Index

A bad an Al-i Al,tmad Jalal, 106-7, 162, 170, 177, blockade, 172 241 cinema fire, 344 Allied invasion of , 135 occupied by Iranian army, 174 Amfnf, Dr Ali, 192, 202, 343 'Abbasi, Captain, 195 involvement in 1958 coup plot, 199 'Abu Musa, 315 land distribution proposals, 300 Administration structure, 14, 110 negotiations with , Afshar-Tus, Brigadier, 177 220-1 Agri-businesses, 303, 305, 310-11 premiership, 213-16 Agriculture reasons for British dislike of, 314 decline in labour force, 260-1 resignation, 186n, 224 decline in total share, 204 Amfr-Al,tmadf, General, 83, 109 discrimination in investment, 247 Amfr-Inti?:am, Dr 'Abbas, 360 effect of oil revenues, 303-4 Amfr Kabir, see Amfr Nizam output Amfr-Khusravf, General, '109 less than peasant consumption Amfr Ni?:am (Amfr Kabfr), Mfrza Taqf (1971-2), 307 Khan Farahanf, 28, 51 n, 69n per capita, compared with urban, Amfr-Tahmasibf, General, 83 307-8 Amnesty International, 341 rate of growth, 304-5 Amuli, Akhiind Mulla Muhammad, 70n rising in 1930s, 116 Amuzegar, Jamshfd, 242, 342, 345 traditional distribution, 299 Anglo-Iranian Treaty (1919 Agreement), poorly treated by policy makers, 309 77-9,96-7n post-World War I economic contri• Russian protest against, 76 bution, 95 Anglo-Iranian oil agreement (1933), share in national output (19th cen- 118-19, 183-4 tury), 43-4 Anglo-Iranian Oil Company source of capital and cheap labour, 295 compensation for nationalisation, state as monopoly buyer, 133 172 unaffected by urban economic depres- Gass-Gulsha' Ian Agreement, 158 sion (1940s), 157 income and expenditure (1933-49), see also Peasants 183 Al,tmad Shah, 91 Anglo-Persian Oil Company Airforce, involvement in People's agreement with Standard Oil Com• Revolution, 350-1 pany, 94 Akhunduf, Fatl,t'ali, 104 set up (1908), 67 'Ala, Husain, 91, 190, 227, 358 variations in oil revenues paid to Iran, assassination attempt on, 148 I 17 forms caretaker government, 171 An~arf, Hushang, 235, 242 succeeds Ziihedf as premier, 196 'Aqilfzadeh, 'Abbas, 239 'Alam, Asadullah, 163n, 197, 224, Arable crops, 305 . 242 Aranf, Dr Taqf, 125, 144 Alamutr, Nural-Drn, 215, 23ln 'Arif, Abulqasim, 7ln, 80, 82, 88 375 376 Index

Arms purchases Ilakhtfyar. Brigadier (later General) from Britain, 321 Taimiir, 195, 220 from Soviet Union, 320 assassination, 338 from USA, 318-19 plot against Shah, 338 Army Bakhtlyarf, Ja'afarqulf, 109 active in republican camp ( 1924), 89 Balance of payments, 328-9 budget allocation and actual expen• after World War I, 66 diture, 131 effects of deficits, 48 expenditure in 19th century, 43 in 19th century, 38, 39-40 indiscriminate attacks on communities Balance of trade (1978), 348 during 1954-62, 206 little resistance to Allied Invasion non-oil sector ( 1948-53), 184-5 (1941), 135 Bank Bazarganf, 207 modernisation under Reza Shah, 168 Bank Melli Iran, 112 ordered back to barracks (1979), Bank Pars, 207 351 Bank Saderat, 207 Arsanjanr, I;Iasan, 215 Banking system, 67, 207, 292 land distribution proposals, 300 discrimination through nepotism and Asad-abadr, Sayyed Jamal al-Drn, 53 privilege, 113 Ashkanid system of government, 23-4 establishment of national bank, 112 Ashtryanr, Mrrza Hashim, 86 share of GNP, 257 'Ata 'ai-Dawleh, 69 Banque des Prets de Perse, 67 'Atarud, Major, 195 Baqa'f Kirmanf, Dr Mu?:affar, 149, 158, Ayrum, General, I 09 l 70, 177' 192 Azad, 'Abdulqadrr, 149, 158 no longer a supporter of Mu~addiq, 176 Azerbijan Barahinr, Reza, 340- I declaration of autonomy, 145 Bayani, Dr, 147 demand for home rule, I SO Bazar, see Merchant community extreme discrimination against, 133 Bazargan, Mehdf, 216, 238, 342-3 prosperity and strategic vulnerability, appointed premier by Khomaini, 350 149 Behbahanf, Sayyed 'Abdullah, 62, 64 uprising led by Democrats ( 1920s), Behbahanf, Sayyed Muhammad (Ayat- 150-l ullah), 177, 179, 190, 227, 358 reoccupation by central forces, I 55 Bihishtf, Sayyed Muhammad, 362 Azharr, General, 347-8 Bond issue (Popular Debt), 174 Azmiideh, General 1:1 usain, 21 5 Boulard, Sir Reader, 136n Azmiin, Maniichehr, 235 Britain anxious to see stability in Iran ( 1919), Babr movement, 62, 90 77 mid-19th century uprising, 70n attitudes to People's Revolution, 349- Baghdad Pact, 198 50 Bahadur, Sardar, 84 consulates closed down (1952), 175 Baha'r movement delegation sent to discuss oil, 172-3 opposition to Mashrii{eh, ?On dependence of conservatives on, 146 orchestrated attack on, 209n disliked by Reza Shah, 134 Bahar, 86 excluded from Reza Shah's modern• Bahiri, 235 isation plans, Ill Bahrain, 315 51% of Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Bahram!, Farajullah, 83, 194 67 character, 108-9 hostility to oil nationalisation, 168, Bakhtryar, Dr Shapiir, 214, 216, 218 171-2 career, 349 influence in 1950s, 320- I refuses to hand over to Bazargan, 350 involvement in 1921 coup d'etat, 19 Index 377

