly known. An extrapolation of potential habitat area of coral reefs is suggested to be 187,000ha(BOBLME, 2012). Rakhine and Tanintharyi coastal areas, in particular offshore island of Myeik Archipelago, are the most favourable grounds for both hard and soft corals. The reef formation in Ayeyarwady coastal zone is known to be restricted to Coco and Preparis islands where there is no influence of river runoff (Zöckler et al., 2003).Research studies including master and doctoral degrees theses identify a wide range of coral species, from 51 in 1972 to 512 species in 2014. This is more than twice the number of species found in the entirety of neighboring Thailand – both Andaman and South China Sea assemblages – and is equal to the very richest parts of the Coral Triangle. The highest

reported species richness was observed at Palei Island (Sir J. Malcolm Island), representing 104 species and 42 genera, followed by Sin Island (High Island), Kamar Island (Sir E. Owen Island) and Thayawthedangyi Island (Elphinstone Island). Given that neighboring Thailand has recorded 269 species (DMCR 2014) in the Andaman Sea, it is likely that the second WCS estimate (~283) (Holmes et al., 2013) is appropriate to the region.

Previously, coral reefs in Myanmar were assumed to be in similar condition to what they were hundreds of years ago because of the isolation and difficult access by the coastal population(Spalding, Ravilious, & Green, 2001). However, recent studies suggest that Myanmar coral reefs have been declined over 56%(Burke, Reytar, Spalding, & Perry, 2011). The proximal cause of the ecological impoverishment is a combination of the effects of the 2010 mass bleaching event, contiguous with prolonged exposure to Malthusian fishing techniques (principally blast fishing, and illegally small-meshed fishing nets) and unregulated marine product resource extraction (e.g. sea cucumbers and clams).Based on BOBLME/ IUCN survey in 2014, it was found that – while basic diversity is equivalent to, and shows strong affiliation with Andaman Thai reefs – the abundance of key reef infrastructure species is generally low, and the overall condition of most coral reefs is either poor or very poor (Figure 5). Many reefs have less than 10% live hard coral cover, and are dominated by corallimorphs and algae growing on dead coral and rubble. Soft corals and azooxanthellate hexacorals are the most prevalent anthozoan lifeforms, particularly offshore. Biomass of fishes averages less than that of Thai reefs, although was equivalent to the most heavily fished reefs in that country. The reefs of the southern Myeik Archipelago were reported to be only lightly damaged during the 2010 mass bleaching event, which destroyed up to 90% of hard corals in some Thai reefs, but the results of this event are now impossible to separate from more recent blast-fishing damage.

Figure 5 Coral reefs in Myeik Archipelago (left - soft corals; center - corals affected by the 2010 bleaching event; and right - corals affected by destructive fishing practices (BOBLME/ IUCN 2014).

Seagrass Beds

There is little information on the status and distribution of seagrass in Myanmar. UNEP-WCMC created a global distribution map but the distribution assigned to Myanmar appears to be very coarse and requires updating. Ten seagrass species are identified in Myanmar waters including Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata, Halodule pinifolia, H.uninervis, Syringodium isotoefolium, Enhalus acoroides, Halophila beccarii, Halophila decipiens, Halophila ovalis and Thalassia hemprichii (Novak et al., 2009; Tint Tun & Bendell, 2010). Of these, Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata and Enhalus acoroides are dominant (see Figure 6). Seagrass beds of varying sizes and diverse species can be found along the Rakhine and Tanintharyi coasts, supporting a large number of marine fish and shrimp larvae, especially the post larvae of Penaeus semisulcatus (Zöckler et al., 2003). Given the enormous sediment discharges and a large volume of freshwater runoff from river systems in the Ayeyarwady Delta and Mon State, no seagrass is present in these coastal zones.

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10

Figure 6 Diversity of seagrass in Myanmar waters: 1.Cymodocea rotundata, 2. Cymodocea serrulata, 3. Enhalus acoroides, 4. Halophila decipiens,5. Halophila beccarii, 6. Halophila ovalis, 7. Halodule uninervis, 8. Halodule pinifolia, 9. Syringodium isotoefolium, and 10. Thalassia hemprichii.

Seagrass beds are found in shallow areas interact with both mangrove and reef communities. They are productive and valuable resources which provide habitats and food supply for many species of fish and invertebrates as well as dugong and marine turtles. Seagrass beds also perform coastal stabilization, filters and exporting organic nutrients to the nearby ecosystems of coral reefs and mangroves. In the early stages, the seagrass beds along Myanmar coast were reported to be in near-pristine condition, well preserved and facing no immediate threats(Ilangakoon & Mya Than Tun, 2007; Soe Htun et al., 2008; Soe Htun et al., 2001). This notion contradicts recent information provided by some local marine researchers, suggesting a growing stress over seagrass resources due to an increase in numbers and 9

activity of “baby trawlers” (vessels less than around 10 tons total displacement).These vessels skirt the restrictions on commercial fishing in inshore waters by nature of their length/power limits, but can still drag small beam trawls and are reputed to be a constant threat to inshore seagrass habitats (Frank Momberg and Zau Lunn, personal communication).Mining activities near the coasts or estuaries have been reported as a threat to sensitive seagrass species in many countries including Thailand and Malaysia. Although information is unavailable from Myanmar, careful assessment of pollution from upstream mining activities is necessary for the conservation of seagrass bed ecosystems.

2.1.4 Fishery Resources

Fishery resources in Myanmar waters are typical of Southeast Asia with a large quantity of fish and shrimp in the EEZ. With exclusion of the results of recent Nansen surveys in 2013, existing literature suggest there are approximately 470 species of marine fishes including 67 commercially important pelagic species, and 13 crustacean species(U Tin Win, 2004).Several species remain to be identified(Khin Maung Soe, 2008). Snapper, thread fin/ Indian salmon and croaker of demersal fishes and sardine, horse mackerel and anchovy of pelagic fishes are commercially important species in the Rakhine coast; while hilsa support a major economic fishery in the Ayeyarwady Delta; and Mackerel, anchovy and small tuna are significant in the Tanintharyi coastal region. Of economically significant species, three species are listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species including Hilsa shad (Tenualosa ilisha), Indian threadfin (Polynemus indicus), and four-finger threadfin (Eleutheronema tetradactylum). Each of these species is greatly harvested for food along the coasts of Myanmar, and the regional stock of hilsa is overfished throughout its range. Disturbingly, the results of the 2013 Nansen marine survey showed that pelagic and demersal fish biomass had fallen by 90% and 70% respectively since 1980. This is due mainly to overfishing and destructive fishing. One striking indicator of changes in fish populations is the declined Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) over the past 50 years. The record of average hourly catch rate of a vessel at sea by the Myanmar Fisheries Federation (MFF) indicates a decrease from 324kg in 1955 to 86kg in 2006.Comprehensive results from RV Dr. Fridtjof Nansen survey should provide up to date data on fish distribution, their population and oceanography (report in progress). Once analyzed, this information will be applied in sustainable planning, management and development in relation to coastal and marine ecosystems.

2.1.5 Marine Wildlife

In Myanmar, the study on marine wildlife in their natural habitats in terms of the size of populations, distribution, migratory patterns, threats and conservation status are rather limited. Most of the existing studies are based on reported sightings, reported standings and reported by-catch. According to the NBSAP (2011) 16 species of cetacean have been recorded in Myanmar coastal waters. Among them the Blue Whale and the Irrawaddy Dolphin are listed as Globally Threatened in the category Vulnerable. Based on the interviews with artisanal fishermen and offshore bottom trawler skippers by Tint Tun(2006), whales were sighted near Kunn Thee Island, Kyun Me Gyee Island and Lagyan Aw of Kyunn Tann Shey (Lampi) Island. Anecdotal evidence also suggests the presence of resident pods of Bryde’s Whales in the Myeik Archipelago, similar to those found in the upper Gulf of Thailand. Commonly encountered cetacean species in Myanmar coastal waters include finless porpoises, Irrawaddy Indo-Pacific humpback and bottlenose, Pan Tropical spotted and spinner dolphins. Two marine mammals, Irrawaddy dolphins (Orcaella brevirostris) and dugongs (Dugong dugon), have been protected under the Protection and Wildlife Conservation of Natural Areas law, also known as Wildlife Law, since 1994. In 2007, Myanmar became a signatory state to the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on the Conservation and Management of Dugongs and their Habitats throughout their Range. As suggested in NBSAP (2011), Dugong still seems to be common in seagrass beds between Gwa in the south of Rakhine up to Ramree and Manaung Island in central Rakhine region. However, accidental entanglement in purse-seine nets, beach-seine nets, gill nets and long lines have been reported as major threats to Myanmar’s cetaceans.

Five species of marine turtles breed and feed regularly in Myanmar waters are: green turtles (Chelonia mydas), loggerhead turtle (Caretta carreta), olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), and hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata). A number of nests reported in Ayeyarwaddy Delta are such as on islands off the mouth of the Bogale River, Kadonkalay Kyun, Gayetgyi Kyun, and Thamihla Kyun - most of which are Olive ridley (70%), followed by Loggerhead (20%) and Green turtles (10%)(Holmes et al., 2013). Hawksbill and Leatherback turtles – once abundant, but which are still occasionally reported by fishermen in the Rakhine and Tanintharyi areas, have disappeared completely from the Ayeyarwady area in recent years(Nang Mya Han, 2010a). In the Tanintharyi Region, Most of Hawksbill turtles are sighted near Longlonebok Island and its adjacent areas. Despite no report of intentional catching of turtles at present, there are cases of turtles being

killed and eggs being consumed when they take shelter on the beach from bad weather conditions(Maung Maung Lwin, 2011).

2.2 Socio-economic Systems

2.2.1 Demography and the Well-being of Coastal Populations

The Government of Myanmar conducted its most recent census in thirty one years in March/April 2014. Based on provisional census data released in August 2014 by the Ministry of Immigration and Population, Myanmar has a population of 51.4 million people. This total population includes 50,213,067 people counted during the census and an estimated 1,206,353 people in parts of northern Rakhine, Kachin and Kayin States who were not counted. More females (51.8%) were counted than males (48.2%). People who were out of the country at the time of the census are not included in these figures. Myanmar's 10,889,348 households had an average household size of 4.4 people. The urban population amounted to 14,864,119 people or 29.6% of the total population. The country has a moderate population density of 76 people per sq.km (Ministry of Immigration and Population, 2014). Myanmar as a nation is unlikely to face a problem of overpopulation, but records from the Myanmar’s Ministry of Planning and Finance, Central Statistical Organization indicate high and rising human population pressure in coastal and delta areas. This number however excludes the Moken, also called Sea Gypsies or Salone in Burmese language, who live their traditional nomadic lifestyles and are solely dependent on fishing and harvest of sea cucumbers. It is estimated there are approximately 1,000 indigenous Moken in the Myeik Archipelago and adjacent areas of the Andaman Sea.

