What People Produced the Objects Called Mycenean? Author(s): William Ridgeway Source: The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 16 (1896), pp. 77-119 Published by: The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/623941 . Accessed: 21/01/2011 10:11

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http://www.jstor.org WHAT PEOPLEPRODUCED THE OBJE(STSCALLED MYCENEAN?

AT Mycenaein 1876 Dr. Schliemannlifted the cornerof the veil which had so long enshroudedthe elder age of Hellas. Yearby yearever since that veil has beenfurther withdrawn, and now we are privilegedto gazeon morethan the shadowyoutline of the pictureof a farback abe. The picture is still incomplete,but it is nowpossible to tracethe salientpoirlts. Can we in comparingit with picturesof certainpeoples who have.dwelt in and reignedat Mycenae,pictures preserved for us elsewhere,identify it as that of any previouslyknown ? The objectof this little essayis to make such an attempt.

The nameMycenean is now appliedto a whole classof monuments- buildings,sepulchres, ornaments, weapons, pottery, engraved stones which resemblemore or less closelythose foundat Mycenae. I thinkI am right when I say that archaeologistsare unanimousin consideringthem the outcomeof olle and the same civilization,and the productof one and the samerace. These tnonumentsare rjot confinedto the Peloponnesus,nor to t-he mainlandof fIellas. They are foundin many widely distantspots. For instance,certain engraved stones, some bean-likein shape,some glandular, llavebeen so frequentlyfound in the Greekislands as to be knownas ' Island gems.' Suchstones have been found in Cretein considerableIlumbers; and Mr.A. J. Evans'recent brilliant discoveries in Crete,and his masterlypaper on 'PrimitivePictographs,' have rivetedmore closelarthan ever the atten- tion of scholarsnot onlyto suchgems, but to the whole area of Mycenean antiquities. Let us nowenumerate the differentregions in whichMycenean remainshave been found.

I. PELOPONNESUS.-(a)Aryolts, (1) Mycenae. The Cyclopeanwalls and gateway;the shaftgraves of the Acropoliswith their rich contentsof gold ornamentsand goldcups, pottery, etc.; the beehivetombs, eight in number, of the lowercity, and the sixty-onequadrangular rock-hewn graves, with their contents. (Schliemann,Mycenae ttnd Sq,ryns,1878; Tsountas,Mykena,m,, 1892.) The potteryis of two kinds. All of fine yellowishbrown clay: but one classis distinguishedby a lustrotlsdark brown varnish, decorated with marine WEAT PEOPLE PRODUCED plants or anilllals,the other by their dull brownand red colouredpainting, and by their decorationand shape. The decorationconsists of narrowbrown lines alternatingwith wide red ones. lIorizon'callines and bands of spiralsare its regularfeatures.l As the pottery is one of the chief features by which the Myceneancivilization is detected, it is importantto note its peculiarities. At Mycenae there have also been fotlnd the remains of a prae-historicpalace similarto that found at Tiryns and on the Acropolisat Athens. (2) Ttryns. Schliemannbrollght to light here the now famous palace, with its fragmentsof wall-paintings(one of them a man with a bull 2), frag- ments of pottery, and the fragments of an alabaster frieze iillaid with blue glass. (3) Naqxplz. This was the port of Tiryns,and must have been in close relationalways to it. Here there is a beehive tomb, the excavationof which has broughtto light the usual formsof Myceneanobjects.3 (4) 7Che]:Eeqlaeqtqn. Professor Waldstein's excavations have brought to light Myceneanpottery and a numberof Myceneangems. To the south-east of the Heraeum a beehive tomb has been excavated,exhibiting Mycenean remainsand also showingby its contents that it was still used for interments in classlca]times.4 (5) Mmdea.Mycenean pottery has been found here. (b) laconia. A beehive tomb openedat Vaphiopro(luced the usualkinds of Mycenean objects,including the gold cups now so famous,the very zenith of Myceneanart. It containedsome £orty-oneengraved gems. (c) Arcadia,though as yet little searched for Mycenean remains,has yielded at least one gem from Phigalia.5

II. ATTICA. The remains of the Cyclopeanwalls and the prae-historic palace and Mycenean pottery have been found on the Acropolis.6 Beehive tombs of great importancehave been discoveredat Menidi,Spata and Thori- cus, containing the usual objects of Mycenean age. That at Menidi is of special interest, as the fragmentsof pottery founclin the drornosor approach to it show an unbroken series of Mycenean,Dipylon, Attic black and red- figured vases. This, as has been pointed out, indicates an unbroken con- tinuity of worshipat the tomb.

III. BOEOTIA.-(1) Orchom,ent6s.7The great beehive tomb,knownasthe treasuryof Minyas. Schliemannbrought to light Myceneanremains such as the roof slabs decoratedwith elaboratespirals.8 (2) Cyclopeanremains are found at Goulasin the lake Copais.9

1 Schuchhardt's Schliemann's Excaxostions, 5 Milchhofer, Xnfanye der Kt6nst, p. 54. p. 186-7. (Engl. Trans.) 6 23chuchhardt,p. 298. 2 Schliemann, Tzryns, 1886. 7 lb. 3 Schuchhardt, p. 162-163. 8 Journat of HeZlenicStt4dies, vol. ii. 132 4 Ib, pX151 9 Schuchhardt, pp. 151, 162. THE OBJECTS CAT.T.E.DMYCENEAN ? IV. PHOCIS.I:)elphi. The Frenchhave excavateda tombof Mycenean age nearDelphi. 79 V. THESSALYAt Dimninear Volo the openingof a beehivetomb has revealeda numberof Myceneanobjects of the usualtype, includin^, a gem of lapis laz¢li. The discoveryof a gem of this materialin this regionis llot withoutsome significance. AJI.ASIA MINOR. (l) Sroad. At Hissarlikremains of the Mycenean kindhaUve been found in abundance.The ' SecondCity ' exhibitsthe older kind, but the ' Sixth City' haUsyielded those of the finest period of Myceneanart.l° (2) ltitane in Aeolis. VII. CYPRUS.Mycenean pottery has beenfound in considerablequan- tities in Cyprus.

CT6rivrn has yieldedimportant Mycenean remains to Mr.Walters. VIII. RHODES.-Myceneanremains, including pottery and engraved gems,have been found in the tombsof Ialysusand Cameirus. IX. THERA. Myceneanpottery of the earlierperiod. The potteryis foundwith a stratumof pumiceoustufa super-imposed. X. MELOS,THERASIA, NAXOS, IOS, AMORGOSalld PAROShave also yieldedMycenean objects.

XI. EGYPT. (1) Kahu,n. (2) lwel-el-Amarna. ProfessorFlinders Petrie found Mycenean pottery at boththese places.ll

XII. CRETE. Thereis a prae-historicbuilding at Cnossus,either a palacelike thoseof XIycenae,Tiryns and Athens, or the Labyrinth,or the old CretanCommon Hall; at Goulasthe remainsof a Myceneancity; and Myceneangems llave been foundeverywhere, especially in the south-eastern part of the island. These gems sometimesbear charactersidentified with certaincharacters found on the necksof vasesfrom Mycenae and Attica and closelyresembling those on the Hittite gems fromAsia Minor.12

XIII. ITALY.-(1) Bologna. Bronzeobjects belonging to the late Bronze andearly Iron Age identifiedby Evansas Myceneanin design. (2) Etesqtria. Similarobjects have been found at Corneto.

0 Schuchhardt, op. ctt. p. 190. 19 A. J. Evans, 'Primitive Pictographs,' 11 ' Egyptian Bases of Greek History, ' J.ff. S. J.ff.S. vol. 2riv. vol. xi. WHAT PEOPLE (3) PRODUCED 80 Lati?Xon.The ancient nasonry. townof Signiaexhibits remainsof polygonal (4) MagnaGraecta. There the region are manyremains of afterwardsoccupied by prae-historictowns in hasbeen found, and the Iapygians,where like discoverieshave Myceneanpottery beenmade in Sicily. Archaeologistsare agreed variousand in regardingall the widelydistant regions objectsfound in andthe same as the outcomeof these people. the same civilization Who were the people northern who had the great side of the gift of developing dependentof Mediterraneana culturewhich on the those of Egypt and maybe regardedas in- far-reachinginfluence Mesopotamia? This into central,northern cultureexercised a Hallstadtperiod. For if on and westernEurope receivedin the one handthe duringthe Italy and Greecethe peopleof the Mycenean theirbronze work amberof the Baltic, period into the distantand so they in turnsent ofthe Istrosand the mysteriousregions itwas denseaisles of the beyondthe sources saidby themof Hercynianforest, regions the old time Heracleshad into which Hind of the Golden oncejourneyed in his What Horns. questfor peopleproduced the problemill archaic Mycetleancivilization is the with Greekhistory. Any most important extremecaution and attemptto solveit must It is freedomfrom be conducted evidentfrom the wide dogmatism. producedthese diffusionof theirremains workswas one which that the racewhich politicalpower around must have possessed can the basin of the in its time great hardlyhave perished easternMediterranean. Forthere withoutleaving some Sucha race seemsin someparts of echo of its deeds Atticaat the tomb the a.reawhich they behind. of Menidi,to be onceoccupied, such as continuityof the local evidencethat there has been age worshipand local art no breakin the properdown to the Attic of potteryfrom the The Greeks red-figuredvases. Mycenean above all other people respectingthe early history have left to us copious relations,a.nci of their land, its traditiolls their racialdivisions. early occupiers,their thehistory of the If we find an inter- once potteryproduced in unbrokencontinuity in made the gold rings Attica; andfind that the datedas found in the peoplewho at least priort,o 1200 tombsof Mycenae,which inMycenean a B.C., andthe rings maybe grave in Aeginaof and ^,oldornatnents samestandard for aboutthe eighth found of weighinggold as that centuryB.C., usedthe classicaltimes (knownas whichwas employedby thatthe the Euboic),there is the Greeks continuityof historical everyreason for unbrokenat least traditionfrom the earlier believing in certain areas, periodwas equally unanimousin declaring had which the Greeks remotest suSeredno cllange themselvesare epoch. of inhabitantsfrom Inthe the very Homericpoems we closely have a pictllreof an resemblingtllat revealedto age anda us in the tombsof civilization Mycenae. We may THE OBJECTS CALLED MYCENEAN ? 81 assumeby anticipationthat the men of the earlyMycenean period were in the BronzeAge. This I shallprove at lengthlater on, sofar as it needsproof. If we werenow to set abolltan inquiryinto the questionof what race createdthe objectsfound in GreatBritain belonging to the BronzePeriod, we shouldprobably set aboutit somewhatthus: Literarytradition tells us that beforethe people now called English were finallyevolved by the amalgamationof the variousraces which lived in the island,there were dominanthere, successively, Celts, Romans, and Saxons. Now at no time were the Saxonsthe sole occupantsof the island,althou,h their speech ultimatelybecame the languageof almostall the island. For they subdued andassimilated to themselvesthe peoplewhom they foundalready in the island,whom we usuallydescribe as Romano-Britons;who again consisted but to a small extent of Romans,even applyingthat term to the hetero- geneousmass of colonistsand soldiery from all parts of the RomanEmpire sent here,the chief elementbeing the old Celticpopulation conquered ancl assimilatedto the Romanculture. Of this Celtic populationwe get somescanty accounts from the ancient writers,such as Caesar,Diodorus, Strabo, Tacitus. This literaryevidence has not even escaped the SUSpiCiOllS of the sceptic. For instance,the Annalsof Tacitushave been regarded by someas the forgeryof Poggio,the finderof the manuscriptat Fulda. This chargehas howeverbeen swept away, just as a literatureotlsthe subject, as copious as that on the Bacon-Shakespearecraze, was springinginto existence,by the discoveryof indubitableevidence that there was a MS. of tlle Annalsat Fulda centuries beforePoggio's time. But eventhose whodo not doubt the authenticityof the Annals raise gravesuspicions as regardsthe veracityof Tacitusin certainmatters, just as Caesar'struthfulness as regardshis iIlvasions of Britainhas been doubted by others. Yet afterafter all this scepticismno one questionsthe generaltruth of the statementsof thesehistorians-that the Romanscame into Englandand foundit alreadyoccupied by not only diSerenttribes, but by differentraces. For the comingof the Saxons we have certain traditionalevidence, certainstatements about Hengist and Horsa, which are frequentlyregarded by clevermen as fabulous,certain documents written by Nenniusand Gildas, by Betle,an Anglo-SaxonChronicle written by the monksat Peterborough, anda poemcalled the Lay of Beowq%lfwhich gives us a pictureof Anglo- Saxonlife, what weaponsthey used,and how they fought. This poemInay be roughlyregarded as standingin the sarxlerelation to earlyEnglish life and mannersas Homerdoes to thoseof early Greece. Though monkish chroniclers arecottstantly held to be liars,no one doubtsnow that therewas a comingof the Anglesand Jutes and that in the pIocessof time they graduallycon- queredmost of England,the last echoesctf their long wars being heardin thz3Arthurian legends. Some of the olderpopulation, pressed hard in their old homes,went and settled in Armoricaamong their Celtic cotlsinsfrom whomthey had been separatedfor centuries. :H.S. VOL. XVI, G 89 W1RIATPEOPLE PRODUCED Now it would be easy to find some antiquarywho held that the bronze weaponsfound in the Anglo-Saxonparts of England were of Anglo-Saxonorigin. A famous antiquaryascribed almost every earth- work seen anywherein Englandto Carausius,the barbarianwho made himselfEmperor in Britain. If one said to such a person,' Whatevidence haveyou that they are Saxon? ' he wouldreply that the descriptionof the modeof fighting,the dressand weaponsof the Saxonsgiven in the Lay of Beowq/f fitted exactlythe bronzeweapons in England,for they had shields andspears, and battle-axes and swords. If you pointedout to him that the Saxonpoem spoke of these weaponsas madeof iron,he wouldsay ' I admit that it is a difEctlltybut the resemblancesare somany that the discrepancies ztlaybe jetisoned.' He would not get manyto supporthim at the present day. Yet we shallsee that the attitude of CIreekarchaeologists in dealing with the ZIyceneanage is not more rational. We may take then as fairly trtlthfulthe statementsthat Celtic tribes,whether red Celts,or blackCelts, orPicts, were spread over all this island,and that it had a nativename of its own beforethe Romanscame and calledit by a name derivedfrom some othertribe, Britannia instead of Albion,a nameill its turnreplaced by that of England,derived from that tribeof Angles who graduallyabsorbed into theirown tribal name all the othertribes of the island. If we findin certain areas,into +rhichaccording to the writtentraditions of Romansand Saxons neitherof theseraces ever got, bronzeimplements and potteryof a peculiar kind,we shallbe fullyjustified in regardingthese objectsas not the creation of Romanor Saxon,but of that racewho are said by the writtentraditions of the Romansto have beenthe occupantsof the whole island at the time of Caesar'sinvasion. If we findthat in Cornwall,where English is nowthe onlylanguage, down to 200 yearsago, another speech still lingeredon which wasnot Teutonic,but clearlyshown by its remainsto be one of the Celtic languages,we shallmost certaialy be justifiedin holdingthat the fact of a peoplenow speaking the Englishlanguage is no proofthat they wereorigin- ally Anglo-Saxon,or belongedto any branchof the Teutonicrace. It is equallypossible and it is highlyprobable that the sameprocess took place in earlyGreece, as it certainlydid in Italy,where Latin becamethe language not merely of the cognate Umbrianand Oscanpeoples, but even of the Etruscans,who arenor generallyheld to have spokena non-Aryantongue. Raceafter race made its wayfrom the north into the Greek peninstllaand these races were dividedinto numeroustribes. Pelasgians,Achaeans, and Doriansin turnwere the dominantraces, and into each in turn came tribes perhapsof differentorigin, who came to be calledby the nameof the master race,Pelasgians, Achaeans, or Dorians,who eventuallyin turn came under the all-embracingname of Hellenesjust as the descendantsof the Belgic tribes,of the olderinhabitants of England,Roman settlers, Saxons, Angles andJutes haveall been mergedinto the commonname of English. This certainlyis the view of the earlystate of Hellas given by Thucydides;and the analogyof all othercountries shows that his doctrineis sound. ' Before the Trojanwar IIellas appearsto have done nothingin common;and as it THE OBJECTS CATaT.FjT)WIYCENEAN ? 83 seemsto me the wholeof it as yet had not esrenthis name; nay,before the time of lIellen, the son of Deucalion,it doesnot appearthat this appellation existedat all, but that in their differenttribes, and the Pelasgianto the greatestestent, they furnishedfrom themselvesthe name (of the people). But whenHellen and his sonshad grownstrong in Phthiotis,and men invited them for their aid into the other citiesand from associatingwith them, separatecommunities were now more commonlycalled Hellenes:and yet not for a long time after cotlldthat name prevailamongst them all. And Homerproves this mostfully; for,though born long afterthe Trojanwar, he has nowherecalled them all by that name,nor indeedany othersbut those that camewith Achillesout of Phthiotiswho are the veryoliginal Hellenes, but in his poem he mentionsDanaoi, Argeioi, and Achaioi.' Scholarsare now practicallyunanimous in regardingthe civilizationof the Myceneanage as the productof that Achaeanrace, whoseglories enshrinedirl the lliad and Odysseyrest deathless. Yet learnedmen are not without misgivingsrespecting this identificationand various differences more or less importanthave been pointed out between the civilization of Mycenaeand that of the HomericGreeks. For instance the latter burnt the bodies of their dead, whilst on the other hand the graves of Mycenaeprove that the bodieswere buriedintact, possibly in somecases embalmed. It is thereforeperhaps worth while to reconsiderthe questionanew, taking a brief surveyin tllrnof the variousraces who once dwelt on the spots where these remains have been discovered,and, after a careful use of the strictest method possible in the rejectingand selecting of the variouselements, finally to indicatethat which seems the fittest to sur,vive. It is obviousthat we muststart our search in a region,or regions,where (1) Myceneanremains are foundin great abundance,and (2) wherewe can showfrom the Greekwriters that no great numberof separateraces ever cIvelt. On lookingdown the list of regionswhere objectsof the Mycenean periodhave been found,two areas especiallylend themselvesto such an inquiry-Peloponnesosand Crete. The consensusof the Greek writers assuresus that the forinerwas mainly occupied by threeraces, two of whom- the Achaeansand Dorians camein stlecessivewaves. Thusin Laconiain historicaltimes we findthree distinct layers of population:(1) the Spartiates whoformed the rulingcaste, the descendantsof the Dorianswho at some periodlater than the compositionof the Homericpoems entered Pelopon- nesus,and conqueredcertain portions of it; (2) the Perioeci,who represented the descendantsof the Achaeans,conquered by the Dorians;(3) the lIelots, the descendantsof the race which the Achaeansfound in possessionof the land, and whom they reducedto serfdomin those regionswhich they conquered.These Helots were almost certainlythe same race as the Arcadians,who in their nativefastnesses seem to have })eenable to keep out bothAchaean and Dorian. G 2 84 WHAT PEOPLE PRODUCED In the Homericpoems we findArgolis with its cities such as Mycenae, and Laconiawith Sparta its capital,held by the Pelopidae. In classical times Doriansare the rulersof both districts. It is in this part of Hellas that we meet the chief remainsof the Myceneanepoch, and we may well assuineas a starting-pointthat the remainsare the outcomeof either the Achaeans,or that old race that precededthe Achaeans. Let us nowturn to Crete,where, as alreadystated, extensive remains of the Myceneanage havebeen brought to light. As it is an islandfar removed fromthe rest of Greece,it wasmuch less likelyto have its populationmixed by constantadvances of other tribes,such as took place in the history of northernGreece and northernItaly. Ill the caseof the lattera rovingtribe mightat anytime descendfrom Balkan or Alps,but in the caseof Creteonly peopleequipped with shipscollld enter it. In tlle Odyssey(xix. 170 segq.jwe get a very explicit accountof Crete andits inhabitants:-

