command of the Jacobite forces, ordered the abandonment of the city, b6.t MacElligott refused. There were deep journals on the sieges, one on divisions among the Jacobites on policy, the 1690 siege, a second on Marlborough had obtained permission to tactics and strategy, which were fuelled the intervening year, and a bring a separate force to for the further by bitter personality clashes. A third on the 1691 siege, the specific objective of taking Cork and major cause of resentment was the failure Treaty of and its Kinsale with their strategically located to give the overall command to Sarsfield, aftermath. For financial harbours for Irish contacts with France. the 'darling of the army' since his reasons only the first of these He landed at Passage West with over escapade at Ballyneety. There was dissen- could be published. It is 5,000 troops on September 23rd and sion on the side also, with proposed to publish articles began the siege of Cork on the following Wiirtemberg, the Danish commander, received for the other two in day. He was reinforced by 1,200 Danish claiming seniority over Marlborough. and Dutch cavalry and over 3,600 infantry, Eventually the somewhat risky com- mostly Danes and Dutch with some promise of allowing each to command on French . These had been alternative days was agreed, though n the immediate aftermath dispatched by Ginkel, who had succeeded tension between them, and among their of the unsuccessful siege of to the Williamite command in Ireland after respective forces, continued. Limerick in August 1690, the departure of Solms, the man whom The siege of Cork lasted less than a the received an William had appointed when he hastily left week and there is general agreement that important morale boost Limerick on August 30th. the city's vulnerability as a low lying through the capture of the two major Cork was thus attacked from both settlement commanded by high ground on southern port towns of Cork and Kinsale. sides of the River Lee; Marlborough and both sides of the river made a prolonged It is to be doubted that William himself his English troops on the south and the resistance impossible. MacElligott tried to derived much satisfaction from these Danes and Dutch on the north. The obtain favourable surrender terms, initially victories, as they provided an unwelcome Jacobite garrison in Cork consisted of asking for retreat with the full honours of contrast with his own humiliating failure about 4,000 men commanded by Colonel war. He should have been able to exploit at Limerick and were achieved by the Earl Roger MacElligott, a Kerry-born officer the divisions among the Williamites, as of Marlborough, a man for whom he had who had served with James I1 in England Wiirtemberg was inclined to offer more no great affection and with whom his in 1688, been imprisoned by William, had favourable terms than Marlborough, but military skills were unflatteringly escaped to France and returned to Ireland in the end his vacillation resulted in the compared. with James in 1689. garrison being forced to surrender Before the debacle at Limerick, The Duke of Berwick, who had unconditionally. Both the captured

A Prospect of Charles Fort, Kinsale, 1685, by Thomas Phillips. National Library of Ireland. The North Gate at Kilmallock, 1822. Limerick Museum. combatants and the civilians were harshly In October 1690, both armies withdrew Shannon from any other incursions. treated and the city was extensively behind frontier lines, though some For both armies the winter of 1690-91 plundered. military activity did take place during the was one of considerable suffering. The Williamites followed up this winter. The Jacobites occupied Limerick Food was scarce, clothing inadequate impressive victory with an immediate and Kerry and the whole area west of the and living quarters squalid in the assault on Kinsale. This town was not Shannon in Connacht and Clare. The extreme. Tyrconnell, who had gone to walled and depended for its defence on Williamites held most of the rest of France with Lauzun in September, two forts, one on either side of the har- Munster, Leinster and in a line returned to Limerick in January 1691. bour. The elderly commander, Sir Edward from the Cork coast through Cashel and He not only took control of the civil Scott, decided to abandon the town and Mullingar up to Enniskillen and west from government but also of the army, as both garrison and inhabitants fled to the there along the Erne to Ballyshannon. A Berwick had left Ireland. Not even the forts. The older James fort was quickly no-man's land frontier lay between them grant of the title Earl of Lucan lessened captured, largely through the skill and from the Shannon to the Williamite line. the anger of Sarsfield at being denied bravery of the Danes, which Marlborough This area was constantly plundered and command of the army yet again. petulantly refused to acknowledge. The raided by both armies and the inhabitants The resentments, bitterness and newer Charles fort held out for two weeks suffered severely. The Danes, the jealousies among the Jacobites were and in direct contrast to the situation in and Sarsfield, who authorised intensified by the various peace initiatives Cork, Wiirtemberg wanted the garrison to much of the looting on the Jacobite side, attempted during the winter period. surrender as prisoners of war, but Marl- were the subjects of particular criticism. Ginkel was anxious to end the war quickly borough allowed them to march out with Towards the end of 1690, William and felt that generous terms should be their arms and retreat to Limerick. This is ordered attacks on the Irish positions in offered to Catholic landowners. He used a usually explained by his relief at obtaining counties Kerry and . This was aimed Catholic barrister, John Grady, as an the surrender and his desire to return to at putting pressure on