There is almost no information for the livelihoods and living standards of the coastal population. The majority of the coastal communities depend upon fisheries and agriculture, with minority live on tourism and industrial development. Other economic activities include large scale logging, hunting (e.g. mouse deer, monkeys, wild pigs, porcupines, wildcats, squirrels), snails collecting, aquaculture and fishery industry (fish, squid, shrimp, ice factory and cold storage, fish processing plant). Regardless of the ethnic group or whether on mainland or islands, over 50% of the population lives in housing classified as very low standard, low standard or substandard. A number of coastal communities suffer from poverty and a lack of viable livelihood options(Nang Mya Han, 2010b). Infrastructure support systems, alternate livelihood programs and basic health and education services should be strengthened to these communities on priority basis.

2.2.2 Fisheries

According to the Marine Fisheries Law, Myanmar marine fisheries were partitioned into inshore (coastal) and offshore fisheries, which used a fixed spatial reference for administration. Inshore fishery includes areas that are within five nautical miles from shore along the Rakhine coast and ten nautical miles from shore for the Ayeyarwady and Tanintharyi coasts. Boats fishing in these areas can be no more than 30 feet (~9m) long and use engines of no more than 12 horsepower(Khin Maung Soe, 2008; Maung Maung Lwin, 2011). Typical fishing gears used by these fishers include long lines, drift nets, gillnets, stowed nets, trammel nets, purse seines and traps. Inshore fisheries actually are of small scales but supply several high value species (e.g. lobsters, shrimp, grouper, mud crab, clams). Offshore fishing extends from the demarcation line of inshore fisheries out to the edge of Myanmar’s EEZ. These fishers use larger boats and gear including bottom trawls (mostly beam trawls, although otter board trawls are also common), purse seines, drift nets and long-lines. Offshore vessels range from 30 to more than 100 tons displacement, although smaller vessels (<15t) are common, especially in the Myeik Archipelago.

Comparing to inland fisheries and aquaculture sectors, marine fishery accounts for the highest proportion of total landings (60-70% in the late 1990s and about half in 2011-12) (DoF – Fisheries Statistics, 2011). The major fish landing sites in the country are at Thandwe of the Rakhine Coast; Pazuntaugh, Nyaungdan and Annawa close to Yangon; and Mawlamyine, Myeik and Kawthoung of the Taninthayi Coast. Marine fish production in Myanmar more than doubled over the last decade; from 926,070 tons in 2001 to 2,123,460 tons in 2011(Holmes et al., 2013). Fisheries products are exported alive, fresh frozen or chilled and processed. Border trade system, particularly with China and Thailand, has been the major transaction mode for Myanmar fisheries export. Over 2009-2010, Thailand was the greatest importer of Myanmar’s finfish, importing 108,511 tons of marine and freshwater fish, followed by Kuwait, China and Singapore(Khin Maung Soe, 2008).

2.2.3 Aquaculture

Production of marine fish through aquaculture is relatively small compared with production of shrimp from aquaculture or production of wild caught marine fish(Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2003; Hla Win, 2004). Aquaculture is practiced largely in freshwater and brackish water along the coastal area but on a limited scale in sea water. Considering the continuing deterioration of fish habitat and inland fish stocks together with high foreign demand for food fish of high-value species such as

shrimps, sea bass (Lates calcarifer) and groupers (Epinephiline serranids), the government has encouraged the industry to increase total fishery production through culture-based fishery. In response to the new policy aquaculture production started to increase rapidly in the early 1990s. Tiger prawns, orange-spotted groupers, greasy groupers and soft-shelled crabs are cultured in pond farms, while oyster, scallop, yellow tail, mackerel, red sea bream, halibut, eel, globe fish, and lobsters are cultivated through hanging culture, cage culture and sea bed sowing. Shrimp production from aquaculture has increased nearly ten-fold from 5,473 tons in 2001 to 51,207 tons ten years later (DoF – Fisheries Statistics, 2011). In many areas, mangroves have been converted to aquaculture ponds – for instance, in the Reserved mangrove forest of Wunbaik, Rakhine - a total of 1176 ha of mangroves has been converted to shrimp ponds since 1980’s (Stanley, Broadhead, & Aung Aung Myint, 2011).As a result, there is a need to develop environmental-friendly aquaculture, sustainable aquaculture as well as conservation measures for mangrove resources.

2.2.4 Port and Shipping

Spreading across the entire coastline, there are currently nine ports that serve coastal and seaborne trade. These are Sittwe, Kyaukphyu, Thandwe, Pathein, Yangon, Mawlamyine, Dawei, Myeik and Kawthoung. Doorways to global commerce, the ports are needed to support massive volumes of international import/export, as well as domestic cargo volume every day as the country develops. Manufacturing and processing industries are situated close to the ports to ship finished products to international and domestic markets, and transport raw materials inbound at lower costs. This leads to emerging new Special Economic Zones (SEZs) alongside the ports to serve as new development nodes and to attract large-scale investment from overseas. The coastal area of Yangon Division remains highly important for Myanmar's port facilities. Thilawar, a newly built port is crucial for the development of the nation's expanding trade under the market-oriented economic system (www.myanmarburma.com/article/807/major-ports).

2.2.5 Extractive Industry

There are a total of 101 blocks set aside for oil and gas exploration in Myanmar including 48 offshore blocks. As of January 2012, there were 12 foreign oil companies working in 27 offshore blocks: 10 off the Rakhine Coast, 12 near the Gulf of Mottama and 5 off the Tanintharyi Coast. Oil and gas industries account for about 50% of government revenues but have a relatively small impact on local employment or local economy(Kyaw Tint et al., 2012).If not properly controlled, offshore drilling operations can

cause considerable negative effects on marine and other wildlife. The primary environmental risks include drilling muds, brine wastes, deck runoff water, flow line and pipeline leak, and catastrophic spills and blowouts. In addition to oil and gas extraction, extractive industry of concern which has a long history in Myanmar is sand mining. Sand is currently being mined from river bottoms as well as the sandy sea floor in Myeik Archipelago. The product is exported to Singapore for construction use and land reclamation. There has been limited information on the operation of this industry and the extent of impact these operations may have on deep water and near-shore ecosystems. Even so, other countries including Indonesia and Malaysia have enacted bans on the industry due to environmental concern and potential threats.

2.2.6Marine and Coastal Tourism

Tourism is one of the fastest-growing industries in Myanmar, especially since 1996 when the Myanmar Government promoted a tourism campaign “Visit Myanmar Year”. The number of tourists visit Myanmar has demonstrated a growing trend. It is expected that the country will experience a rapid coastal tourism development as a result of overall economic development (The Development Advisor, August 2014). In line with this, the EU declared that Myanmar is the 2014’s world best travel destination, indicating increased interest in Myanmar tourism. Given the opened door market economy, there has been a substantial growth in tourist visitation to the southern islands of Myeik Archipelago through the Kawthoung border point. Reef-based SCUBA dive tourism appears to be major activities attracting tourists to the southern Myeik Archipelago. Myanmar and Thai companies equipped to handle dive tourism have a well-travelled series of routes that include the Burma Banks, Western Rocky Island, Three Islets, High Rock, Black Rock, North Twin Island, South Twin Island and Roe Bank. The sight of corals, marine life and Moken culture are the main tourism attractions. Given that public road transportation in coastal cities of Tanintharyi Region has only been open to foreigners for travel in 2013, there is currently no tourism activity on the mainland and the development of tourist infrastructure is rather slow and limited. Three existing tourist accommodations are Andaman Resort in Kha Yin Gwa Kyun (MacLeod Island), Andaman Club in Thahtay Kyun, and Treasure Island Resort in Pakchan River, off Kawthoung. Myeik Archipelago is identified an “Emerging/Potential Tourist Destination” in the government’s official tourism development policies and plans for the eight-year period between 2013 and 2020. In response, there have been support on establishing a SCUBA dive training camp in Dawei (The New Light of Myanmar, June 2013), tourism development projects on Kyun Phila (Great Swinton Island) (The Development Advisor, June 2013), Khuntee (Gabuza Island), Eastern Sula Island, Langan

Island, Tanintharyi Island (The Irrawaddy, January 2014) and Lampi Island(Platt, Platt, Khin Myo Myo, & Me Me Soe, 2014).

SECTION III:CHALLENGES IN CONSERVING AND MANAGING COASTAL AND MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

3.1 Threats to Natural Resources

Myanmar is home to high biodiversity and known for diverse renewable and non-renewable resources. People living in coastal zones - who are mostly living below the poverty line – often cause man-induced stress in the coastal zones e.g. overfishing, aquaculture, tin mining and waste disposal. Given that two thirds of the population derives their livelihoods from forestry and fishery, loss of forest resources, coastal land-use change, overfishing and IUU fishing, and climate change represent key environmental challenges.

3.1.1 Coastal Land Use Change

The environmental problems Myanmar is facing today are “Myanmar’s current growth pattern is considered noting association with industrialization and placing huge pressure on its environment and, if continued, will urbanization, rather deforestation and loss of certainly be unsustainable given the biodiversity(U Tin Win, 2004). Population growth country’s continued population increase, expected rapid industrialization, accompanied by increased resource utilization as well as increased consumption of and demand for natural resources for food production the ever-increasing demand for resources from and trade, and increased energy neighboring countries have put biodiversity in Myanmar consumption.” under severe pressure. The country remains one of the ADB - Myanmar in transition, 2012 ten countries in the world with the largest annual net loss of forest area and among the five countries (Indonesia,

Australia, Myanmar, Madagascar and Mozambique) with the largest net loss of mangrove area during the period 2000-2010(Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2010). It is reported in the NBSAP (2011) that people from upstream areas simply migrated to mangrove areas for firewood collection and charcoal making. Once forests were clear-cut, they cultivated the land for growing paddy. When paddy yield declined, land was converted for shrimp farming. When shrimp farming was affected by increased acidification and water pollution, people encroached into another mangrove area for repeating the process of mangrove exploitation. In Tanintharyi Region, palm oil concessions have been granted in

large forest areas and rubber plantations have almost doubled in coastal areas from 1990 to 2010. Replacement of natural forest by oil palm and rubber plantations can result in increased erosion and decreased groundwater retention which subsequently increase runoff and sedimentation. Moreover, nitrification from agricultural chemicals can multiply adverse consequences on Myanmar marine ecosystems.

