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170.2016.57.1.7.Pdf BOOK REVIEWS BOKODY, Péter: Images-within-Images in Italian Painting (1250–1350). Reality and Reflexivity, Ashgate, Farnham – Burlington, 2015. xiv+229 pages, 20 pages of plates A picture within another picture begins appear- ing from the second half of the thirteenth cen- tury, when a powerful turn can be discerned in Italian painting. Earlier, painters tried to per- suade viewers of the “real presence” of sacred things; from this moment up to about the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries they tried to represent these things, to render them visible. Representations became truer to reality towards the end of the duecento, with an aim of mirroring small details, too. The spatial correla- tion of persons and objects was pondered about, the goal being to grasp real space, to make the third dimension visible. The growing interest in representing reality, in rendering the plasticity and spatial placement of figures gave rise to the possibility of depicting separate pictures within a picture: images-within-images. Though connoisseurs and researchers of painting have been aware of this phenomenon for ages, it was a lecture by André Chastel in 1964 that first analyzed it thoroughly after some occa- sional mentions,1 after which research began to inquire into it as a self-contained phenomenon. Chastel retraced the device to the Eyckian turn Cover illustration: Crucifixion. Giotto di Bondone: in the early fifteenth century and pointed out Allegory of Obedience, 1310s, fresco. Lower Church, some major milestones from then up to the mid- San Francesco, Assisi. (© Stefan Diller) Acta Historiae Artium, Tomus 57, 2016 0001-5830/2012/$20.00 © Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 188 BOOK REVIEWS twentieth century, but with two or three excep- than once about a sculpture (!) within the picture tions, he was only concerned with panel and or a relief in a building or on a sarcophagus (!) canvas paintings. His collection is not exhaus- without giving reasons for doing so. By contrast, tive; if it were – he states – it would be unbear- he gives thorough explanation why it is justified ably boring. That also applies to Péter Bokody,2 to regard the Crucifixion depicted at the back- both scholars having made a good selection. The ground of the protagonists of a very important author of the reviewed book set himself a more fresco in the lower church of Assisi not just as theoretical goal than Chastel and his followers. part of the picture but as image-within-image, (His book is the further elaborated version of his owing to the different rendering of the insert from PhD dissertation defended at the Central Euro- its immediate environment. Let us side-step now pean University of Budapest in 2010, as footnote the question to what extent this liberal treatment 21 of chapter 4 reveals.) He realized that at the of the boundaries of the picture type named in time when the phenomenon emerged nobody the title can be justified or unjustified, for the would have thought of painting an image within final outcome does verify the author’s method. an image for its own sake, just to suggest reality or Bokody can tell us so much useful and essential show off personal skills like painters of the later information thanks to these border crossings that trompe l’oeil works. In each case he meticulously in the final analysis we must be grateful to him. scrutinized what was implied by the contents Let us see an example to illustrate his that justified this solution. He monitors the birth method of investigation. One of the last scenes and strengthening of the phenomenon in Italian of the Saint Francis cycle in the upper church of painting from the late duecento to the middle of Assisi is Verification of the Stigmata, in which the trecento, starting out from the assumption – he points out to us – there is a panel picture that the frequent use of this device was made pos- of the Crucifixion – an image-within-image – on sible by a turn in painting that took place in that the beam above the main scene. The fact that period. The bulk of his examples are from a period the Crucifixion leans somewhat forward might beginning with Cimabue’s frescoes painted in the derive from one of the spreading attempts to sug- upper church of Assisi around 1278 and ending gest space in the period at issue. Since by this with the death of Ambrogio Lorenzetti around slant the Redeemer’s glance is turned directly 1348. The beginning is marked by Cimabue’s at Francis whose stigmata – actually, his most work and the cycle of Saint Francis’ legend in deeply revered side wound – are being exam- the upper church of Assisi. The next phase is the ined by another actor of the scene, the author consummation of the type in