Iran breaks off diplomatic relations, see also Administration structure 176 Class structure Kashanf opposed to political influence great mobility in Iran, 15, 243 of, 148 imposition of rights and obligations, misunderstanding of Iranian culture, II 168 not evident in Iran, 15 prevention of southward spread of rigidity in feudalism, II Bolshevism, 76 socio-economic, following fall of Reza reasons for lack of sympathy for Shah, 165-6 Amini, 314 see also Social structure repayment of wartime credit, 144 Committees of National Revenge, 343 role played in Reza Shah's abdication, Communications 136-7n effects of improvements, 49 secret treaty with Russia ( 1907), 59, 78 high priority in state budget, 114 support for Persian Revolution, 59 media ·taken over by Pan-Islamic British agents, 146 faction, 362 Budgets share of Gross National Product, 257 allocations (1928-33), 113, 114 Communist Party of Iran (CPI) (1934-41), 129, 130-1 formation ( 1920), 77 deficits, 67 persecution by Reza Shah, 123 departmental estimates unreliable, 68 see also Tudeh Party Bukhara'I, Muhammad, 240 Communist tendencies, 104 Bureaucracy Conservative groups expenditure in 19th century, 43 support for Razmara, 165 in pseudo-modernist Iran, 107-8 see also 'ldalat Party; Iradeh-yi Melli unnecessary growth of jobs, 208 Party Burujirdi, Ayatullah, 161 n, 209n, 298, Consortium Oil Agreement ( 1954), 173, 358 202 Buzarjumehri, Karim Aqa, 120n Constitution, written aim of Persian Revolution, 56 Capital drafted, 59 accumulation, 54 preservation by liberal tendency, 85 in agriculture, 295 royal assent, 59, 69n very limited in 19th century, 46 Construction industry movement across boundaries, 48 growth, 256 Capitalism investment share, 277 financial accumulation, 18-19 Consumption, 262, 264-5 non-universality, 8 Co-operatives, rural, 307, 310 Carpet weaving, 95 Council of Experts, 365 Cash crop production increases (19th Coup d'etat (1921), 79-80 century), 40-1 Coup d'etat ( 1953), 357 Cement production, 280 followed by political persecution, 193- Chlidur (women's overdress), 126 5 reintroduction attempted by Pan• groups involved, 188-90 Islamists, 363 immediate reasons for success, 190-2 use forbidden, 126 initial defeat, 178 women allowed to resume, 141 but fall-back plan successful, 179 Chalfont, Lord (Arthur Gwynne Jones), landlords' subsequent power, 297 242, 316 resultant regime, 192-5 Chelsutiini, Mirza Abdullah (Ayatullah), US involvement, 188, 318 179, 227, 358 Credit, domestic sources of, 67 China, relations with, 317-18, 323-4 Crop-sharing, 299 Civil service, as 'lackeys of the state', 16 Cultural traditions 378 Index

Cultural traditions (Contd) result of pseudo· modernist despotism, rediscovery as antidote to pseudo• 128-9 modernism, I 07 theoretical framework for oil, 242-50 submerged by pseudo-modernism, 'Western bluepr~nt' approach, 203-4 105-6 Education, 286-7 Currency falling standards, 289 changes after Bank Melli established, free of charge, 288-9 112 growth in number of secondary debasement, 34 schools, 95 devaluation high priority in state budget, 114-15 during allied occupation, 142 increase in student numbers, 287 during 19th century, 35-7 legislation promoting higher edu- in 19th century, 34 cation, Ill remaining based on silver, 67 rising expenditure, 287-8 overvaluation, 327, 329 social structure of student body, 289 socially unjust policies, 132 D' Arcy concession, 67, 173, 183 spurious degrees, 290 abrogation, 113, 117, 118 student grants, 290 Darga hi, Brigadier, 123 views on Iran of European-educated Darfyush dam, 278 students, 124 Dashtr, Ali, 83, 109, 144 Engel, Ernst, 8-9 Davar, Ali Akbar, 83, 108, 110 Enzeli, entered by Soviet troops ( 1920), Dawlat-Abadf, 91 76 Dehkhuda, All Akbar, 104 Ephrim Khan, 68, 84 Derakhshish, Muhammad, 192,202,214, European framework 215 differences from Asiatic societies, 8 Despotism imposed on Iranian history, 7 compared with dictatorship, 236 imposed on Third World assessments, aims of overthrow by Persian Revol- 102 ution, 60 Exchange rates, 51 n applicability of term to Iran, 20-1 fluctuations in 19th century, 35 characteristics of Iranian type, 57 Exports contribution of modernism to over- composition and value ( 1963-78), 325 throw, 103 see also Trade effect on private property, 297 variations between European and Fada'fiin-i Islam (Selfless Devotees for Eastern, 13 Islam), 147, 162n, 358, 362 Development plans, see Plans Fada'fiin-i Khalq (Selfless Devotees of Dress, modernisation of, 125-6 the People), 217, 241, 333, 338, 362 Economic development, 18-20 Fakhrara'f, Na~ir, 155 non-existent in late 19th century, 45 Falsaff, weekly radio programme by, 193 Economy Farfvar, Ghulam-alf, 147, 215 changes from 1964, 256-69 Farm corporations, 305, 309-10 disintegration in late 19th century, 29 Farrukhl, 88 factors influencing, in 19th century, Farsfyii, General, 338 45-6 Fatemf, Dr l;lusain, 148, 149, 178, 194 gradual recovery after World War I, 92 Fatl,l' ali Shah, 28 influences in 1960-3, 228-31 Female 'emancipation', 126-7 long-term prospects, 367-72 see also Chiidur position after World War I, 66 Feudalism, 9-13 post-coup policy, 201 European examples, 12-13 regional imbalances, 49-50 features, 10-11 Index 379