3.1.2 Overexploitation of Mangroves for Fuelwood and Charcoal Production

Heritiera fomes (“kanazo”) is the prime timber species used for house and boat construction, while the top portion of the tree is used for firewood and charcoal (U Tin Win, 2004). Mangroves, in Ayeyarwady Region in particular, have been degraded because of overexploitation of fuelwood for Yangon and cities and towns in adjacent areas. Given lower population and the fact that the coastal landscape is more sheltered in Rakhine State and Tanintharyi Region, mangroves are in better condition(Nay Win Oo, 2002) although there are increasing need of fuelwood from Yangon city to meet an annual demand of 700,000 tons(Zöckler et al., 2003). In addition to household consumption, fuelwood and charcoal are supplied to cottage industries, restaurants and tea shops.

3.1.3 Overfishing

Transition from subsistence to a market economy and use of advanced fishing gears are likely to increase pressure on fish resources in Myanmar waters. This is particularly true since the introduction of (destructive) trawling in the 1970s(BOBLME, 2012). Overfishing has been persistent due to several reasons involving an increasing demand of fish for local consumption, high dependency of artisanal fisher folk upon coastal waters for their livelihood, and a large number of fishing boats from neighboring countries. The decreased average hourly catch rate of a vessel at sea over the past 50 years has demonstrated increasing pressure of overfishing issue in Myanmar. Average hour catch rate reduced from 324kg per hour during 1955 to 1957down to 288kg per hour in 1982-1983 and 186kg per hour in 1993 (Myanmar Fisheries Federation (MFF). By 2006, the last year for which figures are available, Myanmar’s fishing vessels were catching on average just 86kg of fish an hour (www.mmtimes.com/2010/news). To compensate fishers with equal amount of catch as previous, DoF has increased days allowed to fish in one trip at sea for fishing vessels from 25 days to 90 days per trip. This allows fishers to maintain their total catch and transport their products to the nearby landing sites.

3.1.4 Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing

IUU fishing issues - involving contravention of the reporting procedure, fishing in unauthorized areas, over limited fishing days, transshipment at the sea, unregistered and unlicensed vessel, use of prohibited fishing method, fishing in closed season and area, and encroachment of the foreign vessels - is an important maritime security concern for Myanmar. IUU fishing occurs throughout Myanmar waters with no exception to Lampi, the only one marine national park in the country. These are due mainly to inadequate Monitoring, Control and Surveillance (MCS) capabilities, corruption among law enforcement authorities, and disregard of illegal inshore fisheries(Maung Aung Myoe, 2013). Destructive fishing method like dynamite fishing, also known as blast fishing and bomb fishing, is one of the well-known problems requiring urgent response. To date, official records in relation to blast fishing in Myanmar waters has been very limited (if ever existed). Anecdotal reports suggest that this illegal practice has been persisted and considerably common in Myeik Archipelago and it is operated among Myanmar, Moken and foreign fishers from the nearby countries such as Thailand. Such unsustainable fishing method can destroy seabed and kill fish, mollusk, coral and plant in a radius of up to three nautical miles.

3.1.5 Potential Tourism Development

Reef-based tourism, one of the multiple uses in coastal zones, has become more important in terms of magnitude and contribution to national economies and to the well-being of local communities -. In the absence of proper controls and enforcement, unplanned tourism growth can cause environmental degradation, economic impacts and social and cultural conﬂicts which undermine the long-term sustainability of the tourism industry. To ensure the benefits of tourism and minimum negative impacts, Myanmar’s National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS) promotes the idea of eco-tourism. Responsible Tourism Policy was adopted in 2012 and states that tourism must be developed with aims to benefit communities, maintain cultural diversity, encourage conservation and sustainable usage of natural resources and ensure product quality and security of visitors. Although recreation in the coastal zones has accounted for a relatively small share of both domestic and international tourist markets, it is seen as having major potential for growth. A number of large-scale tourism development projects have been proposed for southern Myanmar islands, while all of protected areas with marine components in Myanmar are identified by MONREC as nature-based tourism destinations. Products and services include bungalow-type hotel, guesthouses, shops, a theme park, golf course, swimming pool and boat services. Two tourism development proposals are reported to be constructed on turtle nesting beaches 18

in Lampi Island Marine National Park. The proposals were submitted to the Ministry of Hotels and Tourism in August 2013 and are awaiting approval from relevant ministries. Whether or not Strategic Environmental Assessment has been implemented before the approval of tourism development is unknown. Before becoming economically tourism dependent, proper guidelines and management must be put in place to ensure the sustainable tourism development.

3.1.6 Climate Change and Natural Disaster

The issue of climate change reflects in the Myanmar Cyclone Nargis – A wake up call to climate change NBSAP 2011 where it is identified an emerging threat, with potentially severe implications for biodiversity in Myanmar. The 2008 Cyclone Nargis caused over According to climate scenario analysis done by an initial 100,000 casualties and catastrophic national communication project under the United Nations destruction of vast mangrove areas in Ayeyarwady Region, impacting food Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), security of coastal communities. The temperature is going to increase over 1 degree Celsius in devastating effects of the Cyclone has most part of the country within the next 30 years and it will shifted the government’s perspective to have potential effects on agriculture, forestry, biodiversity, climate change and ever since the issue water resources, natural disasters and human health. In has become a high priority in Myanmar. line with this, Myanmar National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) indicates the population across Myanmar will experience extreme weather events such as cyclones, flood, intense rains, high temperatures and drought. In the coastal and marine regimes, frequent and intense storm as well as strong wind and wave can have direct effect in fisheries both inshore and offshore. Coastal zones especially areas interspersed with tidal waterways like the Ayeyarwady Delta may face permanent inundation due to sea level rise. The highly productive deltaic and low-lying coastal rice/local crop cultivation areas will also be exposed to increased salinity and coastal erosion. One of the lessons learned from the deadliest natural disaster recorded is the importance of precautionary approaches and the potential for adaptation to natural disaster. Although the government has taken steps towards improving disaster management through the Myanmar Action Plan on Disaster Risk Reduction (MAPDRR) (2009-2015), there is a great need for regulatory mechanisms which focus on building the resilience and adaptive capacity of communities and ecosystems (and thus socio-economic sectors) to climate change impacts. As climate change impacts could severely undermine economic growth in Myanmar, the formulation and implementation of policies on climate change adaptation is vital for sustainable development.

3.2 Constraints to Coastal Management

The causes of biodiversity loss and unsustainable use of coastal and marine resources in Myanmar are correlated with a number of aspects involving: limited knowledge and understanding; capacity constraints; lack of environmental safeguards; undervaluation of resources; lack of comprehensive land-use policies and plans; gaps in legislations and weak enforcement; poverty and subsistence needs; lack of grassroots support for conservation; and global climate change.

3.2.1 Information/ Knowledge Gaps and Limited Understanding

There are a number of reports, documentation and research studies in relation to various aspects of the Myanmar coastal ecology and environment; however a review of published studies shows that there is still much to improve the understanding of the current state of Myanmar coastal and marine resources. Research is required as a critical component to identify threats to the ecosystems and responses to the issues and constraints through effective conservation and management. Having limited and outdated biological or ecological baseline data means that there is nothing upon which to base management decisions such as zoning, extraction quotas, usage types or even population models. In the absence of reliable survey data, it is not possible to undertake ICM or Marine Resource Management. In Myanmar, knowledge is not adequately available, shared and used for informed decision making on the value of biodiversity and coastal ecosystems. Coastal and marine ecosystems are undervalued, and thus must be analyzed. In-country capacity to conduct research, particularly at universities, needs to be improved.

3.2.2 Inadequate Capacities

Capacity inadequacies along with minimal allocation of capital for the management of coastal and marine resources are major barriers to combat persistent illegal activities and unsustainable practices in Myanmar coastal zones. Government institutions responsible for conserving biology and managing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) often suffer from shortages of financial resources and technical expertise. For instance, Nature and Wildlife Conservation Department (NWCD) has insufficient financial, human and material resources to fulfill its mandate to manage protected areas. No systematic review of the marine ecosystems has been conducted for the purpose of identifying gaps in the MPA network. Illegal activities such as logging and destructive fishing have been persisted in the Park boundaries. DoF has limited staff and budget to regular patrol and interdict or arrest illegal fishers in the offshore areas of Myanmar EEZ, except in partnership with the Myanmar Navy or Army Coastal Defense. Such limitations result in on-going dynamite fishing and unknown outcome of policy

implementation such as the licensing system and banning of trawl fishing and importantly, bribery. The current constraints however represent opportunities for NGOs and academic institutions to play a role in strengthening the capacity of key government institutions responsible for conservation.

3.2.3 Policy, Regulatory Mechanisms and Enforcement

In recent years, greater attention has been paid on natural resources conservation and sustainable development. There are a number of policies regulating fisheries and making concerted efforts to protect marine ecosystems as well as to conserve coastal and marine species. However, without adequate compliance and enforcement, many of these laws are ineffectual. The weakness of legislation regarding the prosecution and punishment of those engaged in illegal fishing hampers efforts by DoF to discourage the practice, even though the local and foreign fishermen are aware that it is both illegal and destructive of the resource. Specific laws and actions to govern impacts in coastal zones and management of in-water resources are required if they are to deal with complex coastal issues. Environmental safeguards must be considered. Funding for law enforcement and incentives for compliance are equally significant. Thorough Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) must be conducted and their findings taken into account. In line with this, introduction of comprehensive land- use policies and land-use planning, consistent with sustainable rural livelihoods and biodiversity conservation must be encouraged.

3.2.4 Governance

There is a lack of clarity in the sector specific policies and institutional structures. It is unclear to many stakeholders at to who between national and state/regional governments has authority over fishing concessions; who has authority to manage and enforce in the coastal zone; and whether the NWCD within MONREC or the DoF within MALI has authority for the conservation and management of marine (in-water) components (both in and outside MPAs). There is confusion among government officials as to how to interpret the delineation of inshore and offshore zones. It is not clearly stated in the fisheries laws whether the coastline from which the inshore fishing zone is defined includes the coasts of islands or only the mainland. These obscure and/or overlapping responsibilities hinder an efficient implementation of marine-related plans and regulations, especially when combined with ineffective cooperation and coordination between different ministries or departments and between centers and peripheries.