Tr , ^. ,, , , \ , , ApDTv FlD yaF e¢Ts, evz er fo^rorl TOUT(D, zaBx7 za vrlelpa, qrepstppvTos ezJ B' a'ZSpzqrol 7ro\Xo6a7rexpevto za ezvzwrRIc07wTa7ro\77es. aB\tR 8' aB\sor ey\Zerera ,e,mley,uezon er ,uer Axaton', ezoB' 'Eveoispt7ves,eeya\nvopes, sIo 8e Kv8zloss, Azplees se spl%czzlses,slOF TE HeXavzos'. wTOLffll38' fU Krffos, yezaBn woBls, e'rSa se MF'rs f UpE@pOd affl\EVE, AlOd eyaBov oaplffTDX 7raspos f#ElO TaTDp HeeaSvHov AevKaBlrov. In this mostimportant passabe the poet gives us a completeethnology of Crete. Most scholarswill adnritthat some one of the five raceshere enumerated Achaeans,Eteocretes, Cydones, Dorians, Pelasgi has produced the ' Mycenean'remains found in Crete. It is absurdto supposethat either the Eteocretesor Cydonesever lleld such a dominantposition on the mainlandof Hellasas to have foundedMycenae and Tiryns, or Orchomenos, or to have occupiedAttica and the Acropolisof Athens. The voice of historycould not have beenso completelyhushed, if suchhad beenthe case. As it is, a11the writersof antiquityare dumb. We may thereforereject boththe True-Cretansand Cydoneans.We are thereforeleft three races, Achaeans,Dorians and Pelasgi,from whom to select the engraversof the ancientCretan gems and the buildersof the great structuresof Cnossus and Goulas. We havehad Achaeansand Doriansas two of the three racesone of whosenumber in Peloponnesusmust have been the producerof Mycenean

13 frot is read by Eustathius and a good to refer back to erv*tovTa tJAXes four lines many MSS.: !7¢l is the commonreading, but above, especially when five masclllinenames the feminine gender was readily suggested to have intervened. the copyistby yey&)k77?re5Ass. It is IlOt Homeric T}IE OBJECTS CAT.T.E.DMYCENEAN ? 85 remains. The thirdrace I haveonly alluded to as that foundsurviving in the lIelots of Laconiaand the aboriginalinhabitants of Arcadia. Whowere this people? The ancientauthors give us abundantnotices of a peoplewho dweltin Peloponnesusbefore the Achaeanconquest, and those who hold that in the statementsof the ancientsthere is at least a solidkernel of historical truthwill readilyadmit that a race of great poweronce reigned in the chief cities of Argolisand Laconia before that Achaeanconquest. To those who approachthe ancienthistorians in that peculiarspirit of scepticismwhich is readyto declarethat certainstatements of Thucydidesor Herodotusare false,and at the same time are buildingtheories of the early historyof Greeceout of passagesin these veryauthors, I callnotappeal. My immediateobject is to showthat in the Peloponnesusthere lived a raceante- cedent to the Achaeansand Dorians,whom the ancientsknew underthe namePelasgi. To ventureto writeabout this ra.ceis enoughto bringdown on the writergrave suspicions that he is one of thosewho deal with Druids, ancSwho see in the GreatPyramid the key to mysticsystems of chronology andastrology. Accordingly,with a view to showingthat a man may believe in the historicalreality of the Pelasgi,and may with safetystill be allowedto mix with his neighbours,let me say that I can quote the opinionsof four historians,whose scepticism or sobermindednessno one has yet called in question Niebuhr,Thirlwa]l, Grote and E. Curtius. I canbest expressthe feelingswith which I approachthis subjectby quotingthe vigorouswords of Niebuhr:14 ' The nameof this people,of whom the historicalinquirers in the age of Augustuscould find no traceamong any then subsisting,and about whom so many opinionshave been maintained with such confidenceof late, is irksometo the historian,hating as he does that sptlriousphilology which raises pretensionsto knowledgeconcerning races so completelyburied in silence,and is revoltingon accountof the scandalousabuse that has been made of imaginaryPelasgic mysteries and lore. Thisdisgust has hithertokept me from speakingof the Pe]asgiansin general,especially as by doing so I might only be openinga wayfor a new influx of writingson this unfortullatesubject. I wasdesirous of confining myselfto such tribesof this nationas arementioned among the inhabitants of Italy; but this wouldleave the investigationwholly unsatisfactory, and the one I am nowabout to commencedoes not pretendto makeout anything else than Strabo,for instance, if he set what he knew distinctlybefore his ownmind, might have given as the result.' At this pointof the inquiryit is sufficientfor my purposeto point out that Ephorus,quoted by Strabo,15states that Peloponnesushad been called Pelasgiain ancienttimes, a staltementsupported and confirmed by Aeschylus notKonlyin the extant play of the St4pplices,in severalpassages (referring especiallyto Argolis),but alsoin the lost playof the l)anaides,referred to by

14 Htstory of Romc, i. 26, 27. (Engl. Trans.) neAtaa>savpx7alv KA71811VaN, 6 22Q cal iEqzopos sXv IleXo7ro'vv71aov af WHAT PEOPLE PRODUCED Strabo (loc.cit.). Aeschylus states in his Stbppltantsand Danaidesthat their race (Pelasgian)is sprung from Argos that lies around Mycenae. The still older testilnony of IIesiod, quoted likewise by Strabo in the same passage, makes the PelasgiansArcadian in origin. We therefore have good ancient traditiou that, in addition to the Achaeans and Dorians,a third race, and that the Pelasgi, had once been of gteat powerin Peloponnesus,especially in Argolis and Arcadia. These three peoples are identical with those of whom one rnusthave been the creatorof the Myceneanreinains of Crete. As scholarsadmit that it is the same race who has left those remainseverywhere, it must be one of the three races who made those objectsfound in Crete who producedthem elsewhere. But as the distinct voice of all Greek history avers that these same peoples,whotn we found in (2rete,once occupied positions of primaryimportance in Pelopon- nesus, the conclusionis irresistible that it was one of the same three races who producedthe Myceneanremains of Peloponnesus. If then the conclusion is so strong with referenceto the authorshipof the Myceneanremains found in two of the most important regions where objectsof that peculiarcivilization are found,then there is a high probability that the same kind of remains,llo matter where they are found,is the pro- duct of one of these three races. If we can then, by the means of the criteria affordedus by the Greek writers,ascertain which of these three racesproduced the Myceneanobjects found in one-ormore of the areasgiven above,we may reasonablyconclude that this race is the creatorof this great civilization. We shall now work backwardsfrom the better known to the less kllown. Of our three claimantsfor the prae-historicglories of Argolisand Laconia,the Dorian comes latest. He is the occupant of both in the classical days of Greece; behind him stands the Achaean,a remnantof whoserace in historical times still occupiesthe district of Achaia,and in the evil days of Hellas foxms the AchaeanLeague, the last brlght {lashthat came beforethe end. Between Dorian and Achaean then must be the first combat,whilst the Pelasgian waits in the dark backgroundof Greek historyas Ephedrosto fight the victor of the first bout. The Dorian has never been seriously pllt forward as a candidate(for Busolt'sattempt has utterly failed). The weight of evidence is certainly against him. The general view has been that he it was who swept away that old civilizationso clearly limned for us in Homer. This view seems the trlle one. We have a clearpicture of the habits of life of the Spartans,who were the foremost in power of the Doriansin historic times. To attribute the building of great Cyclopeanwalls to a people whose boast it was to live in a town of unwalledvillages, and who were so notoriouslyincompetent in the conductof siege operations,would indeed be ridiculous: and we see that the Doriansof Argolis never occupiedin historical times the great fortressesof W1ycenaeand Tiryns. It would be no less absurd to ascribe the beautiful worksin gold, silver, bronze,pottery and ivory from the graves of Mscenae to a rude and barbarousrace, by whose constitution the use of the precious metals was forbiddenand who in their mannerof life are still a proverb for THE OBJECTS-CATjTED MYCENEAN ? 87 rudenessand simplicity. The Achaeansof the Homericpoems are in the late BronzeAge andare using iron freely for all the purposesof life, foraxes andfor the shoeingof the plough. With the Dorianswho conqueredthe Achaeansiron is almostthe only metalin use. Not even money of bronze wasused in Sparta,but onlybars of iron. How can we reasonablysuppose sucha peopleto havebuilt these tombs of Mycenae,where not a scrap of ironsave two or three fingerrings has beendiscovered ? If necessarythe geographicalargument might be used,but it will be sufficientif I pointout that thereis not a jot of evidencethat the Doriansever occupied the Troad andthe Aeolid,regions where Mycenean remains have been found in quantity. The claimsof the Dorianmust give waybefore those of the Achaean,who is portrayedin the Homericpoems as dwellingsurrounded with costly articles of gold,silver, bronze and ivory. The race who lived in royal splendour must certainlybe preferredas claitnantsto that under whose domination Mycenaewas onlythe dwelling-placeof the owl andthe bat, or at most the stall of shepherdsor the fastnessof revoltedserfs. The final strugglenow comes between the victoriousAchaean and the PelasgianEphedros. Beforewe enter on this stageof the investigationit will be advisableto rehearsethe conditionsof the problem. We wanta race: (1) whocan be shownby historyand legend to have orlceat an early periodof Greekhistory occupied the variouslocalities in nvhichMycenean remainshave been found; (2) a race,whose civilizationas set forth in the ancientwriters coincides with that unveiledat Mycenae,or at least does not differfrom it; (3) whoused a form of pictographicwriting in Crete,Attica andPeloponnesus similar to that in use on the so-calledHittite seals found in AsiaMinor and to the Cypriansyllabary. In referenceto the firstcondition, it will be admittedthat if we find Myceneanretnains in any areawhich the unanimouswitness of antiquitydeclares was lleveroccupied by the one race, butwas occupied by the other,the latterrace has a superiorclaim. If we find this takingplace not in one but in two or more,the claimbecomes irresistible. With regardto the secondcondition, that of civilization,it will be admitted that if the civilizationof the Achaeansas exhibitedin Homeris foundto differmaterially from that of prae-historicMycenae, the latter tnust be regardedas belongingto the olderrace. Forwhat we have alreadyarrived at in the case of the Doriansforbids us from consideringthe Mycenean civilizationof a laterage than that of the HomericAchaeans. Let us nowtake the variousregions in whichMycenean remains have beenfound in the orderin whichwe enumeratedthem above; discussingas brieflyas possiblethe historicalevidence for the occupationof each by Achaeansand Pelasgians.