not present in Iran, 14 Harriman, Averell, 172 Fifty Three, The, 125, 144-5 Hasfbf, Ka?im 147, 186n, 194, 202 Ffruz-Abadf, 86 Hayerfzadeh, 86, 158, 190, 192 Food Hazhfr, 'Abdull.tusain, 147 in definition of poverty, 270-2 Headdresses, changes wrought by Reza price inflation, 334 Shah, 125-6 production difficulties in 19th century, Health, 286-7 41 careless treatment, 291 self-sufficiency, 305 concentration of services in capital, 292 Foreign aid, 243, 262 Fifth Plan allocation, 292 attacked by Iranian public (1919), 78 private practice, 291 from USA, 318 Health Corps, 287, 288 receipts, 205, 207 Hedayat, Mehdfqulf, 109 Foreign capital input to economy, 230 Hedayat, Sadiq, 120n, 240 Foreign exchange Hezarkhanf, Dr Maniichehr, 340 effect on oil-revenue explosion, 328 l;lizb-i Pan-lranfst, see Pan-lranist Party from agriculture, 306 l;lizb-i Socfiilfst-i Mellf-i Kargar-i Iran receipts from oil and aid (1955-62), (SOMKA) 205 see Iranian Workers' National Social• Foreign relations ist Party from 1963, 315-24 Hospital building scheme, 292 Shah's cynical realism, 322-3 Housing up to 1963, 313- 14 'shanty towns' in Shiraz, 274 Foreign trade, attracted by oil, 313 shortages in mid-1970s, 334 Freedom social separation emerging, 208 concept sought by Persian Revolution, see also Construction industry 58 Hovaida, Amir 'Abbas, 223, 234 negative and positive concepts, 57 government replaced, 342 Freedom Movement of Ira·n, 216, 342 Minister of the Imperial Court, 242 leaders tried and imprisoned, 238-9 premiership, 241 Furud, Fatl.tullah, 215, 219-20 trial, 361 Furuhar, Darfyush, 147, 193, 216, 239, Hujjat ibn al-l;lasan ai-'Askarf, 339 363 Human rights movement, 341-2 Furughf, Muhammad Ali, 109 l;lusain, Imam, 128, 339, 348 Hydraulic society, see Water: scarcity Gass-Gulsha' fan Agreement, 158 Hydroelectric dam projects, 275 General Strike (21 July 1952), 176 Irano-Soviet agreement, 320 Germany, relationship with Reza Shah, Ibtihaj, Abdull.tasan, 204 134 'Idalat Party, 146 GTian Revolution, 75 IJ.tya' ai-Sal~aneh (Bahramf), Dr, 89 Gold, silver prices relative to, 35 Imam Gross National Product significance of title, 356 average annual growth rate ( 1963-72), Twelfth, see Mahdf 256 Imam Jum 'eh, Sayyed Abulqasim, 63 in 19th century, 43-4 Imamate, 355, 356 percentage of annual growth rate, 229 Imamf, Jamal, 190 Guruh-i Filistfn, 241 Imperial Bank, 67 Imperial Commission, 336 l;laidar Khan Tariverdiev, 76, 77 'Imperial System' of government, 342 l;laj Aqa Reza Raff 227 Import substitution, 278, 281 f:laj-Sayyed-Javadf, Ali A~ghar, 170, 340, Imports, 322 341-3, 362 during 19th century, 38 l;laj Shaikh Hadi (Najmabadf), 104 from socialist countries, 320 380 Index

Imports (Contd) 'Ishqf, Muhammad Reza, 71n, 80, 82, 83, in 19th century, changes in compo• 88 sition, 40-1 Jskandarf, Sulaiman Mirza, 71 n, 82, 91, increased to encourage 'modernisa• 120n tion', 117 support for Tiideh Party, 144-5 of tea, 50 Iskandar!, Iraj, 253 value ( 1963-78), 325 Islam Income distribution, 284-5 absence of hierarchy, 17 urban/rural differences, 261 characteristics, 61 Industry economic effects on women's status, structure and growth, 275-85 127 see also Manufacturing industry meaning of Islamic rule, 355 Inflation no clerical hierarchy, 119n effect of devaluation and money supply variations between Shi'ite and Sunni expansion (1940s), 142 doctrine, 355 effect of monetary expansion, 249 see also Mashrfleh; Pan-Islamists; effects of currency debasement, 34-5 Shi'ite sect; Sunni sect in 19th century, 33 Islamic republic of wages, 329 declaration, 351 problems increasing from 1975, 334 plebiscite, 363 Infrastructure development, 111-12 Islamic Republican Party, 362 expenditure, 114 very slow after World War I, 67 Jahanbani, Nadir, 361 Inheritance laws, 20 Jahangfr Khan Shfrarazf, Mirza, 104 Institute for the Guidance of Thoughts, Jangal movement, 75-7 123 Japan, exports to Iran from, 321-2 International Court Jawdat, Dr, 195 judgement on oil nationalisation, 172 Jazanf, Bfzhan, 217, 241 on oil dispute, 176 Jones, Richard, 8-9, 21-2n Investment, 229-30 Judiciary, established feared by Niirf, 63 of oil revenues in Britain, 321 Junbish (movement), 342, 362 rates ( 1962-78), 263 state expenditure, 247 Kambakhsh, 'Abdu~-~amad, 147, 161n 'Invisible' trade, 327 Kashanf, Sayyed Abulqasfm (Ayatullah), Iqbal, Dr Maniichehr, 196-8, 213, 358 160, 190, 358 Iradeh-yi Mellf Party, 146 banished to Lebanon, 156 Iran Group for the Protection of Human no longer a supporter of Mu~addiq, Rights, 342 176 Iran Nation Party, 239 relations with Fada'fan, 148 Iran Nuvfn (Modern Iran) Party, 235, relations with Popular Movement, 171 253n Kasravf, Sayyed A~mad, 147 Iran Party, characteristics, 147 Ka~imf, Baqir, 109, 121, 216 Iranian Workers' National Socialist Kazirunf, 86 Party, 171 Kennedy, John F., 213, 214 Iranian Writers' Union, 342 Khademf, Ayatullah, 356 lrano-Soviet agreement (July 1963), Khalkhalf, Shaikh Sadiq, 361-2 320 Khatfbf, Dr I:Iusain, 292 Irano-Soviet friendship treaty (1921), Khaz'al, Shaikh ofMu~ammareh, 87, 89, 240 91, 98n, 123 cancellation of Tsarist oil concessions, Khryabanf, Shaikh Muhammad, 150 94 Khomainf, Ayatullah, 227 Iraq, Kurdish uprising, 316 cabinet appointees, 360-1 Ironside, General, 80 exiled to Turkey, 240, 253n Index 381

