Political Elites and Democratization: a Case Study of Iran

Home , Aria Party, Freedom Movement of Iran, Iran Party, Islamic Coalition Party

Intl. J. Humanities (2016) Vol. 23 (2): (1-16)

Political Elites and democratization: A Case Study of Iran

Ali Saei 1

Received: 2015/12/11 Accepted: 2016/9/20

Abstract This article attempts to explain democratization in Iran through an elite- oriented approach. According to this approach, the success and failure of democratization depends on the political elite strategy. My argument is that the fate of democratization is determined by elite strategies. If their strategy is considered suppressive, an authoritarian cycle will take place in the transition stage, but if the political elite strategy is considered non- suppressive, the index of democratic transition increases. In this study, the political elites are divided into two groups: conservatives and reformists. The analysis method is historical-narrative technique. The empirical findings indicate that whenever the hardliners inside the government are stronger than the opposition groups, they constrain the democratization by suppressing the opposition (moderates and reformists), which leads to a decrease in the index of democratic transition, as exemplified in the 13 th parliamentary in 1941. Whenever the reformers are stronger than the conservatives and they are allowed to participate in elections, the index of democratic transition tends to increase, as shown in the 17 th parliament under the rule of Mu șaddiq and the 7 th presidential elections after the 1979 Revolution. The data demonstrates that democratization is still fragile in Iran and it’s the fate would be determined by the relative power of reformists and conservatives. As a result, I argue that Iran’s democratic transition is fragile and it’s the fate is determined by the relative power of reformists and conservatives.

Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 8:57 IRST on Thursday September 30th 2021 Keywords: Democratization; Authoritarianism; elite-oriented approach ; Political Elite Strategy; Historical narrative analysis.

1 . Assistant Professor of Sociology Department, Tarbiat Modares University [email protected] I would like to thank Mohammad Tajik for their valuable feedback on this work.

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1. Research problem newly shaped authoritarian structure rather On 13 August 1906, Mo ẓaffar-ad-din shah than an institutionalized democratic regime. issued the Constitutional Royal My main argument is that the evidences Declaration (Farm ān) and he signed the show, for more than a century, Iranian constitutional law in December 1906, society have constantly attempted to which resulted in a transformation from democratize authoritarian regime, but it absolute monarchy to constitutional usually fails in the transition stage. monarchy. It was the starting point for the However, the democratization in Iran has first wave of democratization in Iran. The not been interrupted and some of the final supplementary fundamental law was minimum criteria of the transition process, signed by Muhammad-ʿal ī-sh āh, which such as the politics of holding of periodic contained two main principles as follows: elections, have been realized in Iran. The first was related to recognizing the Additionally, it should be noted that individual rights such as freedom of press, Iran is currently stopped at the transition freedom to publish newspapers and to zone, but democratization is still fragile in organize associations, guaranteeing each the country. citizen equality before the law, protection of On the basis of the above argument, the life, property and honor and safeguards from central research question is developed as arbitrary arrest. The second was accepting the follows: “Why the democratization is separation of power in principle (executive , fragile in Iran”. I have tried to respond to legislative and judiciary) and its this question as well as to explain concentration on the legislative branch at democratization by elite-oriented approach the expense of the executive (see which will be discussed later in this paper. Abrahamian, 1982:89). However, it did not last long, and the first wave of democratization 2. The democratization literature was interrupted when the national assembly The review of democratization literature was dissolved and the laws that had been indicates that there are a large number of established between the years 1906 to 1908 theoretical approaches to explain were abolished by Muhammad-ʿal ī-sh āh (See: democratization (see Huntington, 1993; Abrahamian, 2008, 1982; Foran, 1993; Pother et al. 1997; Rustow, 1970; Gill, Kātouzian, 2009, 1981). On December 11, 2000; Putnam, 1993; Inglehart et al.,

Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 8:57 IRST on Thursday September 30th 2021 1925 Rez ā-sh āh emerged as a military 2005). Most of these studies can be dictator. Since December 11, 1925 to classified as one of the two general September 10, 1941, Iran once again theoretical approaches: the modernization experienced despotism. The second wave of approach and elite-oriented approach. democratization, called The Oil According to the main purpose of this Nationalization Movement, which started in study, the present study focuses on the 1953, was interrupted by the military coup elite-oriented approach. and the democratization process was Many scholars have found the causal reversed for a second time. Mohammad relation between the changing relationships Rez ā-sh āh returned to absolutist rule for of elites and democratization. Here, it twenty-six years. The circle of the should refer to some of them, particularly authoritarianism repeated again. This to Rustow and Huntington. These scholars indicates that the democratization process have emphasized the agency of political in Iran has often resulted in the creation of a