I. PELOPONNESUS.Greek traditions with one accord declare that Pelopon- nesuswas inhabited in the earliesttimes by the Pelasgians. I havealready quoted a statementof Ephortlsthat Peloponnesuswas called Pelasgia. Ephoruswrote in the 4tll centuryB.C., but he drewhis informationfrom very ancientsources, the old genealogerssuch as Hesiod. As Strabogives a WIIAT PEOPLE PROI)UCEI) 88 summaryto which I have alreadyreferred of the salient featuresof the traditionsrespecting the Pelasgi,anci as the statementsof the older Greek writersembodied in it show unmistakablythat Peloponnesuswas the chief seat of the Pelasgianrace, I shallgive it tn ezbtenso:- 'That the Pelasgianswere an ancienttribe holdinga leadingposition over all Hellas,alld especiallyamong the Aeolianswho occupied Thessaly, all areagreed. But Ephorusstates that he thinksthat beingoriginally from Arcadiathey chose a militarylife, and having persuadedmany othersto the samecourse they sharedtheir name with all, and acquiredwide renown bothamong the Hellenesand arnong all the others,wherever they happened to come. For as a matterof fact they becamecolonists of Crete,as Homer states. For exampleOdysseus says to Penelope- a\\Xw8' aB\Zvey\Zva ,Ue,Uy,uelJNsIJ,uev 'A%alol, (ZJ 3 ETEOKP%)TES,I£eFYaXq}TOPES, EIJBE KV8ZIJES, A zpess TETPl%aiKE$, 880& TE HeXaveyon, and Thessalyis called the PelasgianArgos, the partthat lies betweenthe mouthsof the Peneiusalld Thermopylaeas far as the mountaindistrict that lies along Pinclus,on accountof the Pelasgiansformerly having ruledover these districts,and the poet himself applies the name Pelasgic to the DodonaeanZeus- Zev dzoah8zzoae IIeXavfylece. Manyhave likewiseasserted that the nations of Epirus are Pelasgian, becausethe dominionof the Pelasgiansextended so far. And as many of the heroeshave been named Pelasgi, later writers have applied that nameto the nationsover which they werethe chiefs. For as

., , , or 7zore taKre . c)taveyos, but Aeschylusin his Smbypltarbtsand his l)anatdes says theirrace is from Argosthat lies roundMycenae; and againEuripides says that Peloponnesus was calledPelasgia, and againin his Archelaqbssays:-

Aaraos o vrezJTq}EcozETa SvfyaTepZzE vrarxwp eXS6ore's "Apeyos COKlC 'Iva%ovFro&^ IIeXavfyras 8' wro,ua¢fserovsSro qrp6^ i\araovs KaXe6ff8al Io6,uore'Snlc' ar' 'EXBaSa. Anticleidesstates that they werethe firstto settle the regionsround Lemnos andImbros, and further th;^t some of these alolg with Tyrrhenusthe son of TIIE OBJECTSCATjT.ED MYCENEAN? 89 Atys set out into Italynand the writers of the Atthisrelate that the Pelasgians were at Athens also, and that owing to their being wanderers,and roaming about like birds to whateverplaces they chanced to come, they were called Pelargi (Storks) by the people of Attica.' The statements here given from Hesiod, Aeschylus, Euripides alld Ephoruspomt clearly to an extensive occupation of Peloponnesus and that rery part too where Mycenean remains are especially corulmon. There cannot be much doubt that if the Pelasgians ruled the district lying around Mycenae,it must have been prior to the Achaean occupation of the same region. For there can be no reasonable doubt that the Dorians founci the Achaeans as the rulers of Argolis and Laconia. The short extract given from Strabo can be greatly amplified from other Greek sources7and the let,endsof the. Achaeansthemselves in every case presupposethe existence in Peloponnesusof ancient and powerfulcities only recently acquiredby the Achaeans,and also of entire regions still unconquered,occupied as in the case of Arcadiaby the old inhabitants. The accounts of the Tragic poets, Hesiod, and Ephorusare quite in accord with the knowledge affordedus by Homer. It is the glories of the sons of the Achaeans that are sung in the Iltad and Odyssey)and it is from these poems that we reconstructour picture of the Achaean civilization. But if we hearken to what these epics tell us of the Achaeans,we must give equal heed to what they tell us of a prior aU,e,and people into whose heritaCethey entere{land to whose civilization they were assimilated. (1) Aegolis. We find traces in Homer that it had but recently come under a new domination. Mycenae,' wealthyin gold,'the seat of Agamelllnon Menelaus, xvas the first of his race who reigned there. Tllucydides gives us lllost clefillite inforlnation on the pOillt:- 'It is said too by tllose of tlle Peloponnesianswho have le.ceived the most certain accounts by tradition from their forefathers,that Pelops first acquiredpower by the abundanceof riches with which he came from Asia to men who were needy, and, although a newcomer, gave his name to the countly; and that afterwards still greater power fell to the lot of his descendants) as Eurystheus was killed in Attica by the Heraclidae, and Atreus was his mother's brother, and Eurystheus when joining in the ex- pedition,entrusted Mycenae and the government to Atreus on the ground of their connection (he happenedto be flying from his father on account of the cleathof Chrysippus);and when Eurystheus did not return again they say that at the wish of the Myceneansthemselves through their fear of the CEIeraclidae,and also because he appearedto be powerful and had courted the commons,Atreus received the kingdom of the Myceneansand all that Eurystheus ruled over; anci that so the descendants of Pclops became greater than the descendantsof Perseus.'16 In any case the dynasty only 16 Thuc. i. 9, 90 WHAT PEOPLE PRODUCED beganwith Pelops,the fatherof Atreus,and thus within two generations their reign at Mycenaemust have begun. There is no contradietionin Homerof the belief of Aeschylusthat anotherand very arlcient people had held the countryround Mycenae. It was one of the three cities held expressly(lear by Hera.l7 Andit is alsoone of the townscalled 'rich in gold'(7ro)ivXpv¢os) in Holuer, the other two being Ilios and Orchomenosin Boeotia,called the 'Minyan.' The lattercities wereboth of ancientprosperity, and it is on the wholemore probablethat Mycenaeis calledby a similarname becauseit was likewise famousfor its long continuedwealth and splendour,and not becauseit had sudclenlysprung up underone or tworeigns. The legendsfully confirmthis, forthe walls of Mycenaeare ascribedto the same buildersas those who builtthose of Tirynsfor king Proetus,who was certainlynot Achaean,as we shallsee veryshortly. ThusEuripides (Ip7w. ilql,l. 1500) speaksof them as the\work of the Cyclopes. Pausanias' sawat Mycenae' the subterranean buildingsof the sonsof Atreus,where they hid the treasuresof their wealth. ' Thereis likewisethe graw-eof Atreus,and the gravesof all thosewho after theirreturn from Ilios alongwith AgamemnonAegisthus feasted and then murdered;C:assandra ancl her twin sons that she bareAgamemnon, Eury- medon,his charioteer,and Teledalnus.' 18 But thoughGreek tradition linked with the namesof Atreusand Agamemnonthe graves of the Acropolisof Mycenae,and the beehivetombs outside, nevertheless the foundationof the greatwalls ancl the Liongateway, in spite of all the ternptationthere was to connectthem likewisewith the Atreidae,were ascribed to an oldertirne and race. ThusPausanias (loc. ctt.),after mentioning the final overthrowof the cityby the Argivesin 458 B.C., says' neverthelessthere still rernainboth other portionsof the surrounclingwall, and the gate, and on it stand lions. But they say that theselikewise are worksof the Cyclopes)who constructedfor Proetusthe wallat Tiryns.' (2) Comingnow to Ttrynswe canget moredefinite statements about it and its foundationand mythicalhistory. Alreadyin Homerictimes it is renownedfor its walls,for it is calledve%osxrva (g. ii. 559). In Homerictimes it is but of little importance. No chieftainof any note comesfrom it. Onceonly is it named,and that with a numberof the lesser towns of Argolis,which sent contingentsto Troy, In that place we find alreadythe great walls,which Pausaniassaid ulight be compared to the pyramidsof Egypt for their marvelloussize. These walls were ascribedby later traditionto king Proetus,who employedin their con- structionthe Cyclopesfrom Lycia. So Pausaniashas told us in the passage just quoted.19 The storyof Proetusis no figmentof the late Greekwriters, any more thanzis the tradition of Cyclopeanworkmen. But whilst the latter is sanctiSedby Pindar,20who speaksof the Kv/c)ico7rza7rpoAvpa of Tiryns,and

17 11. ir. 51-2, 19 C£ Strabo 373 ls ii. 16, 5. 2° Frayment 642. THE OBJECTSCALLED MYCENEAN? 91 by Euripidesin the ZerctttesF^6reqws,2l the nanle of Proetusmeets us in oneof the most famouspassages in Homer; as the husband of the wicked Stheneboea,who, having in vaintempted Bellerophon, falsely accused him to her husband. Proetuswas a righteousman, and shrankfrom the pollution of slaying Bellerophon,so lle sent him to his father-in-law,the king of Lycia,having given him those va7SaPra)veypa, inscribed in a foldedtablet, aroundwhich controversy has so oftenraged, and to which I shall presently return. Proetuswas brotherof Acrisius,father of Danae. ' The sonsof Abas, the son of Lynceus,divided the kingdoln. Acrisiusremained at Argos, but Proetusgot possessionof the Heraeumand Midea,and Tiryns,and all the seaboardof the Argive land, alld there are marksof the settlementof Proetusat Tiryns.' The Lynceusfrom whom Proetus was clescendedwas that single one of the sons of Aegyptuswho escapedthe murderoushands of the daughters of Danausthrough the tender-heartednessof the ' splendidemendax' Hy- permnestra.Proetus thereforeis a descendantof Io, and one of that ancientPelasgic race who, accordingto Aeschylus,reigned in Argos,that Argosthat lay aroundMycenae. The term Argos has given rise to much confusion,and at this point a few wordson this subjectwill not be out of place. In HomerArgos regularlymeans (1) the whole region which we commonlyterm Argolis. This is evidentfrom various passages such as It. vi. 153, andin Od.iii. 263 Mycenaeis describeciin the same language; Aegisthusat Mycenaeis spokenof thus: o 8' ev/cr)tov,uv% "Apeyeov 7r7roW30- TOlO. (2) Argosis used of a city, eitherthe city calledArgos in historical times or nzoreprobably the Heraeum. For Hera namesArgos first of the threecities which are mostdear to her. The Argos so beloved ought to be the place which containsthe sanctuary;here many D&yceneanobjects have been found by Prof. Wald- stein potteryand engraved stones whilst at Argos properof later times up to the presentno XIyceneanobjects have been found. It is not unlikely that the Argosof later tinzeswas called Larisaoriginally, for the acropolis alwaysretained that name (Paus. ii. 24. 1). There was also a shrineat the historicalArgos of DemeterPelasgis. This connectsArgos with the Pelasgiansand the equine Demeterof Phigalia. The confusionbetween Mycenaeand the district in which it was situated was easy, and after the downfallof Mycenaeand the rise of the new Argos of the Dorian period,the dramaticwriters usually spoke of Mycenaeas Argos. In a passagealready quoted Pausanias22 tells us that Proetusobtained the Heraeum, Mideaand Tiryns as his shale. In anotherpassage (ii. 12, 2) he tells us that Proetusbuilt a templeof Hera; ' after comingto Sicyon from Titane andas you passdown to the sea, there is a temple of Hera,,and they say tha,tthe founderwas Proetus the son of Aba,s.' Proetusis thus associa,ted with the building of Hera,-shrines,a,nd a,lsoa,s possessingthe Hera,eum.

'I lierc. Ft6r. 495, ka Pa,usaniasii, 16, 2. 92 WHAT PEOPLE PRODUCED Pausanias,enlbodying the beliefsof the GEreeks,believed that the Heraeum belongedto the prae-Achaeantime. In that case we may well regardthe earlyremains found at the Heraeumand the accompanyingEgyptian scarabs as goingback to a periodwhen the Achaeanswere still living in Phthiotis, andha(l not yet set footin the Peloponnesus. Proetusand Acrisiuswere descendedfrom Lynceus,son of Aegyptus, andHypermnestra, daughter of Danaus. The storyis too well knownto need repetition. Io, daughterof Iasus of Argos,whether she reachedEgypt by a series of overlandjourneyings, or as Herodotusstates (i. 2), there gave birthto Epaphus,' the swarthy' o ^^os7rOpT^S °°S. Danausand Aegyptus were his descendants.They quarrelled. Danaus on his wayback to Greece put into iEthodes,and there set llp the idol of Athenaat Lindus. He andhis daughterscame to Argolis,pursued by the sons of Aegyptusas set forthin the Supplqobntsby Aeschylus. Theyclaitn protection from the king of Argos7 as beinghis kindred. This king is namedPelasgus, and Argosis called a city of the Pelasgians. Accordingto Greektradition of an earlytime, these refugeesfrom Egypt were of the old Pelasgianrace. (3) Naugplia.This wasthe ancientseaport of Argolis. It stoodtwelve stadesdistant from Tiryns. Herethere aretombs of the Myceneanperiod at the placeknown as Palamidi. Its founderwas Naupliusson of Poseidonand Amymone;he was thereforean autochthon;Palamedes was his son. The latterwas the inventorof writing,according to a Greektradition up to the presenttreated with the same scepticismwith which the story of Cadmus beingthe introducerof the Phoenicianletters into Greecewas received until ourown generation, when increasedknowledge has shownthe statementto be intrinsicallytrue. When I deal with the questionof Myceneanpicto- graphs,I shallreturn to him. Accordingto Pausanias,Danaus planted an Egyptiancolony there. In historictimes the citystill keptapart from the rest of Argolis,and it wasonly at a laterperiod that it becamethe portof Argos. It continuedlollg to be a memberof that very ancient amphictyonyof Calaureia.We shall find Nauplillsin close relationswith the Pelasgiankings of Tegea,engaged in tradingto Mysia and north-westernAsia Minor. Once more the Greek traditionpoints clearly to a prae-Achaeanhistory for Wauplia. To sutn up the resultsof an examinationof the five placesin Argolis whereMycenean remains have been found, we find that Mycenaehas a prae- Achaeanorigin assigned to its walls and gato the same as that assignedto Tiryns. The latter has nothingAchaean associated with it. Proetusis its founder,and Pausanias connected with him the remainsexisting in his time. The Heraeumis linkedto Proettls,and so too is Midea;and lastlft, Nauplia is considerednon-Achaean, with a populationsettled there by Danaus. The remainsthen foundin these five placesmust, if we allow any weight to tradition,be assignedto a peoplewho precededthe Achaeans. Thispeople the Greeksknew as Pelasgians. (4) Laconza. In the Odysseywe finclMenelaus, the son of Atreus, THE OBJECTS CATjTjF, MYCENEAN 2 93 dwellingat Spartain a houseof great splendour,adorned with gold,silver ivoryand amber. The currentidea of an Achaeanpalace is madeup from this palaceat Sparta,that of Alcinoosthe Phaeacian,and that of Odysseus at Ithaca. The friezeadorned with blue glass from the palaceat Tirynsis comparedto that in the houseof Alcinoos. But are we justifiedin consider- ing the Spartanor the Phaeacianpalace Achaean ? Menelausoccupies that at Spartain virtue of his marriagewith Helen,the daughterof Tyndareus. He wasaltogether a new comer. Therewas a veryancient dynasty there of which Tyndareuswas the last king. This dynastycan be shownfrom the ancielltpedigrees to be not Achaean. That the ancientgenealogies may be usedfor questions of race was the opinionof Niebuhr. Suchpedigrees can be easily rememberedand transmitted,as amongstthe chieftainfamilies of all countriesthey are held of supremeimportance. If Homeris sufficientas a witness,it was so in earlyGreece. There are constantrecitations of pedi- greesin the Poems;and further,that suchwere part of the loreimparted by the eldersto the younger,is shownby the wordsof Nestor,who tells how Tydeushad discoursedto him-