flight to Paris, 240, 346 feared threat of Tiideh Party, 146 press attack on, leading to demonstra- increasing influence ( 1941-50), 297 tions, 344 no right to title, 19-20 pressing for overthrow of Shah, 345-6 opposed to land distribution, 301 returns to Teheran, 350 role in feudalism, I 0 significance of title of Imam, 356 Shah's opposition to, 219 Khomainf committees, 364 Lattimore, Owen, 9 Khunjf, Muhammad Ali, 170, 216- 17, Law 218 dependent on arbitrary power, 56-7 Khurasanf, Akhiind Mulla Muhammad- to enable exercise of freedom, 57 Ka?im, 64 League of Iranian Socialists in Europe, Khusrudad, General, 344 219 Kishavarz, Dr Faraidiin, 146, 160-ln Literacy Corps, 287, 288 Kfyaniirf, Dr, 161n, 162n Livestock farming, 306 Kiichik Khan, Mirza, 75, 76, 77 Loraine, Sir Percy, 97-8n Kurdish Democratic Party, IS 1-2 Kurds, 365 Machine-tool plant, 279 uprising in Iraq, 316 Macpherson, C. B., II Mahdf (Redeemer; Twelfth Imam), 69n, Labour force 355 absolute and relative product per Majfdf, 'Abdulmajld, 343 worker, 261 Majlis (National Assembly) agriculture/urban distribution, 66 attempting accommodation with effect of modern technology, 248 Muhammad Ali and Niirf, 63 in construction, 277 bombarded during Persian Revolu- in modern industries, 283 tion, 60 increase in industry, 131 elections (1952), illegalities in, 175 problems of poor statistics on, 259 elections (1954), not free, 192 movement across boundaries, 48 elections ( 1960) cancelled, 213 shortage of skilled workers, 329 elections ( 1963) totally state con- Lahtjf, 'Abdulkarlm, 343 trolled, 235 Liihutf, Abulqasim, 82 first session after Re:la Shah's coro- Land nation, 122 distribution proposals, 300 length of sessions increased, 197 historical situation, 296 loses effective role, 123 output per hectare, 305 main parliamentary factions, 161 ownership Mu~addiq 's referendum to close, 178 as feature of feudalism, I 0, 11-12 Majlisr, Mulla Muhammad Baqir, 70n conferring state privileges, 20 Makkf, 1;1 usa in, 149, I 58, 190 nature of, in Iran, 17-18 Malek l;lusain, 170 see also Property registration Malek!, Khalil, 181-2, 362 Shah's disposal of 'crown lands', arrest and imprisonment, 193, 239 201-2 critique of oil consortium, 202 sharp fall in urban values, 229 excluded from Second National Front, speculators in urban property, 207, 334 216 Land reform, 300-3, 359 focus of Tiideh Party activists, 145 Amfnfs proposals, 220-1, 237 knowledge of Azerbijan situation, in Azerbijan, 151 161 stages 1-4 of Programme, 302-3 leader of Tiideh Party splinter group, Land tax, contribution to national pro• 170 duct (19th century), 44 League of Iranian Socialists projected, Landlords 218 based in urban centres in Iran, IS originality of thought, 181, 186n 382 Index