3.2.5Grass-Root Support in Coastal and Marine Conservation

In Ayeyarwady Delta and Rakhine State the conservation programs involving local communities have contributed to positive outcomes whereas in Tanintharyi the community-oriented conservation has been very limited (if ever existed). Reasons for this may include less awareness of people about the objectives of conservation, lack of mechanisms for local communities to benefit from resource management, and lack of opportunities for grassroots participation in conservation activities. The mangrove restoration in Ayeyarwady and the conservation of shorebirds in Rakhine demonstrate the importance of community engagement in sustainable coastal management, resulting in the protection of biodiversity, the food security and the long-term livelihoods of the coastal communities. There is growing evidence that marine conservation works best when local communities are responsible for management of their resources. This is particularly the case in low-income countries, where national capacity for enforcement of marine and fisheries legislation may be weak. Many coastal communities of Myanmar are poor, isolated and highly depend on natural resources harvest for their subsistence. Given low education level and limited alternative livelihoods, it is difficult for them to consider the long- term sustainability of resources on which they depend.

SECTION IV: STEPS FORWARD TO SUSTAINABLE COASTAL MANAGEMENT

4.1 Integrated Coastal Management (ICM)– Concepts and Principles

Integrated coastal management (ICM) is widely accepted throughout the world as the best approach to dealing with coastal issues. ICM is guided by the Rio Principles with special emphasis on the principle of intergenerational equity, the precautionary principle and the polluter pays principle(Cicin-Sain & Knecht, 1998). ICM is an adaptive, multi-sectoral governance approach, which strives to a balanced development, use and protection of coastal environments. Importantly, it acknowledges the interrelationships that exist among coastal and ocean uses and the environments they potentially affect, in both public and private sectors, according to an agreed upon set or resource management policies and practices. There has been debate over the use of related terminologies such as Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), Integrated Coastal Area Management (ICAM), Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM), and Integrated Marine and Coastal Area Management (IMCAM). Considering a shift emphasis away from ‘zone’ or ‘area’ management to ‘integrated’ management, ICM is a more accepted term today.

The following are two frequently cited definitions of ICM:

A process that unites government and the community, science and management, sectoral and public interests in preparing and implementing an integrated plan for the protection and development of coastal ecosystems and resources (GESAMP,1996, p 2).

A continuous and dynamic process by which decisions are made for the sustainable use, development, and protection of coastal and marine areas and resources. The process is designed to overcome the fragmentation inherent in single-sector management approaches (fishing operations, oil and gas development, etc.), in the splits in jurisdiction among different levels of government, and in the land-water interface (Cicin-Sain & Knecht, 1998, p 1).

There is no generally accepted definition of ICM, but there is a widespread international consensus as to its main features. The key characteristic that distinguishes ICM from other approaches to coastal management is that it is holistic and interdisciplinary in nature, especially with regards to science and policy. Any human use of the coast affects both other users and the coastal ecosystem as a whole. From a legal and institutional perspective it is particularly important to note that the coast is seen as a dynamic system composed of many subsystems (e.g. ecosystems) and that in order to regulate a part of a system, it is necessary to understand and respect its role and function within the whole. Planning and decision making in relation to the coast must take account of the actual and potential impacts of any human activity on the coastal system (e.g. agriculture, aquaculture, tourism, fishery, industry). Demands for the use of the coast must be balanced and conflicts among coastal users, among management institutions, and between the two parties have to be resolved(Cullinan, 2006).

4.2 ICM as an Important Approach for Building Coastal Resilience

Lessons learned from the 2004 Indian Tsunami are that: (i) the need for urgent response and quick action resulted in duplication and overlap of resources and effort across the affected areas(Khazai et al., 2006); and (ii) poorly focused and uncoordinated initiatives impeded economically and environmentally sound rehabilitation and reconstruction(Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2006b). Hundreds of kilometers of devastated coastline had to be rebuilt and livelihoods for displaced people needed to be established. This was challenging given that little forward thinking was adopted with regard to contingency risk planning and land- and marine-use planning in the Asia Pacific region. In the absence of integrated long-term response, the application of integrated coastal management was recognized as a prompt solution(Gonsalves & Mohan, 2011). 23

However, it must be noted that ICM planning strategies are designed to be long-term proactive approaches, and thus their ability to respond rapidly in the face of sudden catastrophic disasters is somewhat problematic. In light of this, ICM processes require modification to cope with the requirement for immediate responses on short time frames resulting from sudden events. The processes of short- term action require integration with the disaster response practitioners and activities. Recent collaboration among national, provincial and local emergency management agencies and local communities under the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System (IOTWS) Program, has led to development of the concept of coastal community resilience (CCR) towards this aim. It is suggested here that the principles of CCR be adopted into a broader ICM framework with a view to protecting against and preparing for coastal disasters as part of a holistic planning process(Kay, 2006).

In Myanmar there has been no discrete policy or legislation pertaining to management of the coastal zone, rather subsumed under Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation (MONREC) and Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation (MALI). Agricultural management in coastal zones is carried out through agriculture supervision committee, while fisheries management through DoF(Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2006a). Key challenges in this context involve no appropriate integrated planning; no collaboration within lines of horizontal or vertical level agencies (particularly forest and fisheries, central and regional); and no coastal land use planning.

SECTION V: NATIONAL STRATEGY AND ACTION PLANS (NSAP)

5.1 Myanmar National Coordinating Body (NCB)

It is evident in Myanmar that one of the critical barriers to adopting an integrated approach towards coastal management has been the knowledge gaps and the weak institutional space and coordinating mechanisms among multi-sectoral and multi-tier agencies. Recognizing these gaps, the MFF NCB can act as a head-start in fulfilling this fundamental ICM requirement as it provides a platform for various government institutions, private sectors and business representatives to come together and work towards a common goal. The NCB composition matrix comprises of both government and civil society members, including the private sector, NGOs, academic and research institutes (see Annex 1 for the organizational structure of Myanmar NCB). The Myanmar NCB has its role in overseeing, guiding, reviewing, monitoring, evaluating and implementing MFF in-country project activities. This composition matrix fosters public-private partnerships, and at the same time ensures public legitimacy and transparency in action. At the national level, the MFF NCB will work to support and influence national

policy dialogues on ICM, while at regional and international level, the MFF NCB can leverage support in knowledge management and forging partnerships that can be multidimensional in nature.

5.2 Mainstreaming Existing Frameworks and Multi/ Bi-lateral Agreements

Myanmar National Environment Policy was adopted in 1994 with an aim to establish sound environment polices in order to conserve the environment and to prevent degradation. Myanmar Forest Policy promulgated in 1995 is also to ensure the sustainable development of forest resources for social, environmental and economic purposes. Six imperatives identified in the policy are: Protection, Sustainability, Basic Needs, Efficiency, Participation, and Public Awareness, which imply the conservation, management of coastal resources and the livelihood improvement of local community dwelling along the Myanmar coastal line.

Myanmar Agenda 21 drafted by the National Commission for Environmental Affairs (NCEA) and approved in 1997 serves as a blue-print for sustainable development in the country. Since the promulgation of Environmental Conservation Law in 2012, over 60 sectoral laws, policies, objectives and strategies, plans and programs have been laid out from various ministries to ensure sustainable economic development, sustainable utilization of natural resources, conservation, disaster risk reduction and environmental protection. To carry out environmental conservation work, the Environmental Conservation Department (ECD) was formed with the strength of 156 officer posts and 247 staff posts, totaling 403 posts under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation (Formerly as Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry) in accordance with the Meeting No. (4/2012) of 26th January 2012. The subsequent strategies to the 2012 Environmental Conservation Law may not concentrate on the coastal sphere but they form the framework to support strategic actions and priorities for intervention in coastal management programs. Like ICM, nearly all Myanmar’s national development and institutional frame works is influenced by the principles of sustainable development formulated in Agenda 21 at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. As national forest programmes, National Forestry Master Plan (NFMP) formulated for a 30-year period from 2001-02 to 2030-31 partly covers coastal conservation and management through community forestry development, biodiversity conservation, sustainable forest harvesting, bio-energy, human resource development and forestry and environmental awareness. Accordingly, Community Forestry Instructions (CFIs) issued by the Forest Department (FD) in 1995 is a remarkable initiative in the aspects of partnership, participation and decentralization in managing the forests including coastal forests and mangroves in Myanmar. The instruction grants the local communities trees and forest land tenure rights for an initial 30-year period 25

that is extendable based on the success of implementation. The FD provides technical assistance and plays the leadership role in the exercise of community forestry. Only recently the importance of Myanmar coastal habitats and marine living resources and the need for sustainable resources management for biodiversity conservation, livelihoods and security have been increasingly and widely recognized. Published materials in this regard include: Myanmar Action Plan on Disaster Risk Reduction (MAPDRR) (MSWRR 2009); Myanmar National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plans (MOECAF 2011); Myanmar Trans-boundary Diagnostic Analysis Report (BOBLME 2011); National Report of Myanmar on the Sustainable Management of the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME 2012); Myanmar National Adaption Program of Action (NAPA) (MOECAF 2012); Sustainable Coastal Zone Management in Myanmar (Lighthouse Foundation/ FFI/ Arc-Cora Consultant2013); Marine Conservation in Myanmar (WCS 2013); Myeik Archipelago Situation analysis (IUCN 2014 – draft) and Myanmar State of Environment (MOECAF 2014 - draft).The Key multi- bi-lateral agreement frameworks that set out Myanmar strategies and actions for conserving biodiversity and achieving disaster resilience are the Framework for Biodiversity -the Aichi Biodiversity Target and the Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and Resilience - the Hyogo Framework of Action. Table 1 enumerates Myanmar’s existing policies, strategies and frameworks and key multi/ bi-lateral treaties and agreements. MONREC is the main agency responsible for implementing the national policy on nature conservation in Myanmar however other ministries, such as the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation (MALI), also share responsibility and accountability for biodiversity conservation. The National Environmental Conservation Committee (NECC) was recently formed in an attempt to consolidate environmental conservation activities at local and national levels. The Committee is chaired by the Minister of the MONREC and now includes 21 members from 19 ministries, thus being one of the most important tools for biodiversity protection and mainstreaming.