the leaders to intermediary and was informed that if England to be feted for his achievement. negotiate a settlement. Ginkel argued, Catholics were assured of keeping their The Jacobites had suffered two major with greater insight, that an offer of estates and were promised the religious reverses, partly at least through their own further concessions would be a better ploy liberties enjoyed during the reign of ineptitude, and predictable recriminations to achieve this end. The attack on Kerry Charles I1 then they would surrender. ensued. Berwick bore the brunt of the was undertaken in January 1691 by the Wiirtemberg even declared that the war in criticisms, particularly for not coming to Danes under Major General Tettau. The Ireland could be ended by the stroke the aid of Kinsale. However, his original Irish retreated to Ross castle near of a pen. This view was unrealistically advice to burn Cork should probably have Killarney. Tettau, with no heavy guns, was optimistic. William was not prepared to been heeded and it was certainly forced to withdraw without achieving make such concessions, as he wanted disastrous to have weakened Kinsale by anything. Ginkel and Wiirtemberg took a Irish land for himself and to satisfy the the sending of two regiments to Cork, force of 4,000 Danes, Dutch and French to ambitions both of the English House of which clearly, due to its location, could not attack Kilmallock, which had been re- Commons and of Irish Protestants. With have withstood a long siege. Even then occupied by the Jacobites. The garrison the failure of the winter military activities Charles fort could have held out much promptly abandoned the town, burning it and their concomitant aim of pressurising longer, but Scott decided on surrender as they left. The plan to attack Sligo was the Irish, William adopted a somewhat when the besieging army was not attacked also unsuccessful, due largely to the more flexible approach. In the early by Berwick. To add to Jacobite problems, incompetence of the Williamite generals, spring, Ginkel was authorised to issue a Kilmallock had also been inadequately Douglas and Lanier. After that, Sarsfield declaration that Irish Catholics had defended and unnecessarily lost. very skilfully defended the line of the nothing to fear either in terms of religion of pontoons, which he felt would be needed for crossing the Shannon. It was not until June 18th that he linked up with the Danes who had assembled at Cashel. The combined force numbered about 18,000. Athlone was really two walled towns, termed, as in Limerick, English and Irish town. The former lay on the eastern bank of the Shannon in Leinster, while the laQer was in Connacht on the western side, The Leinster town only put up tokeh resistance, mainly to give St. Ruth time to bring up the main body of the Irish army. The camp was pitched two miles west of the Irish town, on which the defence was concentrated. The Williamite attack on the walls and castle of the Connacht town began on June 21st, and for the next ten days the heaviest bombardment of any stronghold in Irish history took place. It was estimated that 600 bombs, 12,000 cannon balls and tons of mortar stones were fired. Despite this massive attack, which reduced most of the defences to The Siege of Athlone, 1691, from George Story's Continuation of the rubble, the Williamites could not take the Impartial History of the Wars of Ireland. 1693. town without crossing the river. The long Limerick Museum. awaited pontoon bridge could not be erected due to fire from the Jacobites and or property and would obtain reasonable ammunition, food and uniforms, there the existing bridge became the main terms if they capitulated. were no extra soldiers and no money. target. The bridge of Athlone was a These attempts to get a negotiated end Nevertheless, he was universally narrow stone structure dating from the to the war sharply divided the Jacobites welcomed and even Sarsfield appeared sixteenth century. The arches at the Irish into peace and war parties. Sarsfield was happy to serve under him. However, town end had been deliberately broken the leader of the militant group and used Tyrconnell regarded himself as the overall down and the main Williamite objective his considerable reputation to swing the commander and tried to exercise that was to repair these. This was achieved majority behind him. Those who had authority. Most of the army refused to with wooden beams and planks on the regained land after the restoration obey him and insisted that they would night of June 27th, but in an act of favoured a settlement, but the limited and take orders only from St. Ruth. The spectacular bravery 30 men of a Scottish vague terms offered by William were not responsibility for this ludicrous state of Jacobite regiment were killed as they sufficient to persuade more than a affairs must rest with James 11, who did successfully demolished this work. The minority that there was any alternative to not issue clear instructions, relying sergeant who led the men was named another summer of war. instead on the unsatisfactory formula that Custume and his name and deed became During the winter, the Jacobites had Tyrconnell had overall authority but that renowned in later song and story. Ginkel made efforts to improve the defences of he should defer in all military matters to had begun to despair of capturing the their principal strongholds. At Limerick St. Ruth. This uncertainty in regard to town when some deserters informed him the breach in the Irishtown wall, near the command increased the dissension among of a ford a few yards south of the bridge. south-east corner, was repaired and a the Irish and lowered morale. The army Towards evening on June 30th, 2,000 large earthen rampart constructed behind continued to be poorly fed, badly Williamites waded across the river at that it on the eastern