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elites as an explanatory variable of processes in which a variety of groups democratization. attempt for and against democracy. Rustow (1970) studies the dynamic According to Samuel P. Huntington process of democratization in five (1993), there are three different types of countries, namely Japan, Turkey, France, transition: Transformation, replacement, India and Sweden, and argues that such and transplacement. He states that process contains the following four phases: transformation is possible when the elites Background condition (National unity) → in power take the lead and decisive role in Preparatory → Decision → Habituation ending that regime and changing it into a In model of Rustow, the national unity democratic system. The authoritarian indicates that “the vast majority of citizens regime itself plays a major role in making in a democracy-to-be must have no doubt transformation. The process of or mental reservations as to which political transformation starts with the emergence of community they belong to. It means that reformers within the authoritarian regime the aim is to democratize the existing who believe that making democratization political regime rather than the creation of is necessary. Huntington claims that a new political system. The preparatory transformation transition occurred in well- phase begins with a prolonged and established military regimes, such as inconclusive political struggle. In this Spain, Brazil, Taiwan and Hungary. phase individuals, groups, and classes Replacement involves a very different challenge the nondemocratic rulers. The process from transformations. In the decision phase is a historical moment in process of replacement, reformers within a which there is “a deliberate decision on regime are weak or nonexistent, while the behalf of political leaders to accept the standpatters are the dominant groups in existence of diversity in unity, to that end, regime which are opposed to the regime to institutionalize some crucial aspect of change 1. The replacement occurs when democratic procedure. In this process, the opposition takes the lead in bringing about leaders of groups and parties decide to democracy, and the authoritarian regime compromise and adopt democratic rules collapses. An authoritarian system is with their own contribution. Finally, in the replaced when the government becomes habituation phase, most significant leaders weaker than the opposition. The

Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 8:57 IRST on Thursday September 30th 2021 believe in the legitimacy of democracy. All replacement requires the opposition and major leaders of government and can shift the balance of power in its favor. politically significant parties believe that Some countries, such as Portugal, democracy is the best form of government Philippine, Iran, Greece, Argentina and Leaders of government, state institutions, Romania, have experienced the and significant political parties and interest replacement. groups respect each other’s right to Lastly, in the transplacement, compete peacefully for power (see democratization is produced by the Sørensen, 2008). combined action of government and the Huntington (1993), emphasized the role of political elites in the process of democratization. He argues that the 1 . Democratization consequently results from the opposition gaining strength and the government losing transition waves are complex political strength until the government collapses or is overthrown (Huntington, 1993: 142).

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opposition. Transplacement is a type of moderates is more favorable to move transition in which the opposition and the towards democracy than others. The reformers in the authoritarian regime adopt transition can be successful if they are a strategy of negotiation. The major actors controlled by a coalition of soft-liners and in transplacement are the democratic moderates, with radicals being kept out. reformers in the authoritarian regime and This kind of coalition occurred in the event the democratic moderates in the opposition of 23th May, 1997 i.e., election of group. The success of transplacement President Kh ātam ī. Generally, the success depends on the capability of the reformers of democratization, based on this theory, to control both the hardliners in the depends upon strategies of political actors authoritarian regime and the radicals in the and elites’ choices; not on changing opposition. Huntington states that the structures. transplacement process occurred in some On the basis of this theory, I countries such as Poland, Korea, Uruguay, constructed a suitable apparatus to explain Salvador, and Nicaragua. democratization in Iran. The logical Theoretically, the agency of political structure of this theoretical model has been elites is the core element in the elite - formulated as follows: oriented approach. The success of [( Political Elite Strategy ⊃ democratization )] democracy depends on the actions of My argument is that the fate of political elites. At the center of this democratization in Iran would be approach, there is the rational calculation determined by the relative power of of political actors instead of structures. The reformists and conservatives. Therefore, I certain action (innovative action, elections concentrate on the political elite strategies and strategies) of political elites is a causal and their choices. Theoretically, there is a condition for democracy. Strategies of relation between democratization and the political leaders can be classified as political elite strategies. If the political follows: 1) Negotiation, 2) Democratic elites choose the suppressive strategy compromise, 3) Concession, 4) Elections, against the opposition, then the the cycle of 5) Harshness (Suppression), and 6) Pact- return from democratization to making (Huntington, 1995; Pother, 2001; authoritarianism takes place in the Gill, 2000). According to Huntington transition stage, but if the political elite

Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 8:57 IRST on Thursday September 30th 2021 (1995), Negotiation and compromise strategy is considered non-suppressive, the among political elites are at the heart of the index of democratic transition increases. democratization process. The political elite strategy can be considered There are four major actors in the as a sufficient causal condition to make transition game2. These political actors can democratization. have different relationship 3. The certain relationship between soft-liners and 3. Methodology To test the hypothesis about 2 . The groups in the processes of transition are the standpatters, democratization, the following operational reformers within government and revolutionary extremists within opposition or radicals (Huntington,1995). indicators for the concepts of 3. 1) Alliance of democratic reformists inside the government democratization and elite strategies are with social democratic forces against hardliners. 2) Alliance of social democratic forces against ruling or dominant forces. 3) defined. Democratic compromise between leaders of social forces. 4) Harshness against the forces opposed to democracy.

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Democratization: Theoretically, the harsh suppression and structural process of democratization consists of suppression. Harsh suppression is three phases: the breakdown of measured through the killing and authoritarian regime, democratic transition imprisonment of opposition forces and the and democratic consolidation. The first termination of opposition parties. By stage entails the collapse of an structural suppression, I mean putting authoritarian regime structures, while the limitation on political forces through second stage includes change and ratifying restrictive laws or restrictive movement from authoritarian structures interpretation of the existing laws. and processes to new structures and Disqualifying candidates in elections and processes. The transition involves two restricting political actors are considered as distinct phases: Establishment and the indicators of structural suppression. I realization. The third stage occurs, when have studied non-suppressive strategy the new installed structures and processes using the indicators of holding competitive have been institutionalized. In this elections and electoral coalition. research, I have emphasized the democratic transition, particularly the Units of analysis: This study contains two phase of realization. I use two dimensions analysis units: The country (Iran) and to measure the concept of transition: historical periods electoral participation and competition. The rate of participation is obtained by Table 1: The historical periods calculating the proportion of participants in First constitutional period 1906 to 1926 the elections to the population having the Second constitutional period 1926 to1941 necessary qualification, multiplied by 100. The value of competition is calculated by Third constitutional period 1941 to1953 subtracting the percentage of the votes of Four constitutional period 1953 to 1979 the elected person in presidential election First Islamic republic period 1980 to 1996 and the arithmetic mean of the percentage of the votes of the elected persons in Second Islamic republic period 1997 to 2013 parliamentary election from 100. In this paper, the index of democratic The historical periods have been defined at

Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 8:57 IRST on Thursday September 30th 2021 transition (ID) is constructed through the section of empirical analysis in this computing arithmetic mean of two text. variables of electoral participation (EP) Data Collection: In this research time and electoral competition (EC). series data was used and the relevant data for democratic transition was collected by Political Elite Strategies: In this study, referring to the Document Centre of the political elites have been categorized Parliament library (Iran) and Ministry of into two groups: conservatives (inside the Interior (Iran). This data, especially data of government) and opposition forces 2th parliament to 24 th parliament (radicals, reformists and moderates). (parliamentary elections before the 1979 Political elite strategy is operationally revolution), is very useful to analyze the defined by suppression and non- problem of democracy in Iran. The data of suppression. Suppression is evaluated by political elite strategies was gathered by