Table 1 Myanmar's existing policies, strategies and frameworks and main multi/ bi-lateral treaties and agreements.

National development Myanmar’s market-orientated policy scheme (1988) framework Myanmar Agenda 21 (1997) Millennium Development Goals (MDG) (2006) National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS) (2009) 30-year National Forestry Master Plan (2001-02 to 2030-31)

Institutional framework National Environmental Conservation Committee (NECC) Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation (formerly the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry) ASEAN Committee on Disaster Management (ACDM) National Disaster Preparedness Central Committee (NDPCC) Supporting policy and Myanmar Forest Policy (1995) planning framework Community Forestry Instruction (1995) National Environment Policy (1994) Myanmar Action Plan on Disaster Risk Reduction (MAPDRR) (2009-2015) Myanmar Action Plan on Disaster Risk Reduction, Preparedness, Relief and Rehabilitation (2012 – revisited the previous MAPDRR) Main treaties/agreements United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC - 1992) Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD - 1994) The Kyoto Protocol (1997) United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD – 1997) Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) ASEAN Multi-Sectoral Framework on Climate Change: Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry towards Food Security (AFCC)

The NBSAP of Myanmar is a recent and rather up to date document which provides a strategic planning framework for the effective and efficient conservation and management of biodiversity and natural resources with greater transparency, Box 2: Recommended Action Plan toward accountability and equity. It captures various Sustainable Management of Coastal, Marine and Island Ecosystemsto be implemented under NBSAP aspects of coastal and marine biodiversity and within the next five years identifies seven priorities for a five year action 1. Protect and check environmental damage to coastal areas of Myanmar; plan towards sustainable management of 2. Stop fishing for species at risk until they are coastal, marine and island ecosystems (see restored to their normal numbers or status; 3. Ban destructive fishing practices such as Box 2).Fisheries issues seem to be a strong dynamiting, poisoning, electrocution, and using focus, whereas it is unlikely that protection of unauthorized fishing methods and gear - develop new practices to replace them; critical habitats such as coral reefs, seagrass 4. Conduct constant patrols and encourage research and long-term monitoring of unauthorized fishing; beds and mangroves are given much attention. 5. Establish a coastal and marine research center Likewise, an extensive review of the Bay of using university of marine science as a nucleus; 6. Conduct a survey of fish diversity; and Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (2002) 7. Develop participatory approaches for community based fishery resource conservation and identifies monitoring and assessment of management.

impacts from fisheries and aquaculture as priority actions, with inclusion of EIA and monitoring of mangrove forests. Other habitats or other socio-economic development in the coastal zones are likely to be neglected. Given that coastal management is increasingly receiving a research momentum, it would be more advantageous for Myanmar if the coastal areas are viewed as multiple use zones which comprise many subsystems and provide a variety of goods and services. In other words, attention should be given to the connected habitats (i.e. coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass) and also other sectors (e.g. marine tourism, deep sea port, shipping, mining, oil and gas extraction). ICM, reef to ridge approach and engagement of coastal communities are important concepts to be included in planning and management of the Myanmar coast. The need for ICM and community-oriented conservation appear to be translated as urgent and immediate adaptation needs within the UNFCCC in the NAPAs and within the Hyogo Framework of Action in the MAPDRR. In both documents, adaptation to climate change through ICM and the resilience of rural livelihoods and ecosystems through community engagement are priority actions.

Cooperation of the line departments through delineated responsibility sharing and policy revisions in natural resource conservation is inevitable for implementation. In light of a number of existing policy, strategies and ongoing programs of the country, MFF should be positioned as a delivery mechanism rather than a separate institutional mechanism operating unconnected. Figure 7outlines the conceptual and progressive development of National Strategy and Action Plans for managing Myanmar coast under the MFF objectives. The nation-wide coastal management process shall be fully responsive to and advances implementation of the existing frameworks and treaties; adequately tackle management constraints; as well as take account of cross-cutting issues. Based on the comprehensive discussion from the consultative workshop on Conservation and Sustainable Management of Coastal and Marine Ecosystem in Myanmar, strategic framework and priorities for intervention are: environmental profiling; capacity development; ICM policy development; and civil society engagement in conservation. The interventions identified in the previous consultation process have not mentioned MPAs management although limited capacity of relevant government agencies to effectively manage existing MPAs in Myanmar has been recognized. With the awareness of this issue, it is important for MFF to encourage management effectiveness of MPAs and promote trans-boundary ecosystem management. Along with those identified in the NSAPs and projects of most MFF member countries during phases 1 and 2, the common and expressed needs in Myanmar are to tackle the interlinked causes of vulnerability in

traditional coastal communities i.e. poverty, degraded coastal resources, a low state of knowledge and empowerment, and weak governance.

Cross-cutting Threats Issues - Land-use change - Climate change - Overfishing - Community resilience - IUU fishing Constraints Knowledge Regulation - Gender equality - Tourism development to coastal Capacities Enforcement - Private sector - Climate change & management Governance Grassroot support partnerships natural disaster - Knowledge management& communications

National MFF Initiatives development framework PoWs NCB Multi/ bi-lateral Institutional treaties & framework Strategic Framework & Priorities for Intervention agreements - Environmental profiling Supporting - Capacity development policy and - ICM policies and frameworks development Integrated planning - Civil society engagement Coastal framework - Management of MPAs Management Figure 7 Roadmap to developing National Strategy and Action Plan for Myanmar coastal management.

5.3 Strategic Framework and Priorities for Intervention

5.3.1 Environmental Profiling

To meet coastal planning needs and address critical issues related to coastal management adequate natural science and social science information must be made available in a practical and policy-relevant form. Under this strategy, the actions are primarily targeting the establishment of learning centers on coastal and marine science and developing a formal curriculum module within the universities. Baseline data of resources occurrence, distribution, population trend, threats and conservation status is an urgent need and should be made available to the public. In addition to direct use values or immediate benefits of resources, indirect contributions or inherent values should not be ignored. Economic valuation of resources such as mangroves, seagrass and coral reefs must be assessed. To shift policy and practice toward managing coastal ecosystems as natural infrastructure which support human well- being and security, MFF should act as a learning forum and information clearing house. Establishment of center for coastal and marine research at national level should be considered and communication

channels for dissemination of environmental messages and education are necessary. There is a need and opportunity to encourage partnerships and collaborations between Myanmar government authorities and academic institutes and that of in the neighboring countries (such as Thailand and India) and international agencies with relevant expertise. Workshops, trainings and study tours of best (and bad) practices can serve as lesson learned and help improve understanding. Environmental profiling efforts should be promoted in close correlation with MFF PoW 1 - Improve knowledge for management and PoW 4 - Integrating economic valuation.

5.3.2 Capacity Development

To achieve MFF overarching goals relating to ICM in Myanmar, adequate capacity in terms of skills and knowledge, technology, infrastructure and institutions need to be strengthened and enhanced across the country. All stakeholders involving in managing coastal ecosystems are important target, and networks of researchers, managers and practitioners of coastal issues are essentially required. Under PoW 7 – Building capacity for management, MFF aims at identifying and fulfilling capacity needs and gaps, and building on strengths and opportunities. The training courses, study tours, regional workshops/symposia and similar learning events organized by the regional MFF Secretariat, have been well supported and highly appreciated by many countries to date. Capacity development is a key to environmental conservation effort as well as protected area management. Wardens and officials should be well educated, equipped and sufficiently paid. Staff needs to be versed with the proper legal protocols for making arrests, prosecuting offenders, and using firearms, as well as developing and maintaining community relations (skills such as public speaking, conducting meetings, group dynamics and facilitation, and conflict resolution) and proper record keeping and data management. Integration of park management schemes with Global Positioning Systems (GPS) tools and Geographic Information System (GIS) maps and digital databases would be useful, as would the purchase of compasses, GPS units and digital cameras. Such programs could start by building on the law enforcement training offered by MFF in collaboration with national and international NGOs. Given inadequate budget allocation from the Myanmar government to coastal and marine resources management both in and outside MPAs, co-financing MFF activities both in cash and in kind may be considered. National (and possibly regional) budget allocations, PES revenues, bilateral donor support and private sector CSR budgets are alternatives.

5.3.3 ICM Policy and Strategy Development

At present a formal national ICM program does not exist in Myanmar although the need is clearly articulated. In the context of growing recognition that the existing legislative and institutional mechanisms for the management of coastal resources are inadequate and that a more holistic and integrated approach is required, there are various aspects to improve before ICM programs can be adopted. In line with other countries in the Asian Region, a weak knowledge base, limited coordination between concerned organizations, the absence of an integrated vision and approach for long-term planning and development, weak law enforcement and conflict resolution are some of the fundamental issues that need to be addressed.

It is important to note that an acknowledgement and awareness of existing issues does not necessarily lead to the enactment of national ICM legislation. ICM may be given priority as a part of a wider purpose to achieving sustainable development or the sustainable management of natural resources throughout the country. Some countries seek to achieve ICM by coordinating existing laws and policies via inter-agency guidelines rather than enacting comprehensive legislation. Other countries have opted to start by reforming the institutional framework by designating or creating a government agency with authority over the coastal zone (e.g. British Virgin Islands, Sri Lanka, Thailand). The forces shaping ICM legislation are different in each jurisdiction. Therefore, there is a need for each locale to develop suitable coastal management mechanisms or models to suit local conditions. In the context of Myanmar, it is imperative to have clear legislation identifying the governing authority responsible for managing coastal and marine resources (inside and outside MPAs) and the enforcement authority to prosecute and punish illegal practitioners/poachers. Myanmar may consider one or a combination of following options: (i) assign management and enforcement authorities to a division within DoF or FD; (ii) establish a new department in separation to the DoF and FD, for instance, Department of Coastal and Marine Resources or Department of National Park with coastal and marine related division; or (iii) having Navy as enforcement authority. Community participation and empowerment in resource management and partnerships/ collaboration of all stakeholders (e.g. DoF, FD, Navy, NGOs, academic institutes and coastal communities) are highly recommended. Staff training on ICM and their technical and social communication skills must be developed as a priority.