and southern sides. organised and inadequately equipped and point and stormed the breach below the French engineers reached the city in it took until mid-June before it was castle. The unexpected nature of the February and constructed bastions, forts, assembled and ready to face the attack and the unlucky accident that only covered ways and other defensive Williamite challenge. Were it not for raw recruits were manning the defences at structures. Considerable attention was Ginkel's delay in attacking Athlone the the time led to a swift capture of the town. also paid to the other vital crossing point town would almost certainly have been The acquisition of Athlone was a major of the Shannon at Athlone. captured easily in early June. boost for the Williamites. It gave them the The final phase of the war began in The Williamite forces regrouped for facility to take the war into the Irish June 1691. William did not return to the campaign at the end of May. Mullingar stronghold of Connacht and provided a Ireland and, despite some doubts about and Cashel were the main meeting points distinct psychological advantage at the his ability, Ginkel was continued as for the divided army. The first objective very start of the renewed campaign. commander. He was well supplied with was to cross the Shannon and, &er some Conversely, it produced demoralisation men, arms and ammunition. The overall discussion, it was decided to besiege and further divisions among the Jacobites. size of the Williamite army in 1691 was Athlone in pursuit of that aim. This would They had held a very secure stronghold in about 20,000, considerable smaller than have the additional bonus, if successful, of Athlone and its loss could only be the 35,000 that William had commanded at capturing one of the principal Irish explained by the ineptitude of the leaders, the Boyne the previous year. The Jacobite strongholds. The first engagement was at which was in stark contrast to the bravery army consisted of 3,000 cavalry, 2,000 Ballymore, Co. Westmeath, where an and dedication of most of the defenders. A dragoons and about 16.000 foot soldiers. advance post for the defence of Athlone major cleavage now developed on the No clear decision had been made about had been erected. After a two day question of strategy. St. Ruth was who should command this force. A French bombardment the commander, Ulick determined to engage the enemy in a general, the Marquis de St. Ruth, had Bourke, surrendered. It was then that major field battle. It was widely believed been sent to Ireland in May. His arrival Ginkel made a serious error. Instead of that this was a gamble to avenge his had been eagerly anticipated, not least for immediately heading for the poorly humiliation at Athlone, though he argued, the long-promised aid he was expected to defended Athlone, he remained at with some justification, that a quick bring. In the event, while he had arms, Ballymore for ten days awaiting the arrival engagement was essential to halt the rapidly deteriorating morale. Sarsfield and Hanora. A further cause of anger and siege and his desire to bring the war to a Tyrconnell were uncharacteristically in demoralisation was the widespread belief speedy conclusion. The Articles of agreement that this would be a mistake that the defeat had been caused by were signed on July 21st and represented, and some of the French officers treachery. The cavalry retreat from the despite their generosity, another victory concurred. Their alternative strategy was northern pass, which allowed the for Ginkel. Apart from Sligo, the main to concentrate the infantry in Galway and Williamite attack, had been ordered by fortress in the north western area, which Limerick, abandon the rest of Connacht Brigadier Luttrell, an officer who had was to remain in Irish hands until and instead send the cavalry across the originally been part of Sarsfield's war September 14th, only Clare and Limerick, Shannon to attack the Williamite rear. St. party, but who now apparently wished for with a less important area in Kerry, were Ruth, however, ignored this strongly an end to the fighting. The subsequent now left to the increasingly beleagnered argued case and insisted that his view discovery that he was secretly in Irish and their thoroughly disillusioped prevail. The site chosen for the battle was communication with Ginkel and his French officers. - r on the eastern slopes of a hill near the ultimate receipt of a Williamite pension The main had assem- small village of Aughrim in Co. Galway. It appeared to give confirmation of his bled in Limerick by the beginning of was a good position, with the Jacobite betrayal. The disastrous defeat at August 1691. It was claimed to be 23,500 infantry ranged along the hill and Aughrim, the greatest tragedy in an strong, but only half had arms and morale protected in front by a river and boggy Ireland addicted to remembrance of was very low. The main strategy was to area with just two passes at either end, misfortune, was now to be long rememb- hold out until October, when the onset of which were defended by the cavalry. St. ered in song and in story. It even gave rise winter would force Ginkel to abandon the Ruth took up his position on July 8th and to a fatalistic proverb, 'it isn't the loss of siege, as had happened to William in the the Williamites moved towards him from Aughrim'. previous year. To achieve even this limited Athlone on the 11th. Ginkel reached The battle was the decisive turning objective, further help from France was Aughrim on the following day and after point of the war. There was no longer any vitally needed. Urgent requests had been some brief skirmishes he decided to give doubt about the ultimate outcome and the sent after Aughrim, but in spite of battle immediately. The fighting began question from then on was how long the apparently genuine promises, nothing