7razJT@zoApee@r spe@r 76verr TE TOKOP TE.23 We maytherefore reasonably take as a fair piece of evidencefor race the pedigreeof Tyndareus.He wasthe son of Oebalusand Gorgophone. Gorgo- phonewas the daughterof Perseus,who was the son of Danae,who was the daughterof Acrisills,whose Pelasgianpedigree I have alreadgproved. Oebaluswas the son of Cynortas,who was the son of Amyclas,who was the son of Lacedaemon,who was the son of Zeus. Tyndareusis thus descended on the father'ssicle from the autochthonousfounders of Lacedaemonand Amyclaewithout any suspicionof any strain of the blood of the new Achaeaols,the sonsof Xuthus the son of Hellen,that king of Thessalyfrom whomthe Achaeanstraced their descent. We ma.ytherefore reasonably conclude that the palaceat Spartaoccupied by Menelausand Helen,where Telemachus visited them, was the ancient residenceof Tyndareusand the old kings of Sparta. That it was more splendidthan the usual residenceof an Achaeanking is certainfrom the wordsin which the poet describesthe wonderand admirationthat filled Telemachusand his comradeNestor's son. If it be said that it was becausecf the great wealthand rich store of gifts broughtback frozn his wanderingsthat the two youngprinces were lost in admirationat the enlbellishmentsof gold, silver,ivory and amber,our answeris ready. Such palaceswere known elsewherein Homer'sworld, The palaceof Alcinoosis indeed splendid,with its four pillarsround the greathearth in the centreof the Megaron,and its friezeof blue glass(tRp^^y/cos EcUavolo). But the Phaeaciansare certainlynot Achaeans. Theybuild with huge stoneswhich have to be dragged(pvrob XltRo^), which seems to link theirarchitecture to the Cyclopeanmasonry of Mycenaeand Tiryns.24 But I

'2: II. +rii. 125. 24 Od. vi. 267. 94 WHAT PEOPLE PRODUCED shall have to return to them later on. Now if we take the house of Odysseus as the type of the Achaean chieftain'spalace, how (lifferentit is from that of Menelaus and Alcinoos. There is no sulnptuous adornnlent of cyanus or amberor ivory. The most elaboratearticle in it is the great bedsteadformed out of a tree, and carved by Odysseushimself, which was built into his bed- chamber. The stage of art is totally diSerent in each, if we contrast the sumptuous decoratiotlof Spartan and Phaeacian chambers with the wooel- carvingof the otller. There is also anothercurious piece of evidence which indicatesthat the Achaeansare but new-comersin Laconia. Menelaus tells Telemachusthat his desire had been to bring Odysseus *om Ithaca with all his folk, and to settle Elimnear himself, after having laid waste for this purposesonle neigh- bouringcity- - ,alav wo\v etaBa7ratas a' 7repavazeraover^,FavaerovTa 8' ,uob avrz (0d. iv. 176). It cannot be meant that Menelauswould destroya free Achaeantown, occupied by his own followers; but if there was an older population,lately half subdued,yielding a sullen homage,and almaysa sourceof danger,we can well understandthe desire of Menelavlsto bring in Achaeanchiefs with their followers to occupy alzd garrison the country. The evidencethen points in favour of an older race of great power and civilizationin Sparta beforethe Achaeansgot possession. We have now seen the positive evidence from Homer and the Greek traditions as given by Aeschylus and others for the existence of a prae- Achaeanrace in Peloponnesus,a racewhich Aeschylus knew as the Pelasgians. Let us now see how far this is compatiblewith the legendswhich embodythe earliest history of the Achaeans and their first entry into the Peloponnesus. Achaeus, the Eponymus of the race, was the son of Xuthus, the son of Hellen, the son of Deucalion,king of Thessaly.26 Achaeus howeverin some stories appearswith very differentparentage and accompaniments. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus,26Achaeus Phthius and Pelasgus are sons of Poseidon and Larisa. They migrate from Peloponnesusinto Thessaly and distributed the Thessalianterritory between them, giving their names to the principal divisions. Their deseendantssix generationslater were driven out of Thessalyby Deucalion. This was, says Grote,' to providean Eponymus for the Achaeansin the southerndistricts of Thessaly. Pausaniasaccomplishes the same object by a difEerentmeans, representing Achaeus,the son of Xuthus, as having golle back to Thessaly and occupied the portion of it to which his father was entitled. Then, by way of explaininghow it was that there were Achaeans at Sparta and not Argos,he tells us that Archanderand Architeles,the sons of Achaeus,came from Thessalyto Peloponnesusand married two daughters of Danaus.' They acquiredgreat influenceat Argos and Sparta,and gave to the people the llame of Achaeans.

2> Paus. vii. 1, 1-8. 26 Diony. i. 17. Larisa as mother indicates that they came from Larisa in Argos. TIIE OBJECTS CATjTjTZT)MYCENEAN q 95 Herodotusalso mentionsArchander, son of Phthius and grandsonof Achaeus,who married the daughterof Danaus. Strabo,following Ephorus, says ' that the AchaeanPhthiotae, who with Pelopsmade an irruptioninto Peloponnesus,settled in Laconia,and were so much distingui.shedfor their valourthat Peloponnesus,which for a long periodup to this time hadthe nameof Argos,was calledAchaean Argos and not Peloponnesus,which had been the name,and Laconiaalso was thus peculiarlydesignated. From Laconiathe Achaeanswere expelledby the Dorians,and went and settleciin what was knownas Achaeaproperly so called,expelling the Ionianstherefrom.' 27 Here then we have the Greektra.ditions respecting the comingof the Achaeansinto the Peloponnesus.These stand out distinctin themselves from any of the statementsabout the Pelasgians,and thereforeembody a differentline of evidence. Does this harmonizeor does it contradictthe statementsof Hesiodand Aeschylus and Ephortls about the Pelasgianoccupa- tion of the Peloponnesus? It plainlysupports it. For Herodotusmakes Archanderthe Achaeanmarry a daughterof Danaus,a statementin which he is supportedby Pausanias,although there is a s]ight variantin the pedi- gree,Ilerodotus making Archander son of Phthiusand grandson of Achaeus, whereasPausanias rnakes Achaeus and Phthius brothers. Yet the story assumesin eithercase that therewas an ancientrace of great importanceof whichDanaus was king, in full possessionof Argolisand Sparta. The story told by Straboof the comingof the Achaeansunder the leadershipof Pelops makesa similarassumption, for if there is any storyin Greeklegend which keepsto one positiveversion, it is that Pelopsthe Phrygianwas a late comer into Peloponnesus,where he foundancient dynasties in full sway,and that he gained his kingdoznby marryingHippodamia, the daughterof Oenomaus. We haveseen abovehow his son Atreusgot the throneof Mycenaeand sup- plantedthe ancientPerseid line, and how his grandsonMenelaus, by marrying Helen,the heiressof Tyndareus,gained possession of Sparta. If the sceptic pointwith derisionto the widedifference between the storyof Herodotusand Pausaniasand that told by Strabo,my answeris that suchdifferent stories of the firstcoming of the Achaeansare by no meansincompaotible with historical truth. Whocan tell whenthe Saxonsfirst entered England ? One storyof their comingrepresents Hengist and Horsa as comingin to aidthe Britishking Vortigernagainst the Picts and Scots,and settling in the southof England; bllt on the other hand,it is not at all improbablethat the earliestSaxon settlementswere in Northumbria.Who can tell whetherthe Danes who settledin Irelandfirst got theirfooting at Dublinor Waterford? The factis that whenthe tide of colonizingand conquest begins to flow,different bodies of invadersmake their appearance,almost simultaneously in somecases, at differentpoints; sometimessmall bodiesof men seeking new homespaved the wa- (such as Archanderand Architelesof the Achaeanlegend), to be followedlater on by farlarger bodies of population.

27 Viii. 365. 96 WHAT PEOPLE PRODUCED The incomingof valiant strallgerswho marrytlle daughtersof tlle old kinglyhouses, is no merefigment of the Greeklegend-mongers. History is full of such. Strongbowthe Normanaids DermotMacMorogh and marries his daughterEva; andin moremodern days CaptainJohn Smith marrled the Indianprincess Pocahontas, from whom the best familiesin Vir^,iniaare proudto tracetheir descent. Againthe storyof the PhrygianPelops leading the Achaeansmay raise a sniS of incredulity. But it must not be forgottenthat at all timesand especiallyin barbaricdays it is the chieftain'spersonality which is the weiglltiestf'actor. If a manof great personalprowess arises, men of other racesare quitereacly to followhim. ' Howmany of the countlesshordes who followedGenghis Khan were of the samerace as theircaptain ? In ourOW11 tinle we haveseen with whatreadiness the Zuluswere willing to followas their chiefthe Englishman,John Dunn. As the Achaeanlegends assumethe existenceof an older race in . Je oponnesusit will not be sufficientfor the scepticto assail my positionby denyingtlle existenceof the Pelasgiansin Peloponnesuson the groundthat the Hesiodicgenealogy is a purefabrication; he mustalso be preparedto cast awayas utterlyworthless the Achaeanlegend, which not only falls in with the Pelasgic legend,but fits exactly into the statementsof the Homeric poelus. (5) Arcadia. We have now come to the last of the districtsof Peloponnesuswhich has,up to the present,revealed Mycenean remains in any torm. If the existenceof such remainscan be provedfor Arcadia,the con- seqtlencesare of the very highest importancefor our quest. Up to the presentI can only point to one Myceneanobject, an engravedgem of the pureMycenean type foundat Phigaleiain the south-westcorner of Arcadia. To reason dogmaticallyfrom the finding of one or two objectsof this descriptionwhich might very well be waifs,would be indeedfoolish. Onthe otherhand to say that Arcadiadoes not contain Mycenean antiqllities because as yet no largegroup of them has been discovered,would be still moreso. For at anJ7moment the spademay present us with almpleconfirmation of the indicaltionsgiven by the Phigalleiangem. Atticalherself hals only alt al comparativelyrecent dalte given up any ofher buriedtreasures of this descrip- tion alndret Attic soil has been moreransacked than any part of Gteece. But if I can show that there were monumentsin Arcadial,veneralted as alncientin the dayswhen the Iltd was written,and that these monuments xvereof the sarnekind as those follnciat Mycenale,I shall halveproved an importantstep; andthough up to the presentthere has been no scientific investigaltionof any suchremains in Arcadia,if it can be provedthat such Myceneanalntiquities exist alsnative in the clistrict,it will be indeedhard to maintainthat they are of Achaeanor Dorianorigin, unless we are prepared to give the lie direct to all Greekhistory. ( Arcadia,'says E. Curtius,' the ancients regardedas a pre-eminentlyPelasgian country; here, as they THE OBJECTSCALLED MYCENEAN? 97 thought, the autochthonic condition of the primitive inhabitants had pre- served itself longest, and had been least disturbedby the intrusionof foreign elements.'28 This assertionmay be taken as a sonnd historical fact, for Thucydides29 expresslytells us that Arcadiawas the one part of Peloponnesus which had known no change of inhabitants. Pausanias (viii. 4, 1) says Arcadia was formerly called Pelasgia, and that the Arcadians were Pelasgians. Strabo gives the same account,and tells us that the Arcadianspreserved the Aeolic dialect. If Myceneanrenlaills are indigenousin Arcadia,it is certain that they are not Achaean. Twice are the Arcadiansmentioned in the ILiad In the Cataloguea contingent of no less than sixty ships is supplied by the men of Arcady 30

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Who was this Aepytus, whose grave was so famous as to be a well-known larkdmarkwhen the IZiad was cotnposeci,and what was the nature of this tomb ? Answersare ready for each question. I shall take them in reverse order. Pausanias31 saw this very monumentin the second century A.D. ' The grave of Aepytus I looked at with special interest, because Eomer in his verses referringto the Arcadiansmade mention of the totnb of Aepytus: it is a mound of earth of no great size enclosed by a circular kerbing of stone.'32 I have alreadyspoken of the well-knowncircular stone enclosure on the Acropolis of Mycenae, which Schliemann took for the Agora; but which Tsountashas well explaineda.s a ring of stoneworkto keep the earthenmound over the graves together. This Arcadiangrave seems to confirmTsountas, as here we have a grave similarlyconstructed. If this grave seen by Pausanias was really the tomb of the Aepyti, we may now be certain that such graves are non-Achaeanin origin,though Achaean conquerorsmay have buried their dead in them, just as Romansburied in British barrowsand Saxons buriedin Roman cemeteries. Who was this Aepytus, whose grave was probablythe object of periodicalsacriSces like that of the hero Leucipptlsat Daulis ? If that were so there would be an 1lnbrokentradition of the occupants of the tomb down to the time of Pausanias.33 Aepytus was the son of Elatus, who

28curtius i. 173. ,|psX, fV 0xAt TfPEfX°/#f^°v 29 Thucyd. i. 2. 83 Sir W. Gell saw a tumulus surrounded by 30 n. i;. 603seqq. a loose stone wall, vllich he identified as that 31 viii. l6, 3. of Aepytus, but the locality does not agree with

32 Id. W8r yfM 0zV tXS xwya OV yfta A[@ov that given by Pausanias. E.S.-VOL XVI. H 98 WIIAT PEOPLE PRODUCED wasthe son of Arcas,who wasthe son of C:a;llisto,who was the daughterof Lyeaon,wllo was the son of Pelasgus,who was the son of Zeus.34 If it be objectedthat as C:allistowas turrled into a bear,she mustthere- forehave been simply a totem,and that consequentlyLyeaon and Pelasgus aremere later additions, tlle answeris that in that casesuch famouspersons as Pandion,the father of Procneand Philomela,and Nisus the father of Scylla must be expelledfrom two of the best known of Greek legends. The fact is that there are abundantcases of metamorphisminto birds and beastsin earlyGreece beside cases which may be takenas totems. Did C:irce maketotems of the companionsof Odysseus? Therecan be no questionas to the genuinePelasgian origin of the tomb of Aepytusmentioned by Homer. Aepytusis fourthin descentfrom Lyeaon. The sons of Lyeaonplay a part of pritnaryimportance in the mythical period. For this reasonI thinkit betterto quoteNiebuhr's summary of the evidencerelating to them and its value than to give a statenzentin my ownwords: ' PherecydesqDionysius i. 13) states that Oenotruswas one of the twentysons of Lyeaonson of Pelasgus,and that the Oenotrianswere named after him, as the Peucetianson the Ionian Gulf were after his brother Peucetus. Theymigrated from Arcadia (Dionys. i. 11) seventeengenerations beforethe Trojanwar, with a mu]titudeof Arcadiansand other Greeks; who werepressed for room at home. And this, saysPausanias (Arcad. c. iii.), is the earliestcolony, whether of Greeksor barbarians,whereof a recollection has been prcserved. Other genealogershave stated the numberof the Lyeaonidsdifferently. The names foundin Pausaniasamount to six and twenty and some have droppedout of the text. Apollodorus(iii. 8, l) reckonsthem at fifty,of whichnumber his list fallsshort by one. Veryfew in the two lists arethe same;Pausanias has no Peucetus,Apollodorns neither him norOenotrus, but the strangestthing is that thotlghtheir n.amesmark them all out as fotlndersof races or of cities,still tlle latter mythologer makesthem all perishin Deucalion'sflood. It is clearthat he or the author he followedmust have already mixed up a legendabout certain impious sons of Lyeaon,who perhaps were nameless, with the traditionwhich enumerated the towns of Arcadiaand such as wereof kindredorigin under the namesof theirpretended founders. Legends of this sort will not be lookedupon by any as historical,but in the light of nationalpedigrees like the Mosaical, suchgenealogies are deservingof attentioninasmuch as they presentviews concerningthe affinityof nationswhich certainly were not inventionsof the genealogers,themselves early writersafter the scale of our literature,but were talienby them from poems of the same class with the Cheogonyor from ancienttreatises or from prevalentopinions. Btlt if we find them mentioningthe Pelasgiannation, they do at all events belong to an age