5.3.4 Civil Society Engagement in Conservation

Today, civil society organizations are taking active roles in shaping global policies. Considering the growing influence of their engagement, it is important that their participation be integrated into governance structures of ICM systems. MFF PoW 6 – Promoting Civil Society Engagement reflects such needs and aims to link actions on the ground with improved awareness among civil society at large. The inclusion of women, indigenous people, marginalized and disadvantaged groups are significant aspects of civil society participation. Communities and civil society organizations need to be empowered to allow meaningful partnership and sustaining outcome. There are several ways through which Myanmar and international NGOs and academic institutions could build grass-root support for conservation, for instance, changing public perceptions towards conservation through awareness raising programs; promoting ecotourism; and strengthening the capacity of Park managers in community outreach and participation. Social research such as Participatory Action Research should be promoted.

5.3.5 Management of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

Guided by the National Forest Policy and Master Plan, the FD has moreover made strenuous efforts to expand the coverage of protected areas during the last decade. Myanmar has established 36 protected areas, four of which are consisted of marine elements (one Marine National Park, three Wildlife Sanctuaries): Lampi Marine National Park, Mainmahla Kyuun, Moscos Island and Thamihla Kyuun. Generally, MPAs can play a critical role in protecting marine species and habitats, conserving marine biodiversity, restoring fisheries populations, managing tourism activities, and minimizing conflicts among diverse resource users. However, in the case of Myanmar since the establishment of MPAs - with an inclusion of Shark Protected Areas and Crab Protected Areas - these protected areas face many challenges in achieving their objectives. To address these challenges and ensure the benefits of MPAs on biodiversity and coastal communities, there is an urgent need for capacity building, sustainable financing of MPAs and involvement of local population in the management of MPAs. Equally important, there is a need to expand the protected area network to include areas of regional and global conservation importance and to integrate a holistic planning framework such as resilience (PoW 9) and reef to ridge (PoW 3) concepts. Considering the development trend in Rakhine and Tanintharyi Regions in which at least two SEZs are being established and more will be developed in coming years, further establishment of MPAs in these two regions should be taken into consideration. Myanmar has maritime border with Thailand, and both depend on coastal and marine resources in the 32

Andaman Sea for their livelihoods, promoting trans-boundary marine ecosystem management to support habitat connectivity and migratory fish species is recommended. Effective management of existing MPAs and the establishment of additional MPAs and/ or Locally Managed Marine Areas (LMMAs) in the three coastal regions, particularly around Za Det Kyi to be connected to Surin and Similan MPAs in Thailand, can make significant difference (presumably capacity adequacy is in place).

5.3.6 Cross-cutting Issues

Knowledge Management and Communications

In the context of MFF, knowledge management means: designing a system that will organize, analyze and distribute the outcomes of MFF processes and practices; synthesizing information gathered through MFF project cycle management; collating scientific knowledge and traditional wisdom; and developing technical guidelines and best practices. Proactive external communications, with the objective of further raising awareness about MFF and sharing its successes with key external audiences, including governmental and private sector bodies is becoming a strategic focus. This proactive approach to external communications will be critical to broadening the learning benefits from MFF and fully engaging new partners in the initiative. By making knowledge accessible and delivering it to the audiences and stakeholders, communications, knowledge platform and approaches for interactions are critical (e.g. colloquia, high-level roundtable discussions, and awareness creation through the Media). In Myanmar, academic institutions in form of center of excellence can be a key partnership to act as a bridge between science and policy. Given that communication strategy is interwoven with the ICM planning and implementation process, it is important for the Myanmar NCB to identify appropriate media partners and areas of relevance that can form integral parts of the national communication strategy. Focus should be on the development of knowledge products (thematic reviews, guidelines, best practices, toolkits) related to national priority PoWs.MFF can collaborate with the relevant media groups – print and electronic –and work out the broad outlines of communication strategy for policy makers, coastal managers, private sector and communities.

Climate Change

The observed climate variability and change in Myanmar over the last six decades includes a general increase in temperatures, changes in rainfall, a decrease in the duration of the southwest monsoon season and increase in frequency and magnitude of extreme weather event. The varying geographical characteristics of the country also define the natural hazards which the country is exposed to. To date, 33

there has been no assessment or research on impacts of climate change on fisheries, agriculture or social aspects. High grounds in Ayeyarwady Delta, which in the past 15-20 years have reached by high tide only once or twice a year, are currently flooded even by normal tides. In Rakhine State, small dyke constructed to prevent saline water intrusion into paddy fields can no longer help farmers due to rising sea level. Indicated in the MAPDRR, the growing population, urban development couple with potential threat of climate change highlights the need for a concerted effort towards disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation at all stages, especially at the community level, focusing not only on preparedness and response but also on prevention and mitigation measures.

Climate change and natural disaster affect men and women differently due to their roles and responsibilities in the household and community. The majority of women in rural and remote areas are facing poverty, illiteracy, difficulties in access to health care, education and social services and a weak of participation in decision-making processes at the community level. These factors make women become more severely affected and at higher risk from natural disaster and extreme weather events, including during post-disaster response efforts. Cyclone Nargis, for example, resulted in twice as many deaths among women as men (UNISDR, 2012 - http://www.unisdr.org/archive/28886). Although there are some institutional arrangements and technical capacities for dealing with disaster risks and climate change adaptation across various departments, institutions and communities in different aspects, most are largely isolated from mainstreaming into development planning process and are not yet gender responsive. Supporting and incorporating the Myanmar National Strategic Plan for the Advancement of Women (see below) into implementation of environment, climate change, energy and DRR program would contribute to ensuring mainstreaming gender into the process. Enhancing community capacities, by strengthening the response protocols and skills and integrating gender responsive disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation efforts in long term development efforts, is a great need.MFF can contribute to such efforts through information sharing and policy advocacy (PoWs 1, 11 and 10), and through community resilience projects (incorporating one or more elements of PoWs 2, 8, 9 and 14).

Community Resilience

Recognizing that many coastal communities are critically dependent on well-functioning ecosystems and their services, MFF has since 2012 developed a Resilience Framework to guide its support and interventions in the member countries. The ecosystem-based approach to building coastal resilience, including mangrove conservation and rehabilitation as key elements, is often considered a triple-win solution to sustainable development of ecosystem-dependent coastal communities. Conservation of and rehabilitation of mangroves (and also beach and dune forests) not only supports biodiversity conservation and enables improvements in economic livelihoods and human well-being, but also provide cost-effective risk reduction against natural hazard and climate change. The gross value of In the Context of MFF, “resilience” refers to: mangrove for coastal protection in Myanmar is “The dynamics between the socio-economic reported at US$707 per hectare(Emerton & Aung, and ecological systems that characterize 2013). Recognizing that coastal ecosystems are ecosystem-dependent coastal communities, vital for climate change adaptation (coastal which include exposure to a number of protection) and mitigation (carbon sequestration), anthropogenic stresses on both the natural and human systems (i.e. population pressure and hence functioning coastal ecosystems are more overexploitation of coastal resources), in resilient to climate change and natural hazard. It is addition to threats from extreme weather crucial for Myanmar to promote and implement events and climate change.” coastal community resilience. This can be difficult in poverty areas and without active participation of both men and women. In this case, community resilience concerns must be integrated into development policies, plans, and programs at the national, sub-national, and local scales, with considerations of gender equality. PoW 9 - Improving community resilience to natural disasters and climate change should be implemented in close relation with other PoWs: Designing ecologically and socio-economically sound coastal rehabilitation (PoW 2); Integrating economic valuation (PoW 4); Supporting environmentally sustainable livelihoods among coastal communities (PoW 8) and Financing Coastal Conservation (PoW 10).

Gender Equality

Gender equity and equality are recognized by MFF as prerequisites for any conservation and sustainable development initiative. The inequitable distribution of rights, resources, responsibilities and relationships (i.e. social capital or power), in addition to cultural norms and possibly government policy, constrains many people’s ability to take action when confronted with a change in livelihood circumstances. This is particularly the case for women and disadvantaged groups (elderly persons and children).In order to address disparities in gender differences in vulnerabilities and capabilities, there is a need to identify constraints to the meaningful participation of women and other marginalized groups in decision making processes while designing interventions relating to coastal livelihoods, development and climate change adaptation. An empowered role of women would not only contribute to better management of coastal resources but would lead to livelihoods improvement resulting in lowering poverty levels and improving the health and hygiene of the entire family and communities..

Myanmar ranks 96 out of 146 countries in the 2011 Gender Inequality Index (GII)(United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 2011). Women in Myanmar enjoy equal rights in inheritance laws and equal marital property rights in the case of divorce. However, their roles and responsibilities are undervalued, contributing to “All citizens shall be equal before the law, regardless of limited participation in decision making at all levels. Key issues of race, religion, status, or sex, enjoy equal opportunities, enjoy concern include: high maternal mortality ratio and insufficient the benefits derived from his access to reproductive and basic health services; low levels of labor in proportion to his contribution in manual or mental women’s participation in the labour market; increasing HIV; lack of labor and, have the right to inherit according to law” reliable and sex-disaggregated data across all sectors which Article 22 – the Constitution of hampers evidence-based policy and program interventions (Interim the Republic of the Union of Country Partnership Strategy, 2012-2014). Gender disparities are Myanmar (2008) more evident in rural areas and amongst certain ethnic groups. “The Union shall care for mothers and children” Recently, the Myanmar government has recognized the issues and Article 32A – the new introduced National Plan of Action for the Advancement of Women Constitution 2011‐2015 through Department of Social Welfare, Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement. As a signatory country to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) (1997), and its commitment to international policy initiatives, including the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (BPFA), the Millennium Development Goals, and the International Conference on Population 36

and Development (ICPD), Myanmar government aims to improve the situation of women and girls by enabling systems, structures and practices for the advancement of women, gender equality, and the realization of women's rights. Twelve key areas delineated in this National Plan of Action for the Advancement of Women involve (i) livelihoods; (ii) education and training; (iii) health; (iv) violence against women; (v) emergencies; (vi) economy; (vii) decision making; (viii) institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women; (ix) human rights; (x) media; (xi) environment; and (xii) the rights of the girl-child. In the context of environment, the government proposes to strengthen mechanisms for ensuring women’s role in the management and safeguarding of natural resources and the environment(Department of Social Welfare, 2010). Suggested in the ASEAN-UN-Myanmar Government Post-Nargis Assessment Report (PONJAR), released at the ASEAN Foreign Ministerial meeting in Singapore in 2008, it is imperative for Myanmar to enhance the participation of women in income- earning early recovery activities and reduce their burden of care for children, sick and elderly. This is a long-term process and can be a great challenge. There is a need to ensure that staffs in relevant focal ministries understand gender concepts and the ability to mainstream gender within their own mandate. To improve the effectiveness of the coastal management, MFF can contribute to this effort by targeting women and girls as a specific stakeholder group while promoting male involvement in program activity. Gender equality should be applied as important considerations in the design and implementation of coastal management projects - in MFF’s capacity development activities - and as key areas for policy influence through the MFF governance structure. Cooperation with UN agencies, NGOS, INGOs, and other civil society organizations working in the field of gender and women’s empowerment is integral. Particular attention should be paid to interventions under PoW4-6, 8 and 9.