Malekf, KhaJn (Contd) Matfne-Daftary, Dr Al;lmad, 136n proposals for land and water resources, Matfne-Daftary, Hedayatullah, 342, 343, 301 365 Malkum Khan Na~im ai-Dawleh, Mfrza, Mazandaranf, Shaikh 'Abdullah, 64 103, 104 Mellfyun Party, 197 Man~ur, l:fasan Ali, 234, 240 Merchant community (hazar), 17 Manufacturing industry banking arrangements, 112 budget allocations (1930s), 131 benefits from increased trade, 55, 293 growth, 256 centre of peaceful protest (1953), 194 expansion after World War I, 95 flogging of members cause of Revol- haphazard growth, 277 ution ( 1905), 58, 69n investment, 116, 204 insecurity of income and wealth, 20 output (1971-6), 281 persecuted by regime, 340 per worker, 283, 284 political implications of greater wealth, use ofhigh technology methods, 247-8 336-7 Maraji' al-taqlid (Supreme Sources of support for Mu~addiq, 165 Religious Guidance) Milanf, Ayatullah, 227 during Persian Revolution, 64 Milk supplies to schools, 289 silent on political situation ( 1950s), 171 Mining, growth of, 256 Mardum Party, 197 Mfrza-zadeh (Azarm), Ni'mat, 340, 343 Martial law Modernism declaration ( 1921 ), 80 characteristics, 101-2 declaration following 1953 coup, 179 see also Pseudo-modernism Martial-law administration, as main Monarchy, reforming aims of Persian source of persecution, 195 Revolution, 56 Marx, Karl Money supply influence of Richard Jones on, 8-9 expansion (1953), 185 on egalitarian oriental society, 16 relationship to inflation, 249 Marxist- Leninists Mu'atamin ai-Mulk, 120n beliefs of European-educated students, Mu'a~~amf, Dr 'Abdullah, 158 124 Mubashshirf, Colonel, 195 characteristics and aims, 76-7 Mubash-shirf, Dr, 363 Marxist tendency, 241 Mudarris, Sayyed l:fasan, 7ln, 81, 120n Mashhad, massacre over headdress activities following loss of Majlis seat, changes, 126 122-3 Mashrfi'eh (rule of Islamic law), 59, 63, character, 86-7 70-ln, 360 compared with Reza Khan, 84 Mashrfi{eh Revolution, 243 intransigent stand against Reza Khan, attitudes to modern ideas, 104 88 causes, 53-5 murdered, 123 contribution of Azerbijanis, 149, opposition to Reza Shah's regime, factionalism among leaders, 62 122 followed by chaos, 65 physical attack in Majlis, 89 leading to liberal political tendency, 85 Reza Khan makes peace, 91 objectives, 56-8 rise to prominence, 86 People's Revolution analogous to, 357, support for a Muslim Iran, 98 359-60 Muhammad Ali Shah social classes involved, 60 forced into exile, 60 strengthening private property, 296 reputation for violence, 69n supported by most religious leaders, reversing Revolution's gains, 59 128 Muhammad Hashim Mfrza Afsar, 86 Massacre of June 1963, 226-8 Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi Mas'ud, Muhammad, 162n appoints 'cabinet' ( 1963), 235 Index 383

assassination attempts, 156, 162n, 239 Majlis, 122 expenditure on spectacular events, 266 political character, 148-9 foreign reaction against, 339 premiership, 164, 172 hatred of power sharing, 197 resignation, 176 hatred of Qavam, 153 return to office, 176 intervention on Mu~addiq's behalf, trial, 193-4 125 British press coverage, 168 involvement with USA in coup d'etat Musha'sha', Sayyed Muhammad, 70n against Mu~addiq, 169 Mushfr al-Dawleh, Mfrza I;Iasan, 85, 88, leaves for Norway, 215 120n leaves Iran (1979), 350 Muslim People's Republican Party, 351, 'modernisation' schemes, 237-8 362 personally takes control (1962), 224 Mustawff al-Mamalik, Mfrza I;Iasan, 85, plot against Mu~addiq, 177 109 political 'achievement', to 1963, 236 government brought down, 88 press campaign against intellectuals, Mu'tamin al-Mulk, Mfrzii l;lusain, 85 343 Mutilation, long tradition of, 24-5n reasons for choice of Amfnf, 214 see also Torture sale of 'crown lands', 237, 300 Muvarrikh al-Dawleh (Sepehr), 176 Soviet and US disillusionment with, Myra!, Gunnar, 47 314 struggle for complete power (1960s), Nadir Shah Afshar, 69n 220-8 Nadir-pur, Nadir, 170 swearing in ceremony boycotted by Nahavandr, Hushang, 235 British embassy, 137n Najaf, 64 see also Shah-Zahedf regime (1953-5) Najm al-Mulk, 225, 232n Muhammad Shah II, 28 Narfman, Mal,lmud, 149 Mu'fn al-Tujjar, 88 Nasir al-Oin Shah, 28 Mu'fnfyan, Nu~ratullah, 340 assassination ( 1896), 53 Mujahidfn-i Khalq, 241, 333, 362 Na~frf, General Ni'matullah, 361, 362 Muqaddam-Maragheh'f, Ral,lmatullah, National Assembly, see Maj{is 342, 362 National Democratic Front, 351, 362 Mu~addiq ai-Sal!aneh, Dr Muhammad, National Front, 351 85, 120n disillusionment of public with ideo- argument against railway route, 115 logy, 333 arrest and imprisonment ( 1953), 193 exclusion of Socialist League, 218 carried to safety after 1953 coup, 179 foundation declared, 149 error in negotiating with World Bank, fresh challenge to Shah (1961 ), 214 175-6 role in power struggle with Shah, formulation of problems of oil, 157-8 220-3 imprisonment and house arrest, 125 Second, 216-17 in opposition to Razmara, 159 reaction to 'White Revolution', 226 leading creation of Third National resignation of leaders, 238 Front, 238 Third, Mu~addiq's lead, 238 on northern oil concession to Russians, see also Union of National Front 154 Parties opposition ofTudeh Party to oil plans, National Iranian Oil Company 166-7 export sector development plans, opposition to giving royal title to Reza 278-9 Khan, 91 replacing Anglo-Iranian Oil Com• opposition to imported French legal pany, 172 experts, 110 National Iranian Petrochemical Com• opposition to most bills brought to pany, 293-4n 384 Index