34 Another version made Arcas son of Zeus on the resemblancebetween 'ApecKs and KpecSros by Themisto. If theArcadiansconsideredthem- though the words were in origin not related. selves 'Bears,'descellded from Arcas (Bear),it Thus the seal (¢4scx7)became the blazon of may well be that this was only a mere late pun Phocaea,and the apple (,uXAor) that of Melos. TEI:EOBJECTS CATjTjFjT)MYCENEAN ? 99 whenthat nameand people had nothingof the mysterywhich they bore in the eyes of the later Greeks,for instanceof Strabo; and even though the Arcadianshave been transformed into lIellenes,still a very distinctrecollec- tion mightbe retainedof their affinitywith the Thesprotianswhose land containedthe oracleof Dodona;as well as of that between these Epirotes andother races which is impliedin the commondescent of Maenalus,and the otherArcadians, and of Thesprotus,and Oenotrusfrom Pelasgus. Nor doesthis genealogystand alone in callingthe OenotriansPelasgians; evidence to the sameeffect, perfectly unexceptionable and as strictlyhistorical as the case will admit of, is furnishedby the fact that the serfs of the Italian Greeks,who must undoubtedly have been Oenotrians, were called Pelasgians ' (Steph.Byz. v. Xos). This passageof Niebuhranticipates several points with whichI haveto deallater on. Niebuhr'sestimate of the genealogiesseems to me to be just, andwe maywithout rashness believe that Arcadiaand Argolis were the seatsof an ancientrace which playe(la foremostpart in the early historyof Greece. The kingsof Tegeaexercised great influence in Argolis. It is significant,as Ctirtiuspoints out, to Snd Waupliusthe founderof Nauplia,the port of Argolisbeing the servitorof the king of Tegea. When we come to deal with the Minyanswe shallfind Ancaeus king of Tegeaone of the numberin the memorablevoyage of the Argo. Even still in Homer the Arcadians supplya quota of ships in excess of what we might have expected. All these considerationsare of importancein showingthat they had long been given to sea craft,a fact of significancewhen we come to deal with the characterof the ornamentationon Myceneanpottery. I am fullyaware that certainmodern writers discredit the Hesiodicaccount of the Arcadianorigin of the Pelasgi. If we followthis line of doctrine,we simplydeclare that a11 earlytradition is worthless. The Hesiodicgenealogy is presumablya work of at least as earlyas the 7th centuryB.C. If it is arguedthat a genealogy compiledby one whopresulnably was a Boeotianis of no value,the answer is that unlessHesiod embodied some very ancienttradition of the pedigree of the sonsof Pelasgtlsand Lyeaonhe certainlywould not have made them so prominentin the ancestryof Hellas. For why shoulda Boeotianso glorifythe Arcadians? It is certainlya case where the critics must be preparedto showmotive. I feel certainthat if the traditionwas Arcadian or Peloponnesianinstead of beingderived from a Boeotiansource, the critics wouldhave at oncecried out that it was a palpableinvention of the Arca- diansfor purposes of self-glorification. But it is uselessto attackthe Arcadianorigin of the story withoutat the same time demolishingthat embodiedby Aeschylus,which connects Argolis with Pelasgians. It cannot be said that Aeschylusis slavishly followingthe Hesiodic story, for he says nothing about Arcadia. The modernsceptic will accordinglyargue ez sq>lenttoand say that the Hesiodic version is false for Aeschylusknows nothing of it. lEtr reply is that Aeschylusin his Stuppltantsand l)anaides was not writinga handbookof historicalgeography, nor a monographon the Pelasgians. Argos and its H 2 100 WHAT PEOPLE PRODUCED historyis the centralpoint of his drama,and he accordinglyalludes incident- ally to its ancientinhabitants, the Pelasgi. Thereis nothingcontradictory in the statementsof Hesiod and Aeschylus;nor yet again are their state- mentsdisprove(l by the fact that there were Pelasgiansin Thessalyand at Dodonain earlydays, nor by the fact that Herodotusdoes not say anything aboutPelasgi in the Peloponnesus.Aeschylus, his elder contemporary,dicl know of Pelasgiansin that region,and his knowledgeof the history of Greeceproper may be taken as at least as goodas that of Herodotusthe Asiatic. Again,because Herodotus knew of Pelasgiansin his own time who dwelton the Hellespontand at Creston,who spoke a languagewhich was not G[reek,this is no argumentagainst the existenceof this peopleat an earlierdate all over Greece. It might as well be arguedthat becausewe findin partsof GreatBritain, such as Walesand the lfighlandsof Scotland, andparts of Irelandpeople known as Celtsand who speak a languagewhich is celatainlynot English,no suchpeop]e ever extended over all GreatBritain andall Ireland,in the regionswhere English has beenfor centuries the only language. The Pelasgianlanguage may have been as closelyallied to Greek as Lycianand Phrygian,or as old Celtic or Umbrianand Oscanwere to Latin,and yet lIerodotuswould call it a non-Greektongue. Herodotusand Thucydidesheld that the Pelasgianshad mergedinto the Hellenicbody, a viewattested by like occurrencesin othercountries, such as England,France, Spain,where the Welsh,Britons, and Basques,who have survivedin the least invitingand most inaccessible parts of the countries,are livingwitnesses to the statementsof historythat they onceoccupied the wholeland. The cycleof the legendsof Heraclesand his wanderingsstarting from Peloponnesusnorthwards slaying Centaurs in Thessaly,passing into Thrace and up to the Danube'ssources into NorthernItaly, on his cattle-lifting expeditioninto Spain showsthat the Greekshad a traditionnot only of greatearly movements caused by the pressingdown of freshtribes from the north,but also of one still olderin which the advancewas fromsouth to north. As Heraclesbelongs to the prae-Achaeanstock, being great-grandson of Perseus,the son of Danae,daughter of Acrisius,whose pedigree we already know,once more we get the traditionof an older stratutnof occupantsof the Peloponnesus,who were there beforethe Achaeanconquest and who werecalled Pelasgians,substantiated by the legend of Heracles,the most prominentof Greekmyths and which can in no wisebe said to be invented to bolsterup a Pe]asgictheory started by Hesiod. Let us now leavePeloponnesus for the present,but beforedoing so I mustpoint out that if the objectionis raisedthat no Myceneanremains have been foundat the city of Argos or in the districtof Triphylia,where Pelasgiansand Minyansdwelt, and thereforethe connectionbetween the Pelasgiansand Mycenean objects breaks down, the argumentis equallyfatal to the Achaeanswho occupied both these regions. I might tlrge with more force that as there have been as yet no Myceneanobjects found in the region called Achaia in historic times THE OBJECTSCALLED MYCENEAN? 101 in Peloponnesus,where the Achaeans nlaintainedthemselves after the Dorianconquest therefore there can be no doubtof the non-Achaeannature of the Myceneancivilization. But the argumentdrawn from negative evidenceis unreliablein such cases especially:for the next turn of a peasant'sspade may shatter the argumentto atoms. Moreoverit does rlot followthat the samerace a]ways remains in the same stage of art, and the Achaeansafter the Dorianconquest may have been,alld most likely were, in a verydiSerent condition froul those of earliertimes. II. ATTICA.We havenow come to the most interestingdistrict of all lIellas. It has revealedon the Acropolisremains of Cyclopeanwalls of a Myceneanpalace, and at Menidi,Spata andThoricus tombs of the Mycenean period. As regardsthe historyof Attict we are well informedby the writers of the fifthcentury B.C. Both Herodotusand Thucydidesare clear on the originof the Attic race. It is best to let the historiansspeak for themselves on this mostimportant point. Firstlet us hear Herodotus:' His (Croesus')inquiries pointed out to him two states as pre-etninentabove the rest. These were the Lacede- moniansand the Athenians,the formerof Doric,the latterof Ionicblood. Indeedthese two nationshad held from very early times the most distin- guishedplace in Greece,the one being a Pelasgic,the other a Hel]enic people;the one neverquitted its originalseats, while the other had been excessivelymigratory; for during the reign of Deucalion,Phthiotis was the countryin which the Hellenesclwelt, but under Dorus the son of Hellen they moved to the part at the base of Ossa and Olympus,which is calledHistiaeotis; forced to retirefrom that regionby the Cadmeians,they settled underthe name of Macedniin the chain of Pindtls. Hence they once lrloremoved and came to Dryopis; from Dryopishaving entered the Peloponnesusin this way they became known as Dorians. What the languageof the Pelasgiwas I cannotsay with any certainty. If however we may forma conjecturefrom the tonguespoken by the Pelasgiof the presentday, those,for instance, who live at Crestonabove the Tyrrhenians who formerlydwelt in the districtnamed Thessaliotis, and were neighbours of the peoplenow called Dorians, or those again who foundedPlacia and Scylaceupon the Hellespont,who had previously dwelt for some time with the Athenians,-or those, in short,of any other of the cities whichhave droppedthe name,but arein fact Pelasvian;if I say we are to form a con- jecturefrom any of these,we mustpronounce that the Pelasgi spoke a bar- barouslanguage. If this were really so, and tlle entirePelasgic race spoke the same tongue,the Athenians,who were certainlyPelasgic, must have changedtheir languageat the sametime that they passedinto the lIellenic body; forit is a certainfact that the peopleof Crestonspeak a language unlikeany of theirneighbours, and the same is true of the Placians,while the languagespoken by these two peoplesis the same; which shows that they both retainedthe idiomswhich they brought with them into the countrieswhere they arenow settled. 102 WHAT PEOPLE PRODUCED The Hellenicrace has never since its first origin changedits speech. Thisat least seems evidentto me. It was a branchof the Pelasgicwhich separatedfrom the mainbody, and at firstwas scanty and of little power,but it graduallyspread and increasedto a multitudeof nationschiefly by the voluntaryentrance into its ranks of numeroustribes of barbarians.The Pelasgion the otherhand were, I think,a barbaricrace which nevergreatly multiplied.'35 There can be little doubt as regards the Pelasgic origin of the Athenians. Herodotushad residedat Athens and thus had the meansof knowing the native traditions. As to whether the Pelasgian language belongedto a differentlinguistic stock fromthat of the Greek,it is im- possibleto determine. Niebuhrand Thirlwallthink that Herodotuswould haveclescribed as barbarouslanguages such as Illyrianand Thracianwhich are really cognatesof Greek: Grote on the other hand maintainsthat Herodotuswould not employthe term barbarousfor any dialectof Greek. Thucydidesis very explicit respectingthe autochthonouscharacter of the Attic population. Afterreferring to the earlystate of Hellas,and mentioning the Pelasgiansas important,he says: ' Attica at any rate having through the povertyof the soil been for the longest periodfree from factionswas alwaysinhabited by the samepeople.' 36 Unless then we are preparedto maintainthat both Herodotusand Thucydidesare utterly untrustworthy, we must believethat the population of Atticahad never shifted, and that its historicalcontinuity was unbroken by either Achaeanor Dorianoccupation. Their statementsget a singular confirmationfrom the tombat Menidi,in the dromosof which was founda completeseries of potteryfragments from Mycenean down to Attic blackand red vases. Oncemore we findHomer in no wise contradicting,but rather confirmingthe views set forth by the later writers. In the great hostof Achaeanstllat wentto Troythe Atheniansfind little placeor mentionsave in that one famouspassage which traditionsays was alteredby Solon as a basisfor a claimto Salamis.37Had Atticabeen in the handsof the Achaeans we musthave heard much more of the Atheniansin the Ittad. Not only then are we led to concludethat the Myceneanremavins found in Attica are not of Achaeanorigin, but the evidenceconstrains us to call them Pelasgian. The statenlentsof Herodotusand Thucydidesare substantiatedby the legendsof the Hellenesand of the Athenians. Hesiodgave the genea- logy of the sons of Hellen in the form usuallyknown, making Aeolus, Xuthus,and Dorus the three sons. RespectingXuthus our informationis confinedalmost entirelyto the

35 Herod. i. 56-58 (Rawlinson's Trans.). Iliad.' Leaf says their leader Menestheus 'does 8B i. 2. not afterwards appear as a distinguished 37 Dr. Leaf thinks B 553-556, ejected by general. ^ 326-348 Agamemnon speaks of him Zenodotus, ' an addition to soothe the vanity of in unflattering terms. He is mentioned again the Athenians, which was doubtless much hurt only M 331, 373 N 196, 690 0 331 where the by the small part played by their nation in the fighting is left to the heroes of ffie second rank,' THE OBJECTS CAT.T.RT)MYCENEAN ? 103 storyof Creusaand Ion, an especiallyAttic legend. Achaeusis represented as a soz;of Xuthus. Euripidesdeviates very naturallyfrom the Hesiodic genealogyin respectto the eponymouspersons. In the Ion he describesIon as the son of Creusa,daughter of Erechtheus,by Apollo,but adoptedby Xuthus. Accordingto hitn the real sons of Xuthus,an Achaeanby race, the son of Aeolus,the son of Zeus,are Achaeusand Dorus.38But in his MeZanippeand Aeolzus he mentionsEIellen as fatherof Ae()lusand son of Zeus. Thistradition, which is quite unattachedto any form of the Pelasgian story,amply proves that therewas an old racein Attica, beforeeven Xuthus the valiantwarrior was invited in to aid the Atheniansagainst their enemies, andonce more we find the Achaeancaptain marrying the daughterof the ancientprae-Achaean royal house 39 But,more than this, Atheniantradition actllallydescribed as Pelasgian(or Pelargian) an ancientwall? probably that of whichthe remainshave been foundin moderntitnes. Thus Herodotus relatesthat on the Lacedaetnoniansunder Cleomenes attacking Athens the tyrantswithdrew into the Pelasgicwall, that is, the Acropolis.40 To havethe name Pelasgianassociated with theirprae-historic remains is indeedremarlrable, and as these remainsare identicalin characterwith thosefound at Mycenaeand Tiryns, in bothof which we foundthat Greek traditionconnected with the Pelasgicrace the Cyclopeanwalls, we thus have a consensusof traditionin the caseof all these places. The Pelasgianswho arementioned as havingcome to Atticafrom Samothrace, and who afterwards were expelledby the Atheniansand went to Lemnoswhere they settled,4 weremost probably, as Niebuhrhas well pointedout, a Pelasgictribe who, drivenfrom their old home,to-ok refuge with theirkinsmen in Attica,just as the Britons,when pressed hard by the Saxons,settled among their kindred in Armorica,from whom they had been separatedfor manycenturies, and from whomthey probablydiffered widely ill speech. ThesePelasgian new-comers soon became troublesome,and the Atheniarlsexpelled them.42 The old Pelasgicwalls of the Acropoliscould easily be connectedwith thetn as the builders,.as, accordingto Herodotus,the Athenianswere merginginto the Hellenic body at the time of these Pelasgianscoming from Samothrace. Theymay be the sametribe as thatwhich in the time of Thury(lidesunder the nameof Ty.rrhenianPelasgi dwelt near Mt. Athos. Sucha. confusion is natural andeasily paralleled. Tllere can be little doubtthat the darkdolichocephalic peopleof the southand west of Irelandare of the samestock as the Iberians of Spain. From their appearancelesembling that of the Spaniards,it is commonlybelieved in Irelandthat they are of Spanishblood, but as the ordinaryperson knows nothing of ethnology,but is awarethat at the time of the SpanishArm.ada Spanish ships and theircrews were cast uponthe Irish coast,it is popularlybelieved that these dark people are descendedfrom the Spanishsailors, who as a matter of fact were killed immediatelyon