Private Sector Partnerships

To ensure long-term efforts for coastal ecosystem protection, rehabilitation and management, innovative and sustainable funding mechanisms need to be identified that not only help initiate activities but also help maintain and promote further investment. One approach supported by MFF is to establish possible and to enhance partnerships with private sectors. The strategic aim of private sector partnerships is to promote environmentally sustainable business practices across various sectors, industries and companies operating in coastal areas. In addition to offering ICM training opportunities to private sector representatives, MFF can play a significant role in collaborating with sectors such as fisheries, aquaculture, mining, oil and gas, ports and shipping, agriculture, tourism, including the media. Increased understanding of the private sectors in sustainability concepts, responsible business

operation, green growth policies and blue economy should be encouraged. Private sector can be involved in ICM planning process via research, design, education and training and in implementing coastal plans. They play an important role in compliance with both management plan and regulations. Identifying ways of promoting environmentally friendly business opportunities and practices or measures to conserving coral reef, seagrass and mangrove ecosystems, iconic species and supporting local fishermen along certain coastline may be great interest. New sustainable business opportunities particularly potential change agents influencing an entire industry - through changes in sourcing standards - should be explored. In case of Myanmar, interrelationship between fisheries and tourism sectors (potentially in Myeik Archipelago) can be a focus – for example, encouraging island-based hotels to use only sustainable sourced seafood, and connecting them to local communities for direct engagement with food providers. Pollution control and waste management are two areas that deserve critical attention. In Rakhine Coast and the Gulf of Mottama, oil and gas companies can contribute to PES by compensating local fishing communities both in kind and in cash for their loss of earnings from fisheries in the extractive industrial areas. Shipping companies can support oil spill response organizations with enough manpower and resources recruited locally in case of emergency situations. Marine surveillance, spill combatting and clean-up programs should be integrated under the management of the companies. Pro-active Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) must be considered in the business development plan. This will promote investment both in measures for protection and conservation and eco-friendly use of coastal land and resources. Furthermore, commitment of private sector on sustainable operation and practices can secure financing coastal conservation (PoW 10) and support sustainable livelihood of coastal communities in proximity to the industries (PoW 8). MFF should collate best practices and success stories from prior engagement with the private sector within the country and regionally and make such information available to Myanmar government agencies, civil society organizations and communities.

Table 2 enumerates strategic actions under each prioritized management interventions and identifies linkages to MFF PoWs, priority level of main activities, timeframe, focal institutions/ implementing agencies and potential sites for intervention.

Table 2 Myanmar Strategy and Action Plan Matrix.

Management Priority Focal Institutions/ NCB Strategic Actions Timeframe Priority Sites Interventions Level Implementing Agencies Environmental Profiling Promote (natural science and social science) research and High Short-term DoF, Ministry of Education, FD, Rakhine, Ayeyarwady, monitoring programs e.g. fisheries survey, marine mammal ECD, Directorate of Water Yangon, Bago, Mon and survey, coral reef survey, etc. Resources and Improvement of Tanintharyi Coastal Regions Builds on PoW1 - Improve River Systems (DWRIRS), Develop baseline data of all associated flora and fauna of High Medium knowledge for Myanmar Engineering Society coastal ecosystems, including keystone species management and PoW4 - (MES), Myanmar Geosciences Integrating economic Coastal profiling – biophysical and socio-economic aspects High Long Society (MGS), Marine Science valuation Association Myanmar (MSAM), Redefine and map coastal ecosystems/ critical habitats Medium Medium Myanmar's Inland and Coastal Introduce and support ecological evaluation of forest landscape High Medium Fisheries (MYFish), universities/ and coastal seascape academic institutions, IUCN, FFI, OIKOS, WCS, UNEP, UN- Document and promote the use of traditional knowledge on Medium Long HABITAT, JICA, Whale and management of coastal and marine resources Dolphin Conservation Society Establish Centers of Excellence e.g. Coastal and Marine High Short (WDCS) Research Center (using Marine Science Department in universities as a nucleus) Support and further develop ICM courses at graduate levels and Medium Medium for interested stakeholders to meet international standards and course requirements Make published research material available in dual language - Medium Short Burmese and English Encourage regular communications, learning and information- High Long sharing mechanisms

Management Priority Focal Institutions/ NCB Strategic Actions Timeframe Priority Sites Interventions Level Implementing Agencies Develop decision-support tools including databases and GIS Medium Long maps, which integrate data on economic values with information on biophysical and socio-economic characteristics, trends and vulnerabilities in coastal areas Encourage partnerships and collaborations between Myanmar High Short government authorities (and academic institutes) and that of in the neighboring countries and international agencies with relevant expertise Capacity Development Build and enhance capacity (technical and knowledge, financial, High Medium MERN, BANCA, IUCN, FFI, Rakhine, Ayeyarwady and infrastructural and institutional) of management authorities and OIKOS, UNDP, WCS, WI, CARE, Tanintharyi Coastal Regions civil society in effective monitoring and assessment of coastal SEAFDEC, BOBLME, WorldFish, Builds on PoW7- Building Particular interest: and marine resources academic institutes from capacity for management MeinmahlaKyun, Ayeyarwady neighboring countries (e.g. Develop training modules for coastal practitioners and coastal High Short- Region Thailand, India), Phuket Marine managers, including field-based staff training, social science Medium Biological Center (PMBC), skills and multidisciplinary research Encourage staff in focal government agencies and relevant Medium Medium stakeholders in coastal management to take ICM and EAF course at academic institutes in country and regionally Develop training and skills for SCUBA diving, snorkeling and in- High Short water resource monitoring Promote the establishment of coastal management resource High Short point/ library/ clearing house/ online forum Establish site-based coastal center to allow trainees to Medium Medium familiarize subjects of coastal and marine ecosystems, ecosystem-based management, precautionary approach (sharing their local knowledge: destruction, restoration and protection)

Management Priority Focal Institutions/ NCB Strategic Actions Timeframe Priority Sites Interventions Level Implementing Agencies Invest in data management systems and engage local and Medium Medium national government agencies in self-monitoring exercises Encourage the establishment of grass-root level organizations High Medium- for conservation Long Civil Society Support the development of coastal and marine civil society High Short DoF, FD, ECD, Myanmar Fish Ngapali Sub-township, Engagement networks Federation, universities/ Rakhine State, Irrawaddy academic institutes, MERN, Dolphin Protected Area, upper Encourage multi-stakeholder coastal partnerships (between High Medium FREDA, IUCN, UNDP, FFI, Ayeyarwady River Builds on PoW6 - communities, government, private sector) Promoting civil society WCS, UNEP, OIKOS, FAO, engagement Raise awareness and build capacity to enabling coastal High Medium- private sector communities, group organization and activists to establish Long dialogue with local, regional and national authorities Initiate and introduce awards and incentives for the individuals Medium Long and community contributing towards coastal protection and conservation of coastal and marine biodiversity Promote learning from ‘best practices’ in ecosystem utilization High Short by way of study tours Support community-based research with support from academic Medium Medium- institutes Long Partner with the media sector reporting on the state of the coast Medium Short and regular monitoring and evaluation of activities in the coastal and marine environments Creates opportunity for civil society to participate and voice their High Short concern through an integration of EIA into environmental/ coastal management Increase knowledge of and make information accessible to the Medium Medium

Management Priority Focal Institutions/ NCB Strategic Actions Timeframe Priority Sites Interventions Level Implementing Agencies public about community-based conservation and Locally Managed Marine Areas (LMMAs) ICM Policies and Support increased prioritization of coastal management across High Medium Ministry of Planning and Finance, Gwa Township, Rakhine State; Program Development national development agendas, policies and budgets MONREC, DoF, Ministry of ShweThaung Yan Sub- Electric Power and Energy, township, Ayeyarwady Region Formulate and implement national coastal management High Medium Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Kawthoung, Tanintharyi Builds on PoW11 - policy and strategies with the participation of the and Irrigation, FAO, UNDP- Regions Supporting national coastal communities and all stakeholders programs, PoW12 - GEF6, Myanmar Investment Strengthening Integrated Mainstream biodiversity conservation and climate change High Medium Commission (MIC), Asian Coastal Planning, PoW3 - initiatives into sectoral and national development plans and Development Bank (ADB) and Adopting reef to ridge programs Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) approaches and parts of Apply preventive, precautionary and anticipatory approaches to Medium Medium other PoWs avoid degradation of the coastal and marine environment and reduce the risk of long-term or irreversible adverse effects Strengthen roles of existing state/ regional level authorities as High Medium the focal institution for sustainable development and management of coastal resources Increase trans-boundary partnership and collaboration High Short opportunities between neighboring countries to conserve critical habitats and protect endangered marine species Promote participatory decision making processes and develop High Long policy, legal and institutional mechanisms for inter-sectoral coordination to address coastal issues in a holistic view Build capacity and increase knowledge of coastal managers in High Short ICM through trainings, experience sharing and academic courses Support Public-Private Partnership principle in coastal High Short- ecosystem protection and investment 41

Management Priority Focal Institutions/ NCB Strategic Actions Timeframe Priority Sites Interventions Level Implementing Agencies Medium Promote ownership by collaborating with local communities and Medium Long private sector Promote public access to progressive ICM project outcomes Medium Long regionally to stimulate involvement in the ongoing and upcoming activities nationally and locally Introduce comprehensive coastal land-use planning High Long Develop ecosystem approach to fisheries management High Medium Incorporate climate change adaptation and disaster risk Medium Medium reduction into ICM planning and programs Advocate linkages between upstream and downstream High Medium ecosystems, resource uses and their effects on coastal ecosystems and livelihood Management of MPAs Support the formulation of new regulation and management High Short NWCD, DoF, Navy, Coastal ThamihlaKyuun, Ayeyarwady guidelines to allow effective management of existing MPAs Defense Army, OIKOS, IUCN, Region; Myeik Archipelago, BOBLME, , Wetland Alliance, Tanintharyi Region Builds on PoW 13 - Explore and identify (new) potential areas for site of special Medium Long FFI, WCS, universities/ Contributing to MPAs concern such as MPAs, biosphere reserve, natural heritage and academic institutes, MYFish Ramsar site Develop technical expertise on MPAs management, the High Medium protection of keystone species and biodiversity hotspots in the face of climate change Enhance capacity of management authorities and Park staff in High Medium rapid assessment of resources, patrolling, monitoring and enforcement control Improve MPA governance and effective evaluation Medium Long