National Resurgence Party (Rastakhiz-i after World War I, 93 Melli), 236, 241, 333, 343 allocation to Second Plan, 204 Nationhood concept, 106 as collective economic rent, 245, 303 Nationalism contribution to despotic rule, 254 born out of Persian Revolution, 65 economic importance in late 1940s, 157 identification of three tendencies after effect of explosion on Shah's policies, Mashrii{eh Revolution, 82 241 parties existing in 1950s, 171 effect on agriculture, 303-4 Natural gas factors ensuring stability, 129 exchanged for Russian steel plant, 320 increasing share in economy after 1933, pipeline to Soviet border, 278, 316 243 to Soviet Union, 278 largest single source of income, 113 Nazih, l;lasan, 216 meagre from 1912-19, 67 Nehi:at-i Melli-yi Iran, see Popular no input from domestic means of Movement production, 245 Nikkhiih, Parvisz, 239, 361 Oman, 317 Nirily-i Sevvum (Third Force) Party, 177, Ovaisi, General, 347-8 218 Nixon, Richard M., 213 Pahlavi dynasty, foundation, 89 Nomads, 306 Pahlavi Foundation, 289 population in 19th century, 29 Pahlavi hat, 126 Nuclear power, 277 Piikdiiman (Niitiq), Homii, 343 Nilri, Shaikh Fa~lullah, 62, 63, 64 Piikdiiman, Nasser, 306 Nu~rat al-Dawleh, 79, 80, 87, 108, 123 Palestine Group, 241 Pan-Iranist Party, 147, 171 Occupation period, 141 Pan-Islamic regime Oil anti-Musaddiq campaign, 362 Consortium Oil Agreement ( 1954), 173 extreme sentences for offences, 364 economics of dispute, 182-5 in peril of creating dictatorship, 360 nationalisation, 160, 181 provoking political confrontation, bill passed, 171 365 negotiations with Britain after, 'social reorganisation', 363 172-3 Paymiin, Dr l;labibullah, 343 Tildeh Party opposition to, 167 Peasants 1919 Agreement, 76, 77-9, 96-7n discriminated against under Rezii 1933 Agreement, 118-19 Shah, 133 payments to Iran, 183-4 landlords' contribution to income, 201 north Iranian concession to Russians, not feudal serfs, 15 153-4 political implication of urban migra• of increasing interest to West, 92 tion, 337 output compared with direct revenues serfdom as feature of feudalism, 10 (1926-32), 117-18 subsistence requirements available, price increase effects, 315-16 272 Soviet protest against American con• taxes and dues payable by, 299 cession bids, 94 taxes and extortion in 19th century, 33 strike (1946), 157 see also Agriculture theoretical economic framework, 242- Peasants' Congress, 236 50 People of Iran Party, 239 see also Anglo-Iranian Oil Company; People's Revolution (1977-9) National Iranian Oil Company causes, 332-7 Oil-exporting countries, economic model culmination of two cycles, 234 of, 244-50 dilemma of Khomainfs leadership, Oil revenues 346-7 Index 385

nature of, 354-60 concentration in urban sector, 16-17 processes leading to, 340-51 Persian Revolution sought to divide, subsequent trials and executions, 361- 58 2 political, 296 Peron, Ernest, 125 Preferential tariff treaties, 37, 48 Persian Gulf States, independence of, 315 Production Persian Revolution, see Mashruteh change from traditional to modern Revolution · technology, 48 Petroleum, discovery and exploitation, modes of, 8 67 see also Manufacturing industry see also Oil; Oil revenues Property registration, 110 Prchdad, Amfr, 170 Provisional government, formed at Prruz, Manucheh, 274 Kirmanshah, 75, 86 Pfsheh-varf, Sayyed Ja'far, 150 Pseudo-modernism, 275 Pizishkpur, Mul;lsin, 147 all revolutionary forces against, 354 Plan Organisation, I 06 characteristics, I 03 inception, 20 I economic outcome, 128-9 role, 203 effects on dress, 125-7 Plans, 256 effects on foreign trade, 324-30 First Seven-Year Plan, 202 rise in Iran, 105-7 American support promised, 159 Pseudo-modernist despotism, 122-35, Second Plan (1955-62), 203 165 Fifth Plan ( 1973-8), 274 Gross National Product for Five-Year Qajar dynasty Plans ( 1962-78), 256, 257 abolition demanded, 91 Political attitudes, influence of Western despotism not centralised, 149 ideas on, 49 period of prominence, 27-9 Political parties, 144-9 Qaranf, General Valfullah, 198, 199, proliferation after People's Revolu• 209-10 tion, 362 Qashqa'f nomads, 306 Politiconomy Qasim, 'Abdulkarfm, 198 use of term, I, 2 Qavam ai-Dawleh, 120n see also Economy Qavam ai-Sal!aneh, Mirza Ahmad, 88, Polygamy, 20 120n, 123, 158 Popular Debt bonds, 174 Azerbijan strategy, 153 Popular Movement becomes premier, 153, 176 democratic and not nationalist, 171 founds Democratic Party, 146 lack of positive policy, 180 resignation, 176 opposition to, 164 Qubadf, Lieutenant, 156 reasons for failure, 179-82 Qum supporting parties, 169-71 commando raid on ( 1978), 344 Population Reza Khan's relationship with, 90 growth, 207-8 street demonstrators fired on, 344 from 1963-78, 258 Qu~bzadeh, Sadiq, 360, 363 in 19th century, 29-32 urban/rural distribution, 66 Radical Movement, 342, 362 Port construction, 292 Radmanish, Dr Reza, 153, 338 Poverty, 269-72 Railways comparative, in 19th century, 32 extension plans, 204 Power see also Trans-Iranian Railway arbitrary nature, 20, 21 Rashfdfyan, Asadullah, 215, 314 attempt to curb in Persian Revolution, Rasht, occupied by 'Marxist' revolu• 56 tionaries, 76 386 Index