38 Eur. lon. 1590- 41 Herod. ii. 50 39 Cf. tbid. 64. 42 lb. Vi. 136. 40 V. 64. PRODUCED 104 WHATPEOPLE theirrace on landingby the natives,an(l had no opportunityof perpetuating brief examinationof the early historyof Athens points Irishsoil. This character the non-Achaeanorigin of the remainsof Mycenean clearlyto an exhaustive in Attica. It is not the object of this paperto write found and racialaffinities. monographon the Pelasgians,dealing with their origin concernedwith them as the possibleauthors of certain Iam at presentonly than am no moreobliged to discussthe questionethnologically objects,and I race in all the questionsof ethnologyconcerning the Celtic togo into ancient Britons. anessay dealing simply withnthe remainsleft by the of Lemnoswere called Tyrrhenian, I must make a few Butas the Pelasgians in discoveryof the nowfamous inscriptions found in thatisland remarkson the fromwhich whichare held by Paulito be in a dialectof Etruscan,and 1886, that the Etruscans heand Bugge simultaneouslyarrived at the conclusion Grantingthat the inscriptionsare Pelasgic,and not merely werePelasgians. a not unlikely atombstone set up by some Etruscansettler in Lemnos, to identifydirectly explanation,we are very far frombeing in a condition weresettled at Athensand were afterwards expelled, and thesePelasgians who These at Lemnos,with the ancientPelasgi of Greeceproper. thensettled authoritiesfor the arethe Pelast,iwhom Thucydides, who is one of ourchief of the Pelasgicstock, calls Tyrrheno-Pelasgians,and whom ancientpower occupied probablymeans when he speaksof the Pelasgianswho Herodotus evidentlymarks a thecity of Crestonabove the Tyrrhenians.43Thucydides by describingthem as Syrrhen?>an,and not simplyas Pelasgians.44 difference in Etruriaand Weshall presently give goodancient evidence for Pelasgians alreadyhad it forSouth Italy. Thereis no diScultyin Latium,as we have by side that certainPelasgians long settled in Etruria,living side supposing externalcause Etruscans,may have emigratedfrom some internalor with such as Samothrace andsettled in variousspots round the NorthernAegean, Mt.Athos, later on someof themwent to Athens and later andCreston and it is no Lemnos. Even if they spoke a languagelike the Etruscans, to language. For the evidencethat the ancient Pelasgiansspoke such a wouldprobably have learnedthe languageof their TyrrhenianPelasgians of Greece neighboursand conquerors in Etruria,just as the Pelasgi Etruscan Irish Celts have propergradually adopted the Hellenic speech,and as the But I will go furtherand grant for the sakeof art,ument adoptedEnglish. to the Pelasgiof Greeceproper and Italy spoke a languageakin that the Etruscansspoke a Etruscans. It in no wise affectsmy positionwhether the an Aryantongue. For the Pelasgianscould learn the Hellenic non-Aryanor Basques,who languaOejust as the Aquitani,the kinsmenof the modern a non-Aryantongue, could rnergeinto a body of French-speaking speak Aryan speech,the population. If, as some still think, Etruscanwals an into Hellenismis all the moreeasy. But this supposed mergingof PelasOians (St¢dten, connectionafter all rests on no solid basis,for Kirchhoff Etruscan of the Lemnian pp. 54 sg. 4th ed.) has demonstratedthat the alphabet

43 ii. 52. u iY. 1O9. THE OBJECTS CATjTE,DMYCENEAN ? 105 inscriptionsis Phrygian. If the itlscriptionsthen belongedto the Pelasgians, it followsthat they had a Phrygianconnection and were certainlyAryan. The Greeksconsidered Phrygians and Thraciansto be barbarians;so that becauseHerodotus thought the languagreof Scylaceand Placia barbarous, it doesnot provethat it wasnot closelycognate to Greek. III. andIV. BOEOTIAand THESSALY. We now come to Boeotiaand Thessaly,which can be treatedtogether with greaterconvenience. We shallfirst deal with Orchomenosknown to Homeras the Minyan andas ' rich in gold,'in contrastto the ArcadianOrchomenos called ' rich in sheep.' Our object is (1) to identifythe Minyansof Orchomenoswith the Minyansof Thessaly,(2) to prove both to be Pelasgians. Orchomenos derived its name frotn Orchomenos,son of Minyas,who was the son of Eteocles,who was the son of Andreus. The latterwas said to have beenthe firstoccupant of this part of Boeotia,having come thither from Thessaly. He wasone of the indigenousrace of that region,for he was the son of the riverPeneus. The Minyangenealogy is thus connectedwith the coast of Thessaly between Iolcos and Peneus, the very districtwith which is in(lissolubly linkedthe historyof the Minyaewho appear as the firstnavigators from any partof Greeceto the Euxine Sea. E. Curtiussays: 'The race whichin consequenceof this life-bringingcontact with the nationsbeyond the sea firstissues forth with a historyof its own from the dark backgroundof the Pelasgianpeople is that of the Minyi.'45 The Minyaelikewise appear in Peloponnesus.They dwelt in Triphylia, wherethey settledafter driving out the Epeians,the originalpossessors, from a portionof theircountry. The Eleansin laterdays occupy another portion of this country. TheseMinyae we shallprove to be Pelasgiansfrom Iolcus. Thatthere was a close connectionbetween the Minyaeof Orchomenosand the Minyaeof Iolcusis strengthenedby the statementsof Strabothat the Minyaeof Iolcuswere a colonyfrom Orchomenos. Though this reversesthe otherstory that the Minyansof Orchomenoscame from Thessaly,it main- tainsthe relationshipbetween them. We have seen that the Minyaeof Iolcusdwelt in the PelasgicArgos, and were thereforeprobably a Pelasgian tribe. If we can provethem to be such,the proofwill likewise hold good for the Mlfinyaeof Orchomenos.I have alrea(lymentioned Minyae who occupiedsix townsin Triphyliain the Peloponnesus,living beside the older tribeof the Epeians,and the latersettled Eleans. Accordingto Pausanias,46 Neleus, the father of Nestor, conqueredPylus, having come with the Pelasgiansfrom Iolcus t Thesecan be no other than the Xlinyaeof Iolcus, who probablyunder the pressureof Achaeanadvance had to leavetheir old homes in PelasgicArgos. The fact that Nestor'smother was Chloris,a Minyanfrom Orchomenos in Boeotia,helps to confirmthe identificationof the Minyaeof Orchomenoswith thoseof Iolcusat the sametime. 87t i, 46 Paus. ir. 36, 1, 45 vol. 106 WHAT PEOPLE PRODUCE:D We havenow proved (1) the connectionof the Minyansof Orchomenos in Boeotia(a) withthe inhabitantsof the PelasgicArgos in Thessaly,(b) with the Minyansof Iolcuson the PagasaeanGulf, the verydistrict of the ancient PelasgicArgos in which stands the totnbof Volo; (2) that these Minyans of Iolcusare Pelasgians,being so termedby Pausaniaswhen he describesthe settlementof Neleus at Pylus,where later on we find the Minyaewith the Epeiansand Eleans forming the threetribes which gave its nameto Triphylia. The Argoand her voyage are well knownto the Homericpoet. She alone of all ships had escaped from Scylla and Charybdis.47Evenus, the son of Ja.son,whom lIypsipyle bore to him when the Argonauts touchedat Lemnos,is reigningin that islandat the time of the siege of Troy and is a wealthy trader,trafficking with the Phoenicians,with the Achaeans,whom he suppliedwith wine,a.nd with the Trojans. Fromother sources we hearthat the Argonautswent up the BlackSea to its Easternend in their searchfor the GoldenFleece, which Strabo has well explainedas arisingfrom the pra.cticein that regionof collectinggold dust by placingfleeces a.crossthe beds of mountaintorrents, to catchthe particlesof gold broughtdown by the stream. The Argonautsmounted even the Caucasus,aud heard the groansof Prometheusagonized in his adamantinebondage by the gnawingsof the vulture. That earlyvoyages were madein Myceneantimes to that region gets a curiouspiece of confirmationfrom the factthat the onlygem of lapis lazuli(of knownprovenance) as yet foundin Myceneangraves is thatdiscovered in the beehivetomb at Volo in Thessaly. If such gems had been foundin Crete,Mycenae, or Vaphio,we couldsay that they camefrom Egypt, but the factof theil absencein SouthernHellas, and the presenceof one in Thessaly, points ratherto direct trade with the only region which furnishedthe stone. For Persiasupplied it all, until in moderntimes South America and Siberiahave alro furnishedit. PelasgianArgos is mentionedby Homerand Strabo,as we have already seen; the lattertells us that it wasthe territoryextencling from the mouths of the riverPeneus to Thermopylae(in the MJ1alianGulf). This regionwas alsoknown as Pelasgiotis.48It of coursecomprised within it the Pagasaean gulf,and Iolcus, so associatedwith the sailingof the Argo,and Mount Pelion, Jason'shome, with tinlberfrom which the Argowas built. On the Peneus lay the city of Larissa,the old Pelasgiccapital, which stillretains its nameand pre-eminence. In Homer49 the Pelasgihad been but recentlydriven out fromit, amongthe alliesof the Trojansare ' the tribesof thePelasgians who used to dwellin Larissaand those who dwelt in Pelasgic Argos.' The Minyaemay then be regarcledas one of the Pelasgictribes. Theyare certainly not Achaean,for the pedigreeof Jasonshows no connec- tionwith Hellenand his sons. Downto the tinzeof Perseusthe Pelasgians arestill in possessionof this region,for he and his motherwent there, when itwas still knownas Pelasgiotis.

47 Od. xii. 69, 7Q. 98 At)ollod, ii, 4, 4, 49 1l. ii. 237, TlIE OBJECTSCAT.T.ED MYCENEAN ? 107 It is importantto noticethat Herais the goddesswho takes special care of Jason and his Argonauts,and accordingto Callimachus(Cer. 26) Pelas- gians plantedill Dorianterritory near Lake Boebisin Thessalya grovein honourof Demeter,a fact which links this region with the Pelasgian Demeterof Argos,and with Phigaleiain Arcadia. We have seen that Andreus,the founderof the Orchomenosdynasty, camefrom the Peneus,so the Pelasgicorigin of the Millyansof Orchomenos mightbe assumedfrom that circumstancealone. But thereare otherpoints. The nameMinyan itself links them with the Minyansof Iolcus,the name Orchomenoswith the Pelasgiansof Orchomenosin Arcadia,who in turnare closelyconnected with the Minyaeof Thessaly. For Ancaeus,king of Tegea, is one of the crewof the Argo. AoainOrchomenos in Boeotiawas a member of that ancientamphictyony which met for the worshipof Poseidonin the islandof Calaureia,of whichNauplia was also a memberas well as Athens. lfinallyOrchomenos was the seat of a mostancient cultus of the Charites. Now Herodotus50 believedthat Hera, Themis,and the Chariteswere purelyPelasgian deities. The existencethen of an immemorialfane of the Charitesat Orchomenosstamps the Minyansas Pelasgian.

V. TROADand AEOLID.-The Dorians had neverany settlementin the north-westerncorner of AsiaMinor: Byzantium on -the Europeanside was theirnearest settlement. The Achaeansdo not appearto have made any settlementsin the Troad,for the townsin this region such as Scepsis and Dardaniain historicaltimes are ante-Achaeanin their coin types. Their localheroes are Hectorand Aeneas,not Achilles or Agamemnon.On the other hand there are manytraces of close connectionbetween this region and the Pe]asgi of Greeceproper. Dardanushimself one of the chief heroesof the Troadaccording to traditioncame from Arcadia. Virgil makes him come from Samothracethe Pelasgian island. Hence Niebahr con- jecturedthat the Teucriansand Dardanians,Troy and Hector ale perhaps to be regardedas Pelasgian. On the Hellesponttwo Pelasgiantowns were still extant in the daysof Herodotus,Placia and Scylace.5l Cyzicuswas theirsuntil the Milesiansmade themselves masters of it; 52 andthe Macrians, a raceof theirstock, dwelt on the otherside of the sameisland on the coast facingthe Bosphorus. The legends also indicateconstant intercourse between Peloponnesus and this part of Asia. When Ancaeusthe killg of Tegea,infuriated with his daughterAuge because of her liaison with Heracles,gave her to Nauplius,the lattertook her to Mysiaand sold her to king Teuthras,and thereshe becamethe motherof Telephus. Accordingto Pausanias(vii. 4, 6) a body of Arcadianscrossed with Telephusinto Asia. Eurypylusthe son of Telephuswas an ally of the Trojans,and his territoryin the vicinityof Thebe,Lyrnessus and Pedasuswas ravagedby

52 Schol. ad Apoll. Rh. i. 987. Cf, tb. 948. 50 ii. 50. 51 i. 57. 108 WHAT PEOPLE PRODUCED the Achaeans.53This shows that therewas Pelasgic blood in the Troad. Orl the otherhand Pelops came to Peloponnesusfrom Phrygia. The Mycenean remainsfound at Titanemay well be the outcomeof the Pelasgicpopulation whichdwelt there and all around. The islandof Lesbos,which has everbeen so closelyconnected with the Aeolid,was actually called Pelasgic, as we saw above; It was capturedby the Achaeansduring the siege of Troy,and seven of the Lesbianwomen who fell to the share of Agamemnonformed part of the gifts offeredby him to Achilles. VI. THERA.This islandwas colonized by the Minyansof Orchomenos accordingto the well-knownstory told by Herodotus.54It was colonized laterby Dorians,but as we have on other groundsfound it impossibleto rebardthe Doriansas the creatorsof Myceneanremains, it followsthat the pottery of that kind foundin Theramust be ascribedto the older Minyansettlers. But as we have alreadyshown that the Minyaewere Pelasgians,it followsthat the Theraeanpottery of the Myceneantype is the workof Pelasgians. VII. CYPRUS-Thatthere was a c]ose connectionbetween the main bodyof Greeksettlers in CaTprusancl the Pelasgiansof Arcadiais evidenced most clearlyby the fact that the Cyprioteand Arcadiartdialects are so closelyconnected as to be treatedtogether in workson GreekDialects and Inscriptions. At Curium the excavationsof Mr. H. B. Walters have revealedMycenean remains of variouskinds. Strabo(683) says that ' Ctlrium wasfounded by Argives.' This is of great importancef'or it indicatesthat the Myceneancultllre entered Cyprusnot from the east but from the mainlandof Hellas and fromthe great ancientseat of the Pelasgi. The fact that a scarabof DynastyXXVI. was found with the Myceneanremains (forthe knowledgeof whichI am indebteclto Mr.Walters' kindness) shows howin certainplaces the Myceneanculture colltinued without a breakinto classicaltimes, but it in no wiseproves that it began in late times.54a VIII. EGYPT.-I have alreadymentioned the legend of Danausand Aegyptus, descellded from Io's Zeus-begottenson Epaphus, who was destinedto settle at the rtlouthof the Nile accordingto the prophecyof Prometheus. Thisprophecy put by Aeschylusin the mouth of Prometheus no doubtelnbodies an ancienttradition of emigrantsfrom Argolis settling in the Delta. I have alreadyproved the Pelasgiannationality of Io, and her de- scendantswho returned to Argos. IX. RHODES.The same story of Danausalso connectsRhodes with very earlyPelasgic occupation. For Danausis said to have settled for a

53 Od. xviii. 518. C£ Straboxiii. 1. illscriptionsfound at Curiumprove the dialect

54 iv. 146 seqq. not Doricbut cotnmon CyprioteAeolic, 54a These Argives were not Vorians, for THE OBJECTS CAT.T.E.DMYCENEAN 2 109 whilein Rhodeson his wayfrom E:gypt to Argos,and the veryarchaic statue of Atheneat Linduswas said to havebeen set up by him. The threetowns of Ialysus,Cameirus, and Lindusare mentionedin Homer,where their settle- rnentis ascribedto a son of Heracleswho led a numberof his mother's people(not Dorians) from the riverSelleis to Rhodes.