Management Priority Focal Institutions/ NCB Strategic Actions Timeframe Priority Sites Interventions Level Implementing Agencies Conduct habitat mapping and resource use zoning High Long Engage local community and private sector in the protection and High Medium management of coastal and marine resources to avoid conflict and maximize benefits to resource users Seek opportunities for a network of MPAs and/ or transboundary High Medium MPAs, particularly in Myeik Archipelago - with the neighboring country Thailand Cross-cutting and context-specific issues Knowledge Management Strengthen existing channels for promoting awareness of the High Short Ministry of Education, Rakhine, Yangon, Bago, Mon, and Communications importance of coastal and marine resources and climate change universities/ academic institutes, Ayeyarwady and Tanintharyi to government agencies, civil society organizations, school Media, all focal government Coastal Regions teachers and children, journalists, religious leaders and ministries community elders Promote publications of knowledge and information products Medium Medium through several mechanisms such as printed materials of bulletin, newsletters, meetings and workshops, TV/Radio programs, special radio channel of coastal communities, MFF regional Newsletter and websites/blogs, social media and YouTube Establish proactive targeted media relations at a national and Medium Medium- regional level, highlighting success stories from MFF projects Long and profiling successful partnerships Communicate in a proactive manner with business networks High Long and associations at local, national and regional levels Climate Change Support and advocacy for the formalization of national High Medium Department of Meteorology and Bogalay Township, policies, strategies and action plans related to disaster risk Hydrology (DMH) of the Ministry Ayeyawadee Delta

Management Priority Focal Institutions/ NCB Strategic Actions Timeframe Priority Sites Interventions Level Implementing Agencies reduction and climate change adaptation of Transport and Communication, Myanmar Engineering Society Increase awareness and public and political understanding of High Short (MES), Myanmar Geosciences potential impacts of climate change and measures to reduce the Society (MGS), MONREC, uncertainties of climate change as well as ways to adapt to Ministry of Electric Power and future changes Energy, Ministry of Agriculture, Integrate disaster risk considerations into sustainable High Long Livestock and Irrigation(MALI), development policies, planning and programming at all levels, Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief with a special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation, and Resettlement, Department of preparedness and vulnerability reduction Rural Development of the MALI, Ministry of Transport and Systematically incorporate risk reduction approaches into the Medium Long Communication (Department of design and implementation of emergency preparedness, Meteorology and Hydrology), response and recovery programs in the reconstruction of UNDP, UNEP, FAO, IUCN, UN- affected communities Habitat Support a comprehensive survey and mapping of land-use High Long patterns and shelterbelts in coastal regions vulnerable to weather events Support field testing coastal climate change adaptation tools Medium Long and methodologies Enhance knowledge, information and systems to enable key High Short stakeholders and decision-makers to have access to information to assess, forecast and monitor disaster and climate induced risks Improve and promote the conservation and protection of Medium Medium mangrove forests and seagrass for carbon credit opportunities through Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) implementation Identify environmentally-friendly technological action to promote Medium Medium 44

Management Priority Focal Institutions/ NCB Strategic Actions Timeframe Priority Sites Interventions Level Implementing Agencies low-carbon development and reduce carbon emissions into the atmosphere (e.g. improving energy efficiency, use of renewable energy) Community Resilience Increase public and political understanding of potential impacts High Short- Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief Myeik Archipelago, Tanintharyi of climate change and measures to reduce the uncertainties of Medium and Resettlement (MSWRR), Region; Kyeintali Township, climate change as well as ways to adapt to future changes Ministry of Health and Sport, Rakhine State and Man Aung DoF, FD, BOBLME, ADB, Island, Rakhine State Strengthen capacities of government institutions and relevant Medium Long IUCN/WRI stakeholders in resilience analysis by integrating natural science and social science components of coastal and marine ecosystems Integrate community resilience concerns into development Medium Long policies, plans, and programs at the national, sub-national, and local scales Increase knowledge and awareness on the significance of High Short coastal ecosystems for local livelihoods, benefits as bio-shield or green belt to natural disaster, and the need for environmental safeguard Identify suitable techniques and sites for effective mangrove Medium Medium restoration and rehabilitation through review of development and restoration work completed or underway and training courses on coastal restoration and rehabilitation Support sustainable production of fuel-wood from mangrove Medium Short forests and develop sustainable consumption program of fuelwood for local and commercial users Promote further application of vulnerability assessment and Medium Long mapping in coastal areas e.g. integrate livelihood and ecosystem information into exiting databases and associated

Management Priority Focal Institutions/ NCB Strategic Actions Timeframe Priority Sites Interventions Level Implementing Agencies disaster preparedness and response strategies Promote public access to and use of early warning systems for High Short- coastal hazard and disasters through the means of hotline Medium radio, television, newsletters, web technologies and reports Build capacity of coastal communities and make a concerted High Medium effort towards DRR (ecosystem-based DDR such as ecosystem restoration and community-based DDR such as early warning system, locally invented innovation) and climate change adaptation, focusing not only on preparedness and response but also on prevention and mitigation measures Support activities and build capacities that provide livelihood High Short- alternatives to destructive practices e.g. environmentally friendly Medium aquaculture, mariculture, seaweed culture, pearl culture, integrated coastal farming system, utilizing mangrove forests for honey bee production, reef-based diving and handicrafts Promote Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) scheme e.g. Medium Medium contribution from tourists to conservation Gender Equality Conduct education and awareness programs on gender Medium Short Ministry of Planning and Finance, Rakhine, Ayeyarwady and dimensions in coastal resources management Myanmar Women’s Affairs Tanintharyi Coastal Regions – Federation (MWAF), Women particularly disaster prone Mainstream gender in all aspects of coastal management, High Medium Protection Group, UN Gender areas fisheries management, economic development, conservation Theme Group (GTG), UNDP and use of resources Gwa Township, Rakhine State (rural and poor coastal Reduce gender imbalances by enhancing more access to rights, High Long communities, vulnerable to responsibilities and opportunities to both men and women and natural hazard,) recognizing their different roles and needs to maintain their livelihood options and safety nets Support men and women including the most vulnerable groups High Medium 46

Management Priority Focal Institutions/ NCB Strategic Actions Timeframe Priority Sites Interventions Level Implementing Agencies in the community to access and develop the rights, resources, responsibilities and relationships they need to adapt to their changing environment and ensure a sustainable livelihood Recognize the potential multiple roles of gender (needs and Medium Long aspiration of women) in the process of planning, decision making, implementation, monitoring and evaluation in the management and protection of marine species and habitats Private Sector Raise environmental awareness among entrepreneurs in High Short Ministry of Hotel and Tourism, Lampi Island - Myeik Partnerships sustainable development, responsible business practices and Myanmar Investment Archipelago, Tanintharyi encourage CSR programs Commission, Myanmar Fish Region (tourism development Federation, on turtle nesting beach, Promote private sector engagement in conservation and High Short- fisheries-dependent protection of coastal ecosystems and establishment of Medium communities, Moken); Myeik- environmentally sustainable business practices e.g. Green Fins Dawai coastal area (industrial approach in tourism to address threats posed by recreational zone development) scuba diving-related activities; sustainable sourced seafood to address illegal fishing and destructive fishing issues Encourage opportunities for PES such as between upstream Medium Long and downstream resource users or based on public-private partnerships Establish a funding mechanism to support entrepreneurs to Medium Medium comply with environmental standards, in collaboration with the respective business chambers Seek media support as watchdog in business operations Medium Short Work closely with fisheries sector and support ecosystems High Medium- approach to fisheries management, sustainable aquaculture/ Long mariculture

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Annex 1 Composition of National Coordinating Body for Myanmar MFF

No. Position and Organization Responsibility Ministries, Government Departments and Government Agencies 1. Director General Chairman Forest Department Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation 2. Deputy Director General (Policy and Planning) Vice-Chairman Forest Department Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation 3. Director, Watershed Management Division Secretary Forest Department Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation 4. Director, Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division Member Forest Department Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation 5. Director, Forest Department, Ayeyarwady Region Member Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation 6. Director, Forest Department, Rakhine State Member Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation 7. Director, Forest Department, Tanintharyi Region Member Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation 8. National Planning Department (Representative) Member Ministry of Planning and Finance 9. Environmental Conservation Department (Representative) Member Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation 10. Department of Agriculture (Representative) Member Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation 11. Department of Agriculture Land Management and Statistic ( Representative) Member Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation 12. Department of Fisheries (Representative) Member Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation 13. Directorate of Hotels and Tourism Department (Representative) Member Ministry of Hotels and Tourism 14. Meteorology and Hydrology Department (Representative) Member Ministry of Transport and Communication 15. Department of Mine (Representative) Member Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation 16. Relief and resettlement Department (Representative) Member Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement 17. Internal Revenue Department (Representative) Member Ministry of Planning and Finance 18. Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise (Representative) Member Ministry of Electric Power and Energy 19. Department of Trade (Representative) Member Ministry of Commerce 20. General Administration Department (Representative) Member Ministry of Home Affairs 21. Cooperative Department (Representative) Member Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation

22. Department of Rural Development (Representative) Member Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation Non-Government Organizations; Civil Society 1. Myanmar Environmental Rehabilitation-Conservation Network (MERN) Member (Representative) 2. The Center for People and Forest (RECOFTC-Myanmar) (Representative) Member 3. Myanmar Forest Association (MFA) (Representative) Member Academia 1. Pathein University (Representative) Member 2. Myeik University (Representative) Member 3. Sittwe University (Representative) Member International Organizations 1. United Nations Development Program (UNDP-Myanmar) Member (Representative) 2. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO-Myanmar) (Representative) Member 3. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (Representative) Member Independent Expert 1. Professor, Department of Marine Science Member Mawlamyine University 2. Environmental Expert Member 3. Mangrove Expert Member 4. Freelance Agricultural Consultant Member Private Sector 1. Myanmar Timber Merchant Association Member 2. Myanmar Fishery Federation Member