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referring to the valid books which are cited C1= the dissolution of first parliament; at references list. The data were gathered C2= the military Coup; C3= the extinction by direct referring to primary documents of the Qajar dynasty (1925); E= and the primary data were used. Emergence of the military monarchy Analysis method: The research hypothesis Mohammad Ali Shah dissolved the first has been evaluated by historical narrative parliament (during May 1908 to technique. As for the historical narrative September 1910). In February, 1921, the analysis, it can be said that this technique military Coup led by Reza Khan took has a nature of genetic explanation by place. In October 1923, Reza Khan was which narrates the sequences of events as a elected as the prime minister by the Fifth story from the starting point up to end parliament ( Kātūzīyān, 1981: 88). On point as an outcome. The narrative October 30, 1925, the Fifth Parliament historical analysis focuses on the voted for the extinction of the Qajar sequences of events and processes at the dynasty and adopted the Constituent specific periods of time and also on the Assembly to decide the future of the nature of the contextual and temporal country, during that time the country events. In this study, I investigated the administration was on the interim historical sequences of events which led to government by Reza Khan. Finally, in generation of a historical outcome, i.e., December 1925 Constituent Assembly parliamentary/presidential election, by using declared Reza Pahlavi monarchy, narrative analysis technique. and Ahmad Shah, the last Qajar’s King, was formally deposed (See: Kātūzīyān, 4. Empirical analysis 2006, 2009; Abrahamian, 2008; Foran, In this section, the research hypothesis is 1993). Rez ā-sh āh emerged with a military evaluated by empirical evidences and is origin. empirically discussed through narrative analysis. The second constitutional period Since December 11, 1925 to September 10, The first constitutional period 1941, Iran experienced an era of despotism The first constitutional era started with the again. In this period, the political actors of issuance of Constitutional Royal liberals and moderates were suppressed by

Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 8:57 IRST on Thursday September 30th 2021 Declaration (Farman) and ended with the conservatives. The elections of the sixth to 5th parliament. In the first constitutional thirteen parliaments was manipulated. The period, during which there was not the independent newspapers were closed. The suppression, the average of democratic activities of political parties were banned transition was equal to 35.41(see Saei, and the military bureaucracy was 2007). However, shortly after the first reinforced (see: Abrahamian, 2008; Foran, wave of democratization, the first reverse 1993; Kātūzīyān, 2009). wave was started, when a military The political actors of the Rez ā-sh āh monarchy emerged in the country. The period can be categorized into three following events indicate the process of groups: 1) Liberals, 2) Mediates, 3) emergence of the military monarchy of Conservatives or Loyalists. In this period, Reza Shah: only conservatives were permitted to C1 → C2 → C3 → E participate in the electoral competition. The

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liberals and moderates were suppressed by C5= Creation of a Senate Assembly; C6= the conservatives during the reign of Rez ā- right to dissolve the parliament by King; C7= Shāh. It should be noted that in the 6th Increasing military salaries; C8= Enforcing parliamentary election, the suppressive stringent press law against anyone criticizing strategy was weak. So, the democratic the loyal family; C9= Emerging absolute monarchy; E= Holding the 16 th parliamentary actors, liberals and mediates, could attend election. in the election (see Mud īr Sanech ī, 1996; On 4 February 1949, Muhammad Rez ā- Saei, 2007; Nuwdhar ī, 2001). In the first Shāh attended an annual ceremony to constitutional period, the rate of electoral commemorate the founding of Tehran competition was 51.75, while in the second University and at the ceremony, N āșer constitutional period, during which there Fakhr-ʾĀrāy shoots him that one of the was the suppression, the rate of electoral bullets hit the king. After the failed competition decreased to 17.28 (see Saei, assassination attempt against him in 1949, 2007). Sh āh attempted to crush all opposition. He declared the martial law throughout the The third constitutional period country, closed down all the main After the fall of Reza Shah, On September newspapers which were criticizing the court 10, 1941, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi came to and outlawed T ūde Party, Shah convened a power. The parties emerged again and the constituent assembly, elected under martial Tūde Party of Iran, the Royalists and the law, the assembly unanimously voted to Liberals such as Mu șaddeq could create a Senate (Shajiee, 1993: 226). Half of participate in the 14 th parliamentary th th th the Senate’s members were nominated by election. In the 14 , 15 and 17 the monarch. Shah was also granted the parliamentary elections, during which there right to dissolve the parliament whenever he was not the suppression, the rate of wished, provided that he simultaneously democratic transition was 33.57%, 38.58% th decreed new election and convened the and 49.5% respectively, while in the 16 new parliament within three months( see parliament, political actors were suppressed Abrahamian, 1982). The Sa ʿīd’s and the rate of democratic transition government promised to strengthen the decreased to 28.69% ( see Parliament armed forces, raise military salaries, the library (Iran), the document Centre) . press law was made more stringent against Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 8:57 IRST on Thursday September 30th 2021 anyone criticizing the government and In the third constitutional period, the members of the loyal family. The monarchy following events occurred, which affected appeared to have almost as much as power the activities of political actors in the in the era before August 1941 (see process of democratization (see Turbat ī Abrahamian, 1982: 263-4). In such a Sanj ābī, 1997; Abrahamian, 1982; Shajiee, situation, Man ūcher ʾEqb āl became minister 1993). The events can be narrated as of interior to prepare the 17 th parliamentary follows: election. Mu șaddeq formed a committee to C1 → C2 → C3 → C4 → C5 → negotiate with Hazh īr, the court minister, C6 → C7 → C8 → C9 → E about the lack of free elections. The C1=Assassination of King; C2=Enforcement of members of the committee were students, martial law; C3= Closed down the main newspapers; C4=Outlawed T ūde Party; politicians and traders. This committee became the nucleus of Mu șaddeq’s National