had around 5.00 in the evening and both Jacobites could hold out and what final arrived, adding to the general demoralis- armies had roughly the same strength, terms could be expected from William. ation. Surprisingly Tyrconnell, who had 20,000 men, and each adopted the same Ginkel had issued a proclamation on July been the leader of the peace party for the formation with infantry in the centre and 9th offering a pardon and restoration of previous year, had now become a firm cavalry on the wings. It was Sunday estates to those who were prepared to advocate of continued resistance. His afternoon and there are various contemp- surrender, though officers would have to death on August 14th created further orary accounts of the role that the priests hand over the areas under their command. complications. He died following a stroke, played in urging the Irish to fight. The The civilian populations of Galway and but such was the suspicion and intrigue Bishop of Cork later wrote that 80 priests Limerick were also to be given these among the divided Jacobites that credence died in the battle while spurring on terms and, against Ginkel's advice, a was given to a rumour that he had been the troops with their crucifixes. The vague clause relating to liberty of religious poisoned. Yet again Sarsfield was denied Williamites attacked the Jacobite right practice was added. This had produced the authority he had long sought and in initially and then switched to an assault on no response, but in the aftermath of the popular view deserved. James I1 the left, but on both occasions they were Aughrim it was given a new significance, placed the civilian government in the driven back. There was very intense particularly for the inhabitants of Galway, hands of two English officials and the Irish fighting, with the Irish defence showing a which was now besieged by Ginkel. After lawyer, Sir Richard Nagle. The military fierce and unexpected determination. it a token resistance, which had only been command went to d'Usson, the senior appeared that victory would be theirs until undertaken at the urging of the French French general. These appointments were misfortune struck with the killing of St. general, d'Usson, the town requested a to be largely paper ones. Sarsfield was Ruth. This calamity was quickly followed negotiated surrender. Galway townsmen seen as the true leader and key figure, not by a retreat of the cavalry guarding the had suffered little in the only by the majority of the Jacobites, but northern pass and the advance of the plantations, even gaining from the by the Williamites as well. When the Williamites through it and along the hill to Cromwellian attempt at transplantation discussions for the treaty commenced, attack the Irish infantry in the rear. This and buying further land after the Sarsfield was universally regarded as the caused panic and an attempted retreat. In restoration. They had, therefore, a vested principal negotiator. their disarray, the Irish were ruthlessly interest in obtaining terms and, unlike Ginkel was reluctant to besiege cut down by the Williamite cavalry. To add other Irish Catholics, would gain from the Limerick. He was acutely conscious of the to the confusion, there was now no maintenance of, rather than the repeal of, difficulties involved and of William's commander. De Tesse, who took charge the acts of settlement and explanation. failure to take the city in August 1690. His on St. Ruth's death, had himself been They had been among the most receptive main hope was a negotiated surrender, wounded shortly afterwards and the role of the Jacobites to Ginkel's peace failing that he favoured a blockade. Only played by Sarsfield is unclear. His earlier initiatives during the winter and were when these options became impossible cordial relationship with St. Ruth had further encouraged by his July did he embark on the siege. He waited a deteriorated and it is virtually certain that declaration. Nevertheless, the Articles of full month after the surrender of Galway, he had received no authority to succeed to Galway were only agreed after intensive hoping that the internal feuding and the command. He was reported to have negotiation and gave concessions far in growing loss of morale would lead to a made some ineffectual attempts to try to excess of what Ginkel had offered before request for terms. He brought the army protect the retreating infantry from the Aughrim. The garrison obtained the across the Shannon at and inevitable slaughter. Only the advent of options of remaining in Galway, returning marched slowly via Birr and Nenagh to nightfall saved the Irish from an even to their homes or marching with full Limerick. The weather had worsened and greater massacre. More than 7,000 of the honours of war to Limerick, the last there was a sharp clash between Wiirtem- Jacobites died and up to 2,000 Williamites remaining Jacobite stronghold. Both berg, who wanted an immediate siege, and were killed or wounded in the most soldiers and civilians were guaranteed the other generals, who supported horrific battle of Irish history. The their property. Freedom for the private Ginkel's strategy of blockading the city. Jacobite army lost all its guns and practice of their religion was granted to Ginkel finally arrived before the walls of baggage, along with all cavalry standards the laity, while the persons and property Limerick on August 25th. He had received and 32 regimental colours. Many of the of the clergy were given protection. direct instructions from William to Catholic gentry were killed or taken Catholics could practice law and carry vigorously attack the city. The second prisoner, including two sons of the Earl of arms and a sword. These concessions Williamite siege- of Limerick was Clanricarde, brothers of Sarsfield's wife, indicate Ginkel's anxiety to avoid another about to begin. r.