the lower church of points out that the painter managed to effectively Assisi and the Arena chapel of Padua. The third accentuate the intimate and extraordinary con- phase coincides with the work of Giotto’s pupils nection between the Saviour and the founder of Bernardo Daddi and Taddeo Gaddi, as well as the order. Thus, the picture-within-picture served the Sienese painters working parallel with them, the iconographic message well. Bokody often dis- Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti. In their crea- closes observations that are independent of the tions the phenomenon was already a generally image-within-image theme but contribute to a accepted device. more profound understanding of the message. It is not easy to define what is exactly meant A good example is the Apparition of Saint Fran- by “image-within-image.” The author is appar- cis at the Chapter of Arles (Florence, Sta. Croce, ently an advocate of as broad an interpretation Bardi Chapel): we see the saint hovering in the of the term as possible. He deliberately excludes air suggesting his apparition-like presence; here, certain items such as the marginal drôleries in the form of the figure with his extended arms sug- illuminated manuscripts also spreading in this gests Francis’ “Christiformitas.” period, but he does not balk at discussing bor- The main character of the book is Giotto, his der cases or phenomena going beyond the bor- paintings are analyzed most extensively. Since ders. He lays stress on the painted consoles, fic- Bokody highlights a phenomenon and not the tive consoles above or below the painted scenes, different painters and their stylistic changes, he which are emphatically not within but outside feels exempted from taking sides on the moot of the picture boundaries. He also writes more question whether the Saint Francis cycle in Assisi Acta Hist. Art., Tom. 57, 2016 BOKODY: IMAGES-WITHIN-IMAGES 189 was painted by Giotto or not, but from his argu- refers to the original form. Hardly had the device mentations the reader infers that he has a leaning of image-within-image been born, Giotto painted toward a positive answer. (At any rate, he makes an illustrative masterpiece never to be surpassed: a point of saying that even if the brush was not the situation may be compared with the Homeric in his hand, he must have had a decisive contri- epics, which stand at the fountain-head of innu- bution to the conception, perhaps also a sketch. merable heroic epics to be written but never to But he notes that in Padua, where the frescoes come up to the perfection of the epitomes of the are surely Giotto’s works, there are fewer images- genre. within-images. That might be – he ponders – Although we mainly speak of a picture within because the former is the legend of a near-con- another picture, Bokody shows sculptures in the temporary figure, while the latter is a set of Bibli- same function, usually those on a fairly small cal, almost timeless scenes.) He does not believe scale, e.g. some carved statues on column capitals that this solution was the brainchild of a single or adorning upper friezes of buildings, or again, person although Giotto was pictor doctus, nor as pagan idols being crushed when the Holy would his clients, the Franciscans of Assisi have Family arrives in Egypt or when early Christian entrusted all the work to a single painter. This is martyrs are sentenced to death, mostly shown in the most important church of the order founded the background as the ideological foundations of right upon the grave of the saint, and within state power defending the old religion with cruel the exquisite church this is the most emphatic tools. When the statues adorn the façades of Chris- cycle – painted in the most up-to-date approach tian churches, they adopt the contemporaneous of the age, carefully adapting to the biography Gothic models like in Saint Clare Mourning Saint approved just a little earlier as the only official Francis in the upper church of Assisi. When they life story, Legenda maior. The purposefulness of adorn a pagan ruler’s – e.g. the sultan’s – palace the order is obvious, but it is somewhat startling (Saint Francis before the Sultan), Bokody tends that in proof of their erudition, the author men- to discern the impact of ancient Roman frescoes tions two members of the order by name, who also well known in the Middle Ages. After the are not from Assisi, not even from Italy, but from painstaking study of the frescoes sometimes he England: John Peckham and Roger Bacon. Any- manages to identify a so-far unnamed statue, e.g. how, Bokody takes the idea of the solitary painter in The Vision of Friar Augustine in Assisi he dis- genius master minding the whole project for a covered a Saint Anthony hermit.
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