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front. The court promised to end electoral the Parliament of the seventeenth and dissolved it on irregularities. After the promise, National Sunday, August 15th, 1953; C7. Mu șaddeq’s political measures led to escape Mohammad Reza front was formed by a broad coalition and Shah; C8. The successful coup of August 18, 1953 in its first declaration, National front put occurred against Mu șaddeq; C9. Mu șaddeq’s forward three demands: 1) free elections; 2) National government was overthrown; lifting of the martial law; 3) Freedom of the C10. Dissolution of 17th parliament was announced press. Subsequently, the following parties by the King on 18 November, 1953; C11. The political parties, except for the 20th joined the National Front and formed a parliamentary election, were suppressed (see powerful coalition: Iran party, Toiler party Abrahamian, 1982; Foran, 1993); E. Finally, the rise (Hezb Zahmat-kesh ān), the society of of Muhammad Rez ā-Shāh as a military monarchy. Muslim Warriors (J āme ʿe-ye Muj āhed īn-e ʾEsl ām) and the National Iran party In such a situation, 18 th parliamentary (Abrahamian, 1982: 265-266). In the 16 th election took place, in which Muhammad election, the electoral struggle took place Rez ā-Shāh had suppressed his organized between the National Front, Royalists, local opposition and dissolved the following leaders and politicians of pro-British. parties: 1) Independence Party; 2) Brothers Generally, there is a relation between party; 3) Aria party; 4) First National the political elite strategies and the rate of Front; 5) Iran party; 6) Union Party democratization, where political elite (Coalition of people party, Unity of Iran strategies are suppressive, the rate of and Farzand ān of Iran); 7) Toiler democratic transition is low. party(Hezb Zahmat-kesh ān); 8) The society of Muslim Warriors (J āme ʿe-ye Muj āhed īn The fourth constitutional period ʾEslam); 9) Nation Iran Party; 9) people’s The fourth constitutional era started in 1953 party of Iran; 10) The Society of Rah āʾī-ye and ended in 1979. It began with the Kār va ʾAnd īshe. termination of Mu șaddeq and ended with In this election, four parties attended in the revolution of 1979. In the social context political sphere, but there was not any the of the fourth constitutional period, the competition among the various political following events occurred which influenced groups. The parties were: 1) Devotees of the relations between political actors in the Islam; 2) National Socialist Workers Party process of democratization. of Iran; 3) National Resistance Movement;

Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 8:57 IRST on Thursday September 30th 2021 C1 → C2 → C3 → C4 → C5 →C6 → C7 → 4) Pan Iran party. The 18 th parliamentary C8 → C9 → C10 →C11 → E election was held after the fall of C1. Mu șaddeq resigned for rejecting his legal right to determine the war minister by Muhammad Rez ā- Mu șaddeq. It was like Rez ā-sh āh period sh āh; C2. Mu șaddeq returns to power on Monday, (see Şārem ī, 1999: 91). July 20, 1952 due to people uprising; C3. National Consultative Assembly authorized the Prime In the 19 th and the 20 th parliamentary Minister (Mu șaddeq) that he can be approved the elections, the relationship among political laws that are good for the country4; C4. Mu șaddeq fired the royalists from cabinet and accepted the actors was influenced by the events which responsibility of the war minister; C5. Senate occurred in the social context of the 18th Assembly was resolved by Mu șaddeq; C6. parliament. Therefore the previous Mu șaddeq held a referendum on the dissolution of authoritarian election here also is true. In the 20 th parliament, the average of 4 . Time of the law was six months and extended for one democratic transition is 19.45 percent that year.