Rastakhrz-i Melli (National Resurgence) decision against forming Iran Nuvin Party, 236, 241, 333, 343 Party, 253n Razmara, General Ali, 156, 158-9, 165 economic consequences of rule, 132-3 assassination, 148, 160 establishment of despotic power, 109- Religion 10 Islamic structure not comparable with increasingly despotic, 123 Christian church, 17 land registration, 297 structure in a feudal society, II organises his police state, 123 see also Islam pattern of power, 101 Religious leaders religious persecution, 128 not organised against Reza Shah's rise to power, 69n 'reforms', 128 Rioting (June 1963), 227-8 on good terms with Reza Khan, 99n Road construction, 132, 292 persecution by regime, 339 preferable to expenditure on railway, political tendencies ( 1963), 227 115- 16 representatives of God, 70n Rostow, W.W., 203, 207, 208 settlers of legal disputes, 63-4 Riihani, Ma1,1siir, 235 Shah's opposition to, 219 Rumour campaign, 337 see also Maraji'al-taqlld Rural society Religious observances, used for political centre of feudal influence, II purposes, 339 village units, 298 Republican system proposals, 89-90 see also Peasants Retired (Army) Officers' Association, 177 Russia Revenues, public Iran's balance of trade with, 39 distribution of disbursements (19th secret treaty with Britain ( 1907), 60, 78 century), 43 territorial losses to, 30 expenditure, 246-7 see also Soviet Union sources, I 13 Russo-Iranian treaty (1921), 77 in 19th century, 32, 42 Riizbeh, Colonel Khusru, 156, 195 see also Budgets: deficit's; Oil revenues Revolts, urban, 28 ~adiqi, Dr Muhammad, 355-6 Revolutionary Council, 361 ~adiqi, Dr Ghulam-l;lusain, 216, 348-9 Revolutionary Guards, 363 ~afavi, Navvab, 147, 162n, 163n Revolutionary Islamic court trials, 361 ~afavid dynasty, 61 Revolutions, see Mashru{eh revolution; decline, 28 People's Revolution; 'White Savabi, Dr Yadullah, 216, 238 Revolution' Sa'id, Muhammad, 154 Reza Khan (afterwards Reza Shah, q.v.) Sa'id-Gass Agreement, 158 character, 84 Sa'idi, Dr Ghulam-l;lusain, 340 conflicting reports on, 81 Salar al-Dawleh, 84 declares martial law, 80 Saleh, Allahyar, 147, 214, 342, 347 elected to premiership, 81, 88 Sami, Kazim, 239 occupation of Teheran (1921), 79 Sanjabi, Dr Karim, 147, 149, 194, 216, planning complete takeover, 87-8 342-3, 347, 363 rise to power, 84 Sarim al-Dawleh, 79, 123 surrounded by literati, etc., 82-4 $arrafon (traditional 'bankers'), 112-13 temporary transfer of royal title Satraps, 14, 23n proposed, 91 SAVAK (Shah's secret police), 106, 195, withdrawal from Teheran, 89-90 333 Reia Shah (previously Reza Khan, q.v.) arrest and torture of intellectuals, 340 abdication and subsequent death, 135, terrorist operations, 343 136-7n torture of urban guerrillas, 339 public reaction to, 141 Savings Index 387

decline in late 19th century, 45 Sfyiihkal, armed struggle for, 338 rates ( 1962-78), 263 Sfyamak, Colonel, 195 reductions ( 1960-3), 229 Slavery, 23n Sayyed Jamal al-Drn lsfahanr, 104 no evidence in Iran, 13, 14 Sayyed Zui' al-Drn (Taba-Taba'i), 79, Smith, Adam, 8, II 8~ 86, 97n, 14~ 195 Social change, in late 1950s, 207 Selfless Devotees for Islam, see Social democratic tendencies, I 04 Fada'illn-i Islam Social structure Selfless Devotees of the People, see development, 18-20 Fada'ran-i Khalq division between state and people, 16 Sepahdar-i Rashtr (Akbar), 79 see also Class structure Serfdom, 14- 15 Socialism, theoretical knowledge of, I 04 Services, 285-93 Socialist League of the Popular Move• balance of payments, 327-8 ment of Iran (SLPMI), 217-19, value of output, 286 362 see also State services foresees National Front's downfall, Seven-Year Plans, see Plans 221-2 Sha'ban Brmukh (the Brainless), 177, leaders tried and imprisoned, 239 179, 194 Socialist tendencies, I 04 Shah Society of Iranian Lawyers, 342 despotic characteristic, 14 Socio-economic factors, circular and cu- see also Fatl)'ali Shah; Muhammad mulative causation theory, 47-50 Reiii Shah; Muhammad Shah II; Nasir SOMKA, see Iranian Workers' National all-Din Shah; Reia Shah Socialist Party Shah-Zahedf regime (1953-5), 192-5 Soviet Union Shahandeh, 'Abbas, 220 attitude to Amrnr government, 223 Shaibanf, General J:labfbullah, 83, 109 contact with early Iranian socialist Shaigan, Dr Air, 149, 194 groups, 104 Shaikh Muhammad Ali Tehriinf, 86 eventual repayment of wartime credit, Shaikh! sect, 62, 70n 144 Shansf, 'Alfjan, 239 gain northern oil concession, 153-4 Sharr'atf, Dr Ali, 241 German attack (1940), 134 Shari'atmadarf, Ayatullah, 227, 344, 362 increasing influence in late 1950s, 200 Sharrf-lmamr, Ja'far, 213, 345 involvement of Bolsheviks in Jangal Shayan, Reia, 239 movement, 76 Shi'ite sect non-aggression treaty (1959), 200 as heterodox and heretical movement, occupation of Azerbijan, 150- I 70n disadvantages for population, 152 characteristics related to Persian Revo- Qaviim's Azerbijan negotiations, 153 lution, 61-2 rapprochement with Shah's regime, commitment of Azerbijanis, 149 239 in opposition to state, 17 reaction to 1953 coup, 198-9 represented in radical tendency, 85-6 relations with, 319-20 Reia Shah's persecution, 128 relations with Tiideh Party, 166-8 unifying factor in Iranian society, 337 Shah's manoeuvring, 225 Shiraz, 274 trial-and-error organisation of agricul- Shrrazf, Sayyed Ali Muhammad (Bab), ture, Ill 70n troop withdrawal, 155 Shuster, Morgan, 68 see also Russia Silver, fall in price in 19th century, 37 Special Bureau, 336, 340 Sinclair Consolidated Oil Corporation, Standard Oil Company, 94 94 State, clients of, 246 Sino-Soviet hostility, 239, 313 State services, expenditure on, 257, 258 388 Index