X. CRETE. I havealready given the lines of Homerwllich enumerate the races that inhabitedCrete, amongstwhom are the divine Pelasgi. Accordingto one readingthey occupiedCnossus. But the Myceneanremains there can be much more certainlyconnectecl with Pelasgicworkmanship. Daedalusaccordint, to HomerInade ' a dancingplace for Ariadne at Cnossus'; accordingto the later legendshe built the Labyrinthfor her father Minos, whohad got the famousartificer to come fromAthens. We have proved the Atheniansto be Pelasgians,and accordinglythe patronsaint of Greek plasticart is a Pelasgian. Once rnorea Myceneanpalace is shown to be ascribedin Greeklegend to a Pelasgicbuilder. Beforeleaving the area of Greeceproper and the Aegean Sea, it is right that I should point out the'localities which ancient stateinents declareto have been once occupiedby Pelasgiantribes, but in whichno objectsof the Myceneantype haveas yet beenrecognized. Epirus has not yet yieldedany such,nor have Lesbos, Cllios, Imbros, Samothrace, Lemnos, Scyrus,Sciathus. On the other hand Myceneanremains have been found in Paros,Amorgos, Ios, Therasia,Naxos, Melos,in none of which can I definitelyprove as yet Pelasgicsettlements, but their Ionic populationsin severalcases, and the f'actof contiguousislands having been occupiedby Pelasgiansmake it probablethat in all casesthis peoplehad been the early inhabitants. XI. ITALY. I have spokenof the remains of Myceneancharacter being found in Etruria, Latium, and in the regionoccupied by the Iapyges. That the Pelasgiansoccupied some part of Etruriaand Latium is assuredby the best Romanauthorities. Thus Servius(ad Verg. ii. 83) assertsthat the Pelasaiformerly lived in Etruriaand Latium. Strabo(219) tells us that Caere,originally called Agylla,was a Pelasgiantown, captured by Etruscans. The Greekafiinity of Caereis provedby the story of the pollutionarising from the massacreof Phoceans(Herod. i. 167). In the Pelasgicorigin of the Oenotrianswe have alreadygiven the statementof Pherecydesquoted by Dionysius'of Halicarnassus.For the presenceof the Pelasgi in South Italy I have also quotedthe evidenceof StephanusByzantius, who assertsthat the serfs of the Greekswere called Pelasgi. The historicalevidence is thus complementaryof the actualremains of bronzework in Etruria,Cy-clopean buildings in Latium(Signia), and pottery * n lapygla._ n At the satnetime I must point out that there were Achaeancolonies in SouthernItaly, and that there are variouslegends of Achaeanheroes 110 WHAT PEOPLE PRODUCED coming to Italy after the return from Troy, Diomede,Philoctetes, and others. Myceneanpottery has been foundin Sicily. The proximityof the island to SouthernItaly and the fact that we hear of the peoples who occupied the mainland of Italy regularlyalso occupying the other side of the Straits makes it probable that the Pelasgi of South Italy had settlementson the Sicilianside of the channellikewise. It is remarkablethat it is in relationto the voyageof the Argo and her Minyan crew that we first hear of the Strait and Scylla and Charybdisin that passageof the Odysseyalready quoted. That a knowledgeof this region is ascribedto the Pelasgiansof Greeceproper in Homerictimes is indeed significant.

Let us nowsum tIp our results. We havefound historical or legendary evidencefor Pelasgic occupatioll of a11the chief partsin Greeceproper, and the islands,an(l Egypt and Italy, where Mycenean objects have been found. In certainplaces of great importance,such as Attica and Orchomenos,we find these remain.swhere the ancient historiansdeclare there were no Achaeansettlements. Arcadia,which was alwaysa pure PelasgiGcountry, hasalready yielded minor Mycenean evidence, and the ancientevidence froln Homerand Pausanias shows us the tombof ancientkings closely resembling thatfound on the Acropolisof Mycenae. At Mycenaeitself the accounts withevery temptation to refereverything to the Achaeanperiod (leclare the wallsand Lion gate to be built by those mrhobuilt Tirynsfor Proetuswhilst the Cyclopeanremains of Attica are directly ascribedto the Pelasgians; andthe Myceneanbuilding at Cnossusin Crete is connectedwith Daedalus the Pelasgianfrom Athens. In Thessalythe beehive tomb of Volo is situatedin the very reU,ionknown as the land of the Pelasgians. The evidencefor the Troadwas against Achaeanoccupation and in favourof Pelasgian. Thera,Rhodes, and Egypt have Pelasgian,but no Achaean traditions.Cyprus had an earlysettlement from Salamisn led by Teucer,but thelanguage links the main part of the Greekpopulation with the purely PelasgianArcadia, and Strabo ascribesthe foundingof Curium,where Myceneanremains have been found,to settlers from Argos who were notDorians but prae-Dorians.There are Achaeansin Crete as well as PelasgiansXbut, as alreadypointed out, very early buildingsat Cnossus areconnected with Daedalusthe Athenian. As Ar as I canjudge, the balanceof ancienttradition is largelyon the sideof a Pelasgianorigin for the Myceneancivilizationn and against an Achaean. Oursecond condition is a peoplewho used a pictographicscript in the PeloponnesusnAttican and Crete, closely connected with the Cypriotesyllabaryn andthe charactersfound on the so-calledHittite seals and monumentsof AsiaMinor. Homerin one famousand oft-quotedpassage refers to soineform of writing.It is in the storyof the Temptationof Bellerophon. THE OBJECTS CALLED MYCENEAN ? lll Stheneboea,wife of king Proetus,having failed to beguileBellerophon, falselyaccused him (as Potiphar'swife did Joseph)to her husband. Proetusshrunk from the pollutionof killinghim and sent him with a letter to his father-in-lawthe king of Lycia.55 Proetus,as we havealready seen, was the Pelasgianking of Tiryns. He writesa letterin Argoliswhich can be read in Lycia by his father-in-law. This king Proetusis a Pelasgianand is dwellingin Argolisat Tirynsbefore the Achaeanconquest of that country. Homeris thus our witnessfor the existenceof a kind of writingin Peloponnesusbefore the Achaeanconquest. Thatthe 7R,aara )tvfypa weremost probably some form of pictograph, as supposed by Dr. Leaf andMr. A. J. Evans,is highlyprobable. It has beenheld that (1) Z7,aara )tvfypa do not referto anykind of writing, but are identical with vrR,aa of 1. 176, andmean letter of introduction,the pluralbeing used for the singularunder the exigencyof the metre. I maintainthat the plural vt7,aara can onlybe used= a document,because the documentis conceived as madeup of a numberof individualsymbols, just as the Lat. Iitterae= an epistle, becauseit is composedof many individuallitterae (letters of the alphabet). I shall take the case of eypa,u,ua(in referenceto writing,not painting). eypafz,uRa= (1) a scratchor letterof the alphabet;(2d the plural eypctfz,uRara=a document, as being made up of eypa,u,,uUaPra(letters of the alphabet, just as Lat. Iitterae= epistle); (3) eypa,u,uUaused as a collectivenoun = a document. Now, when we meet Pra eypa,u,,uUaPra,clearly meaninga single document,in Herodotusor other prosewriters, we do not considerit the pluralof so eypa,uR,uRa= documents, the pluralbeing used for singularunder the exigencyof metre, but as the plural of ro eypa,,uUa = letter of the alphabet. ¢r1EuUain Homermeans (1) any kind of mark; (2) vryfzaPra(plural) = a document;(3) vr/,uUa(1. 176) usedas a collectivenoun-a docutnent. Of what is ¢Duara (1. 168) the plural? Unquestionablyof v ,ua = a single mark. If vr)uUaPra,then, = a document,it doesso exactly in the same way as Praeypa,u,uUara and lttterae have that meaning. But this presupposesthe existenceof a numberof separatesymbols; which, in the case of vr5yG6sa ?tveypa,must be eitherpictographic or alphabetic. Exigency of metre can hardlybe called into service in the caseof vry,uaPra)tveypa. The poet wouldnot havehad any difficultyin findingan adjectivewhich would have fitted the end of the hexameterand enabled him to use vr),uRain the singuiar. To quoteBe,uvaPra and yeeyapa as cases of the use of pluralfor singular is useless. Bco,u,aracan be llsed = a house,on the very sameprinciple on which eypa,u,,u,ara= a docunlent. A houseis an aggregateof chambers,the originalhouse beillg but a single chamber. The same principleis seen in obKwa the well-knownuse of ObKOb and BoHob in tragedy,and in Lat.aedes= a dwelling-house,the singlllarbeing always kept for the house of a god (originallya single room). What we want are examplesof other nounsn

55 >1. Vi. 168-70. 112 WHAT PEOPLE PRODUCED suchas ,SovD,i7rqrov; BavBevD, the plaralsof whichcan be usedto denotea single individualof the class. Metricallythis would have often been convenient;but does it ever occur? It cannotbe said that in the case of neuterssuch a use of plural for singularis permitted,for otecoand aedes evincethe contrary. (2) If v,uara of II. vi. 168 mean sotnekind of writing,as has been heldby the scholars,these v,uara representeither pictographs or alphabetic symbols. I maintainthat the use of ua, wheneverit is foundin connec- tion with writing as in the casesof the oldestinscribed Greek coin, the seal of Thyrsis,the shieldsof the heroesin Aeschylus,where it alwaysrefers to pictorialrepresentation as contrastedwith eypafzfzara = alphabeticsymbols- makes it probablethat the vrR,uara XVeypa were pictographicrather than alphabetic. To argue that eypaCrasimplies that the writing was alphabetic,not pictographic,involves a familiarfallacy. eypa,u,ua iS unknownto lIomer. The factthat it is employedto clenotethe Phoenicianalphabet shows that vrwfza was alreadyconnected with a differentsystem. The new term eypafzfzara was used for the new kind of characters. The legend which nscribesto Palamedesthe son of Naupliusthe inventionof writingis after all probablyright. For it is nowproved that there was in Greecea system of writingbefore the introductionof the Phoenicianalphabet. Just as Proetuswho wrotea letter to Lyciais a Pelasgianof Argolis,so Palamedes the inventorof an ancientsystem of writingis alsoa Pelasgianfrom Nauplia in Argolis. Thusthese pictographshave been foundin Attica wherethere werenever Achaeans, and writing is imputedto Proetusat Tirynsbefore any Achaeanshad comethere. Thesefacts taken together are in favourof such writingbeing Pelasgian, but as it is foundon Myceneanobjects therefore the Myceneancivilization is Pelasgian. (3) What is the relationbetween the Myceneancivilization and that depictedin Homer? That there is a close resemblancebetween the stageof culturerepre- sentedin the lIomericpoems and that revealedin the tombs of Mycenae and the palaceof Tiryns,no one can doubt. But neverthelessthere are severalpoints of diSerencewhich have troubledthose who hold that the Myceneancivilization is purelyAchaean. For instancethe differentInethods of burial and the use of iron freely in the one and almostunknown in the other.

BURIAL.-In IIomerthe deadare always cremated. On the otherhand the peopleof the Myceneanage buriedthe bodyintact, possibly employing somekind of embalming.It has been soughtto minimizethis difficultyby pointingout that the Athenianscontinued to practiceburial and not crema- tion down to the 6th cent.B.C., as provedby the evidencederived from the the Dipyloncemetery.56 But, as I have shownrepeatedly, the Atheniansare

bB Schuchhardt,op. ctt. p. 296. THE OBJECTSCALLED MYCENEAN? 113 not Achae.ans,but Pelasgians. The evidence,therefore, of the Dipylon cemeterygoes to showthat the Pelasgiansdid not practisecremation until quitelate, when they had alreadymerged into the Hellenicbody. The infer- encefrom this is that the Myceneansavere Pelasgians, and not Achaeans.

IRON. No iron has been found in the grave; on the Acropolisof Mycenae,and in the lowercity no objectsof tllis 1naterialexcept two finger ringshave been found.57 In Homeron the otherhand though we hearmuch of bronze(%aXecos) neverthelesswe meetwith the IronAge ful]ydeveloped. Chalkos is mentioned much1nore frequently than iron,but this is just one of those caseswhere the statisticalmethod has misled Homericscholars. Chalkosis the olderword forthe metal of which weaponswere made,and it thus lingeredin many phrases;to smitewith the chalkoswas equivalent to ourphrase ' to smitewith the steel.'58 ChaScezonand chaZeqbs continued to be the termsemploved for blac7ksrzth and forgethrough all classicalGreek Literature, when beyond all doubt the chief luetal workedby the chalkeus was iron. But a few passagesfrom Homericpoems will putthe matterbeyond question. Axesboth doubleand single weremade of iron. Thosegiven as prizesfor archeryby Achille£are of this metal.59It wasin suchcommon use as to be employedfor the fittings of the plough.6°For Achillesdeclares that the winnerof the nlassof natural iron(fGO\OS aVro%ozzoos) will be well suppliedfor the wantsof his ploughman and shepherd,nor xvillthey want to go to a town to procureiron. Arrow- heads (Z\ 123), maces (H 141), and knives (2 34) were of iron. Finally the weaponsthat hung on the wallsof the megaronof Odysseus'house were of iron. They are to be renlovedbecause, 'iron of itself doth attract a man.'6l If it is said that the Achaeanpoet writingat a later age introducesthe practiceof his own time into the life of the earlierAchaeans, we must reinemberthat the Greeksettlements in Asia andItaly, which are certainly unknownto the Homericpoet orpoets, cannot be broughtdown nluch lower than 1000B.C. If, on the otherhand, we supposethat the Achaeansrepresent the van of those peopleswho spreadin variousdirections from Central Europe,bringing vvith them in everycase iron, the questionis easilydisposed of. Their successin overtnasteringthe o]der race may vvell have been due to superiorityof weapons. The factthat onlytwo ringsof iron havebeen found at Mycenaeshows that ironwas still veryscarce, and probablyused for fingerrings becauseof its magical properties. Magneticiron early attractedthe notice of the Greeks,and the fact that the mere beating of a piece of iron renderedit magneticalways made this metaIan objectof superstition. The line of the

57 SChUChHardtSOp. Cit.226. 60lb. XXiii.826. 58 Cf.SChO1* Ven.B in1l. XiX- 283,P 525 61Od. ZVi. 291. 59 1g. XXiii.850. H.S.-NOL.XVI. I WHAT PEOPLE PRODUCED 114 Odysseyjust quoted,wherein iron is saidto attracta manof itself,probably refersto this veryproperty:-

avToS eyap e+e\ECePra6 avspa frs8Xpos.

Of coursewe hearmuch in Homerof bronzearmour (%a\Ecela Tev%ea), hut bronzecontinues to to be used for defensiveartnour long afteriron has replacedit forcutttng weapons. Thoughthe tnodernfireman uses a steelase, he wearsa brasshelmet, and the Frenchdragoon a brasscuirass. The Philis- tines of the Old Testamentare in the samestage as the HomericAchaeans. Goliathwears a helmet,and breastplate of brass,but calriesa spearof iron. FIBULAE.-In Homer the garlnentsare regularlyfastened on with brooches(Xrepoloal). The Acropolisgraves of Mycenaeon the other hand furnishno brooches. Thisis a markedcontrast, and it cannotbe got over by the factthat three fibulaehave been found in the later graves of the lowercity.62 I havebefore called attention to the fact that the beehivetomb nearthe Heraeunzshows evidence of having been used for burial down to classicaltimes. It is thus perfectlynatural to find such sporadicappear- ancesof broochesin gravesof the Myceneanperiod, they may have been of eventhe sameperiod as the Myceneanremains buried along with the wometl of anotherrace, who continuedwearing their national brooch. The absenceof broochesmarks an earlierstage in dress,when the garmentswere probably ' tied on.' Thusin the olderpile dwellingsof Switzerlandand in the bronze age of Irelandbrooches with pins areunknown.