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indicates a decrease of 10.14 in comparison Iran (official); 6) People's Party; 7) Nuv īn with the average of democratic transition in Iran Party; 8) Freedom Movement of Iran; the 18th parliament, which was 29.59(see 9) Islamic Nations Party. However, the Saei, 2007). Why is it so? In the social political elites of opposition had not any context of the 20th parliamentary, the activities in the election and only Nuv īn following events occurred, which Iran Party (Modern Iran party) and people influenced the result of the election: party competed together. Those parties were C1 → C2 → C3C → 4 → E authoritarian and dependent on government. C1=Economic crisis (1960 -1961); C2=Pressure of In this period, electoral participation has an world system (America pressures for liberal increase of 38.28 in comparison with the reforms); C3= Domestic dissatisfaction (Domestic Pressure);C4=Liberalization=the20th parliamentary previous period. The fact is inconsistent election. with the theory; it may be related to the In the social context of the 20th arrangement of government parties. The parliamentary election occurred two main Nuv īn Iran party as major and people party events: economic crisis coincided with as minor party attended in the election. pressure of America for reform. Those Perhaps the parties were successful in events led to increasing pressure on the political mobilization.5 King and opening of the political The 22th parliament inaugurated on atmosphere. But the political elites of Thursday, October 5, 1967. In the social opposition could not take advantage from context of the 22th parliament, the White this political opportunity. Since, 28 August Revolution (see K ātūzīyān, 1981:225) 1953 coup had weakened their occurred which influenced the process of organizations, they had been suppressed. the 22th parliamentary election.(K ātūzīyān, So, there was not a power balance between 1981: 225). In response to this event , the hardliners and opposition forces. Economic social forces (religious and political) grievances of the people in the Prime protested against the Shah and the massacre Minister ʾEqb āl make a significant decrease of people happened on Wednesday, June 5, in participation. In this period, the electoral 1963. This case as a starting point led to end struggle took place between loyalist parties the legal activities of political groups. (Nationalists party and People party), Basically, political stability can be National Front, Pan Iran and the figures realized by flexibility and tolerance of elites Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 8:57 IRST on Thursday September 30th 2021 such as ʿAl ī ʾAm īnī, S. J. Behbah ānī for political participation of different groups (Shajiee, 1993: 233) and the members of or by repression. The King chose the Toiler party (Hezb Zahmat-kesh ān) under procedure of repression and began to the leadership of Muzaffar Baqāʾī ( Şārem ī suppress his oppositions as his father had Shah āb, 1999: 92). done between 1924 and 1941. Mehd ī In the 21st parliamentary election, the Bāzarg ān, Ţāleq ānī, Sah ābī and others from rate of democratic transition from 19.45 in the Freedom Movement, and Khal īl Malek ī, the 19 th parliamentary election, increased to Sh āyeq ān and others from socialist League 35.14. The following parties exist in the and Fr ūhar as a leader of the Iran National period: 1) Second National Front; 2) The Party and K āẓem S āmī from People Party National Socialists Movement of Iran; 3) of Iran had been tried and imprisoned The Islamic Coalition Party (Jameiyat-e Mu ʾtalefe Islami ) ; 4) T ūde Party; 5) Pan 1 . The parties play the important role on political mobilizing of people in the democratic countries.

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(K ātūzīyān, 1981: 238-9). In this social The first parliamentary election and the context, the 22 nd parliamentary election was first presidential election were the freest held in which the main parties and elections. The three main political groups organized opposition had been suppressed including national like the National Front by Muhammad Rez ā-sh āh state. In this and the Freedom Movement, the Marxists period, loyalist parties, the Modern Iran such as the Fad āʾī guerrillas and the party, People Party and Pan Iran party were Muj āhed īn-e Khalq (Holy-Warriors of the active in the election. people), and religious groups like the The 23 th parliament had 268 Islamic Republic Party, the Organization representatives from whom 221 persons of the Holy-Warriors of the Islamic were the members of Nuv īn Iran party and Revolution and the Islamic Coalition 37 persons were from the people party Party(Hey ʾat-hā-ye Mu ʾtalefe-ye ʾEsl āmī), (Şārem ī, 1999: 97). The 24 th parliamentary were allowed to participate in the process election was under the control of of democratization. In 1981, the opposition Resurrection Party, which was led by the groups were violently suppressed and the King. In this election, Resurrection Party rate of democratic transition changed as entered the political competition with 900 follows: candidates. Government initiated new