Steel plant, 277-8 street demonstration and mass• blast furnaces from Germany, 132 acre ( 1978), 345 from Russia, 320 Teheran University, Ill Stokes, Richard, 172-3 army raid (Jan 1962), 223-4 Stokes mission, 183 calls for Amini's resignation, 201 Student movement sit-in during 1961 elections, 214 in Europe and USA, 219 students shot dead ( 1953), 194 support for National Front, 214 Teheranf, Dr 'A.melf, 361 see also Education Teheranf, Haj Mfrza l;lusain, 64 Subsistence, biological and sociological Tenancy variables, 51 n problems for property owners, 334-5 Sunni sect reform, 358 problems of Pan-Islamic regime, 364 bill, 298 view on the succession to Muhammad, Textile products 355 change in trade pattern, 40-1 Sururi, Muhammad, 232n, 347 dominating industry, 280, 282 Third Force Party, see Nrruy-i Sevvum Tabiitaba'I, Sayyed Muhammad, 62 Tobacco-Regie affair, 53, 62 Tabriz Toiling Masses of Iran, see Zal,tmat• massacre by SA VAK ( 1978), 344 kishan Party resistance to Shah in Persian Revol- Torture ution, 60 increasing foreign concern, 341 Tahmasibi, General Amlr, 109 of captured urban guerrillas, 339 Tahmasibi, Khalil, 160 of intellectuals, 340 Taimur-Tash, 'Abdul-l;lusain, 83 Trade character, 108 deficits in 19th century, 37, 38 fall from power, and murder, 101, 119, effect on social development, 19 121n foreign, change in composition, 40 negotiations with APOC, 118 see also Exports; Imports Talibuf, 'Abdurral,tim, 120n growth affecting commercial capital, Taliqanr, Sayyed Mal,tmud (Ayatullah), 54 190, 216, 227, 238, 363 interregional, 47-8 Taqf-zadeh, Sayyed l;lasan, 91, 104 pressure from European powers, 37 career, 109 Traders, see Merchant community pro-European stance, 146 Traditional industries, 248-9 signs 1933 oil agreement, 119 export contribution, 325-6 Tavallulf, Firaidun, 170 Trans-Iranian Railway, 132 Tax-farming, 17-18 construction and finance, 11 5 Taxation contribution to Allies' war effort, 143 as revenue source, 113 political justifications for, 116 19th century, 32 Tildeh Party, 362-3 to finance Trans-Iranian Railway, 115 attacked following coup (1953), 194 Tayyeb (Haj Rei:a'i), 220, 231 banned, 156 Teachers' strike (1961), 214 circumstances of formation, 144 Technical advisers provided by Britain, coalition with Qavam, 155 78 attacked by Khomaini, 365 Technology contacts with General Bakhtryar, 338 consumption rather than application identification with communism, 152 of, 46 in early 1960s, 217 pseudo-modernist view, 103 internal disputes, 145 Teheran involvement with demand for Azer• attacks on official housing areas, 335 bijan autonomy, 152 'modernisation' programme, 110-11 political character, 145 Index 389

public disillusionment with ideology, Veil, see Chadur 333 Village units, 298 relationship with Soviet Union, 166-8 Vusuq al-Dawleh, 78, 79, 120n, 123 role in downfall of Popular Movement, 180 Wages, 284 said to be Soviet 'spies', 147 inflation, 329 split in 1948, 155 War Office Tunb, 315 budget allocations and actual expendi• Twelfth Imam, see Mahdf ture, 131 Twelver Shi'ite sect, 355 takes over police and gendarmerie, 88 Two-party system, 197 Water project investment, 275 Undernourishment, 270-2 scarcity, 21, 298 Union of the National Front Parties, 'White Revolution', 223-6 342 in foreign relations terms, 315 United Nations Security Council, 174 six points of principle, 225 United States of America Wittfogel, Karl, 9, 21 attitudes to People's Revolution, World Bank, involvement in oil dispute, 349-50 175, 186n designers of coup d'etat against Mu~- World War I addiq, 169 impact on Iran, 65 human rights offensive, 341-2 situation in Iran at conclusion, 75 no further political commitment, 213 World War II relations with, 318-19 Allied invasion of Iran, 135 replacing Britain as major influence, occupation of Iran, 141 320 support for Britain over oil national• Yazdan-Panah, General, 83, 109 isation, 172 Yazdf, Farrukhf, 82, 83 technical advisers' immunity from Yazdi, Dr lbrahfm, 194, 360 arrest, 240 Yazdf, Sayyed Muhammad-Ka?im, 64 ultimatum on Russian withdrawal from Yazdf, Dr Murtiza, 147 Iran, 153 Yushrj, Nlma, 240 use of Iran in foreign strategy, 198 vice-consul lynched and killed ( 1924), Zahedf, General Fazallulah, 178, 186n, 90 192, 195-6 Urban growth, 208, 274 see also Shah-Zahedf regime (1953-5) Urban guerrillas, 333, 338-9 Zal;tmatkishan Party, 169-70 see also Nfruy-i Sevvum (Third Force) VaJ:tidf, Sayyed 'Abdull;tusain, 147 Party Vahfdf, Senator 'AIIameh, 361 Zanjanr, Ayatullah, 190, 227 Valfyan, 'Abdul'ali, 235 .?m'al-Vaf?fn, Sayyed Ibrahfm, 86 Vegetable oil production, 279 Zill-?:ariff, l;lasan, 217