SIGNETGEMS. Pliny 63 remarkedon the complete absence of any mentionof signetsin Homer. This is a veryremarkable fact, for there are manypassages where we shouldnaturally expect to find mentionof signets such as the fasteningand unfastening of doorsof the treasurechambers; and in the passagerelating the sending of the letter Proetus scratchedthe characterson a tablet, but we are not told that he sealed it, thoughsome have hastilyassumed that this musthave been the case. The men of the Myceneantombs used engraved gems very freely, either as amuletsor signets or as both combined. We hearof jewelleryand all kinds of ornamentsin Homer,but of no kind of stoneor other substanceused for setting, except amber,a substancetoo brittlefor engravingon, but which can be boredfor beadswith the greatestease by primitivemen, such as the lake dwellersof Switzerlandand the Po valley,and the Angles and Saxons,who could not workhard stones. The Myceneanpeople could use greenjasper, cornelian, serpentine,sardonyx, lapis lazuli for their engravedgems. If the Homeric poet knewof such it is strangethat he does not mentionthem anywhere. If he wasa late writerputting the habits of his own age into an earlier time, the onlyway of getting over the difficultyabout iron, we shouldfind him doubtlessalluding to sucha use of engravedstones or signets,for it is

62 Schuchhardt, 122, 351. 63 . y. Xxxiii. 12. THE OBJECTS CAtJXED MYCENEAN? certainthat the practiceof usingseaJs was one that grew more and moreas I15 we get to classicaltimes, and that at no time in the Hellenic perioddid it tend to fall into desuetude. It is certainlyinteresting to Snd the art of gem engravingespecially flourishing in regions where the Pelaslt,icrace was dominant. Theodorusand Mnesarchasof Samos are the tmronames of engraverswhich reach us fromthe sixth centuryB.C. CYPrt1Shss supplied manygems of fineGreek art of the best period,and the engratersof Magna Graeciawere the most eminent in lIellas. A series of Etruscanscarabs engravedin Greekstyle is well known. Are these the work of the salrle racewhich had its settlementsin Etruriafrom a remoteperiod ? Any one who takes a soberview of the matter will find it hard to reconcilethe existenceof the large and importantseries of gems, whether they wereused as amuletssuspended to necklaces,as someof thosefound at Vaphio,or usedas signets,with the completeabsence of any allusionto such objectsin the Honlericpoems.

SHIELDS.The shieldsportrayed on Myceneanworks of art are of one type,and that a type not foundin classicalGreece. It is bipartite,consistilzg of two circulardiscs touchingone another,something like a figure8. Dr. Reichelhas soughtto identifythis with the shieldof the Homericpoems.64 The Aspis of the poemsis regularlydescribed as 7ravroer' eerr, 'equal in every direction,'esveckoreptq, evesveckos, ( circular,'o¢>aBoserera, ' having a boss.' Reichelthinks that esveckorepqq meansthe Myceneanshield formed of two circlesplaced side by side. Evensupposing that esveckorepqq could havethis meaning,which in anycase is ratherforced, how can vrazJTon' eerX7 and eutsveckosmean any other than a circularshield ? Moreover,a simile referringto the shield of Achillesloses its appropriatellessunless the shield wasround:- sov Be eXas eyever'rRvse ,ur)vr)s. In the other passage,where ,u is used similarlyin a comparison, regardis hadto the shapeas well as the colourof the objectscompared. It is a markon a horse'sforehead:-

Bevgov n#' erervro ospspo%ov nvse Hv>r. It is, therefore,more likely that the poet had a circularshield in his rnind ratherthan one of the peculiarMycenean shape. Homerdoes not tell us the shapeof the shieldof Ajax,the son of Telamon; he only says it is like a tower,which may refer simply to its strength.65It wasthe workof Tychius of Arnein Boeotia. Chalcus,the son of Athamasof Orchomenos,was the inventolof a shield, and Tychiuskept up the traditionfor such a manu- facture. Now the traditionalshield of Ajaxplaced on the coins of Salamis at a late periodis a Boeotianshield, so familiaron Boeotiancoins, and which Mr.A. J. Evansthinks is derivedfrotn the Myceneantype. If this be so,it is

142. 64 Elorner7scheWaffien, p. 19. iV. 65 11. 116 W:EIATPEOPLE PRODtJCED remarkableto findsuch a connectionexisting between the shieldinvented by the Minyansof Orchomenosand the Mycenean Of course,to make the argumentreally cogent, we oughtto be able to show what was the shapeof the shieldinvented by Chalcus. The peopleof Salamismay very well have madethe shieldof Ajaxas seen on the coinsof Boeotia,because of Homer's statementthat it wasmade by a Boeotian. On the otherhand, the Locriallsrepresent the shield of Ajax on their coins as the usual roun(lGreek shield. If we could rely upon this as a truetradition, it wouldshow that the Achaeanshield was round. But I do not think that any one whowas 1lot carried away by a desireto fit on the Homericdescriptions exactly to everydetail of the objectsfound at Mycenae wouldhave even thought of regardingthe Homericshield as other than circular. If I am rightin maintainingthe viewsof the olderscholars, there is then an importantdiSerence in the shieldof the HomericAchaeans and the- Mycenean. It is just one of thosedifferences in armswhich we findexisting amongpeople not fardifferent from each other in other respects. Though we havello statementin Homerrespecting the shieldsused by the Pelasgians, we are toll the natureof their oSensiveweapons. The epithet eey%ee:rs,U@pos (whatevermay be the etymologyof its last part) means fighting with spears,as contrastedwith to,u6opos, ' fightingwith arrows.' The sameepithet (efy%es,uZpos) is appliedto thc Arcadiansby Nestor,when he recountsone of the greatexploits of his earlydays, probably when the conquestof Pylus wasstill hardlycomplete. It wouldbe a difficultyto the Pelasgianorigin of the Myceneanart if we founda seriousdiscrepancy between the arms of the warriorsseen on Myceneanpottery and those ascribed to the Pelasgiansin Homer. But this difficultydoes not exist. On the contrarythe Myceneanwarriors seen lnarchingin processionon the well-knownfragments frorn the Acropolisof Wlycenae(Schliemann, Mycencse, p. 133) are armedwith long spears.

GREAVES.-TheAchaeans of Homerwear greaves of bronze. They are calledxa\EcoEcrv,ul8eS as well as suesvul8es. No grea0teshave been found at Mycenae

THORAX.The Achaeansof Homerwear the breastplate(Sxpt), but no breastplatehas been found in Myceneangraves. :Eteichelhas to regard the lines which make the Achaeanswear greavesand breastplateas later interpolations.Where he thinks861)pt is foundin olderstratum, he takesit to mean arm,ourcollectively rlot shield-an assumptionthat cannot be justifiedby the arguments.Reichel cuts out as lateradditions the lineswhich containthe epithet%a\EcoEw#Mc8es and maintainsthat the Achaeanssnerely wore woollengaiters to protecttheir shins fromthe knocksof the shield. If the EIomericwarrior had neitherbronze breastplate nor bronzegreaves, it it is hardto understandhow his armourrattled when he fell-

Bou7rffer 8e sreR)r, apa|3ne Be v6uxe 67r avTa). THE OBJECTS CATsT.E.DMYCENEAN ? 7 HAIR.-The fashionof wearingthe hairis one of the chief distinctions betweenraces and tribes in moderntimes, and it was just as importantin earlyGreece. The Achaeansof the Homericpoems pridedthemselves on their long hair, calling themselvesKCZpn K°#°@pT6S, as distinguishedfrom otherpeoples such as the Abantesof Euboea,who had their hair onlylong behind(o/7rSe1s ecozoeloreS),66 andfrom the Thracianswho wore their hair in a hightuft on the top of the head(aKpoKoHo&).67 Thewearing of the lwairin such tufts was regardedby the Achaeanswith contempt. Thtls Diomedewhen woundedby Parisalludes contemptuously to his coil of hairlike a horn-

T0g07M, \@RTrp K6pA a\as Tap8erorTa. Virgil(xii. 100) alludesto this as a Phrygiancustom. Thereis certainlyno referenceto any suchfashion on the part of any Achaeanhero in Homer. Furthermore,when the opportunityfor such referenceoccurs, we findthe hairrepresented as streamingfrom down the headentirely ullrestrained, as in the caseof Odysseus.68 The Myceneanwarriors on the vase-fragmentsalready quoted wear their hairin a kind of chignonor roll,and on anothervessel, ornamented with men'sheads, three curls hang down behind.- This is rlot the practiceof the Achaeans,and to call suchfigures Achaean is erroneous.Such a fashionof wearingthe hair was knownin one partof Greecein the historicalperiod. Thucydidestells that down nearlyto his own time the noblesat ;&thens continuedon accountof theireff8eminacy to wear linen tunics and to wear their hair long and tied up in a knot (KpC9V\O¢) fastenedwith a claspof goldengrasshoppers.69 This knob?losseems to be the sameas the krlotofthe Myceneanwarrior. If the Athenianswere originallyAchaeans, when did they beginthe effeminatepractice which they abandonin the fifth century? OR1the other hand if they are Pelast,ians,as stated by Herodotusand Thucydides,the fashionof wearing the haizin a bunchhad survived among the AthenianPelasgi when it had alreadyperished in the partsof Greecewhich had come under Achaeanand Dorianinfluence. This fashionbeing non- Achaeanand Pelasgian,we are led to concltldethat the warriorson the Myceneanvase are not Achaeans,but Pelasgians.

POTTERY.Homer gives us a pictureof the potterat workin one of the sceneson the shield. If the Achaeanswere the makersof the fine lustrous Myceneanware with its decorationsof marineplants and animals,and its rowsof marchingwarriors, we might expect some referenceto this art of paintinaon pottery,just as we haveto the stainingof ivory. But even in the latter case,the art of paintingis ascribedto the Carians,and is not spokenof as an Achaeanart. Finallyit is remarkablethat only 11 out of 122 illustrationsgiven by

66 1Z. ii. 536. 68 Od. vi. 336. {;7 lb. iv. 534. Cf. v+z%alsXs) used by Pindar 69 Thuc. i. 6, (P. iv. 306) of the sons of Boreas. 118 WHAT PEOPLE PRODUCED Helbig in his GornerischeEpos are taken from Mycelleanobjects. If the Homericculture is that of the Myceneanage, we ought to find a much greaterproportion. A surveywill give us the followingresults :- - (1) That there was in Greecean ancient peopleof great importance calledPelasgi. (2) That a classof remainsare spreadover a wide area,not only in Hellas proper,but in Asia Minor,Egypt, Rhodes, Thera, Crete, Italy, and Sicily. In all thoseregions we have been able to showGreek tra(lition for the occupationof the spot by Pelasgians. In Attica,Arcadia, Orchomenos, Theraand Egypt we either had distinct statementsby the historiansthat there never was any Achaeanoccupation (as in Attica and Arcadia)or conlpletesilence as to any such. (3) In the regionof Algolis,especially cotlnected with the Achaeans,we had distinctevidence that the great cities of Mycenaeand Tiryns,with its port of Nauplia,were occupied by the racecalled Pelasgians, and that the Achaeanshad only occupiedthem at a short period before the time representedin Homer. (4) Thatthere is completeevidence from the ancientsto show that the wallsand gateway of Mycenaeand the buildingsof Tiryns,were built by the Pelasgians. (5) That from Homer it is probablethat the Palace of Menelausat Sparta(one of the three cities so dear to the PelasgianHera) was the residenceof the olderkings of the Pelasgicrace. (6) Thatthe sumptuouspalace of Alcinoos,the city of the Phaeacians built with ' drat,gedstones,' and the highest skill in ships are ascribedby Homerto a non-Achaeanpeople, who had been driven from their ancient home,which was probablyin Italy, becausethey had beenharassed by the Cyclopes. (7) Thatthe prae-historicwalls at Athens were calledPelasgic by the Athenians. (8) Thatthe prae-historicbuilding at Cnossusin Creteis connectedwith Daedalus,the Athenian,and therefore Pelasgian, craftsman. (9) That the art of writin,,when mentionedby Homeris connected with Proetus,the Pelasgicking of Tiryns. (10) Thatthis writingcould be understoodin Lycia at a time whenas yet therewas not a singleGreek colony on the seaboardof Asia Minor. (11) That symbolshave been foundon gemsfrom Crete, Peloposlnesus andon vesselsfrom Peloponnesus and Attica resemblingthose found in Asiav Minorand called Hittite, TIIE OBJECTS CAT2TjFjDMYCENEAN ? 119 (12) Thatthe legendsshow contact between the mainlandof Greeceand the east in threequarters: (l) Egypt(Io and Danaus),(2) Lycia (Cyclopes and Bellerophon),(3) north-westend of Asia Minor(Argonauts, Telephlls and Pelops)>the Egyptianbeing the oldest,the north-westAsiatic the latest in order. The legendsshow no contactbetween Peloponnesus and Phoe- nicia,such as we findin Homerin the Achaeana^,e. (13) Thatthere are seriousdiscrepancies between the civilizationof the Homericpoems and that of the Myceneanage. If we then adoptthe viewthat the Pelasgicrace was the creatorof the Myceneanart, and that it yieldedbefore the superiorvalour and probably weaponsof a racenot farremoved in kinshipfrom themselves, but whowere inferiorin numbersand civilizationto the conquered,we shall be simply carryingout the view held by Thucydides. The conquerorswere proudof their connectionwith the older race,into those familiesthey hadrnarried} just as Ataulphus,the Visigoth,married the sister of Honorius}and spakeof the divtnePelasgians, just as the Franksand Visigothswere proudto call themselvesRomans arsd Caesars. If this viewis correct,we oughtto findin the Aeolicdialects of Arcadia and (::yprusthe closestapproximation to the languagespoken by this ancient race. Thisview has the advantageof gettinc completeharmony between the archaeologicalremains, the Homericpoertls and the traditionsof the Greek historians;even the latest portions of Homerknow nothing of Greek colonies on the coastof Asia Minor,Italy, or Africa,the 1lseof coined money,signets, the Phoenicianalphabet, or the freebuying and selling of land. No restora- tion of an antiquevase can be satisfactorywhich calls for the rejectionor breakingin smallerpieces of refractoryfragments. We haveseen the straits to whichthe maintainersof the Achaeantheory have been reduced,having to denythe existenceof the Pelasgiansin Peloponnesus,and at the same time to mutilatethe Homericpoems, and tsventhen to ignorethe vital differencebetween the Bronzeand Iron ages. On the other hand,those who maintain that the Dosians (notoriousin classicaltisnes for their want of art) are the authors of the Myceneanremains must not only denythe Dorianinvasion, a factattested by PindarXThucydides, Ephorus, and the consensusof Greektradition, but they must also sweepaway all his- toricalvalue from the Hoxnericpoems, which, though they know of Dorians elsewhere,do not mentionthem as beingin Peloponnesus,but, on the con- trary,tell us that the Achaeansale in possessionof Argolisand Laconia. But if the Homericpoems represent an age andculture which never existed exceptin poeticfancy, then all discussionis at an end. WIIJLIAMRIDGEWAY.