policies for acceleration of voting and Table2. Empirical data of democratic compulsory registration in the party. The transition King said all Iranians should either join the Party, or become silent, or get a passport to Elections Years Electoral Democratic Competition Transition leave Iran, because the country does not 1st 1980 need traitors (See Abrahamian, 1982). presidential 24.02 45.94 Therefore, the prerequisites of a democratic election th election had been manipulated in the 24 2nd 1981 parliamentary election. presidential 12.38 38.66 As a result, the cycle of despotism election started in 1953 for a second time and 3th 1981 Ended in 1979. presidential 5.59 40.33 election th Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 8:57 IRST on Thursday September 30th 2021 The First Islamic Republic 4 1985 The First Islamic Republic started with presidential 14.28 34.59 election collapse of Pahlavi dynasty, on 11 th February1979 and ended with 5 th 5 1989 presidential 5.48 30.03 parliamentary election on March 8, 1996. election 6th 1993 presidential 37.09 43.87 election

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After the 1981, the suppression has structurally been applied by Council of Guardians of the constitution. The evidence of structural suppression in the 2nd to 5 th parliament is given in the following table.

Table3. Empirical data of Structural suppression 2nd parliament 3rd parliament 4th parliament 5th parliament The number of 1592 1999 3233 5366 candidates The number of 266 16.7 333 16.6 827 25.6 1858 34.62 disqualified candidate Source: Ministry of Interior (Iran), the Official document Centre ; http://www.moi.ir

During the 2nd till the 5th parliamentary 1997, the Fourth wave of elections, the Islamic Left and Right democratization, called the reform Groups were active in the electoral movement (May 23, 1997), occurred in competitions. In the 4th parliamentary the presidential election of 1997. In this election, 25.6% candidates were rejected, election, Mohammad Khatami, as a those who their Islamic commitment was moderate and reformist candidate, disqualified by Council of Guardians of defeated his conservative opponent, Ali the constitution. In the 5th parliamentary Akbar Nategh-Noori. In the second elections, 34.62 candidates were rejected. Islamic republic period, the Political During the 3rd till the 6th presidential actors are the reformists and elections, all candidates were the Islamic conservatives 7. On 18 February 2000, Right Groups and the rate of competition the 6 th parliament election was held. In decreased to 5.48% in the 5 th presidential this election, 571 out of 6853 candidates elections (see Table 2). Meanwhile, the were disqualified, while in the 5 th rate of competition increased in the 6th parliament, there were 1858 disqualified presidential election. The author candidates. In this period, the reformist supposes that a possible cause of candidates compete with conservative Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 8:57 IRST on Thursday September 30th 2021 explaining the increase of competition in candidates. the 6th presidential election is the critical In the 7th , the 8 th and 9 th comments of Ahmad Tavakkul ī6 parliamentary elections, most reformist regarding the economic politics of the government at the time. 7. The most important groups in the reformist front are Islamic Iran Participation Party, Organization of The second Islamic republic period the Holy-Warriors of the Islamic Revolution, Islamic labour Party and Association of Militant Clerics. The second Islamic republic period The most important groups of conservatives consist started with elected President Khatami of Society of Militant Clergy (Ruhaniyat-e Mobarez), and continued up until today in Iran. In Islamic Coalition party (Heyat-ha-ye Motalefeh-ye Eslami), Islamic Society of Engineers, and Society of Iran’s Physicians . 6 . Ahmad Tavakkul ī was one of the conservative candidates.

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candidates were disqualified by the constrain the process of democratization Council of Guardian of the Constitution, by suppressing the moderates and while the conservatives were permitted to reformists. According to the empirical attend in the elections. In this period, the data, whenever the parties and electoral restrictions were imposed and associations are active and the reformists structural suppression was increased. In are stronger than conservatives, the 9th parliamentary election, 58.98 out of society is more likely to proceed to 1960 candidates were disqualified, while democratization, as exemplified in the in the 6 th parliament election, there were 17 th parliamentary election and 6 th .08 disqualified candidates (see the parliamentary election after the 1979 Official Documents Centre of Iranian revolution, the rete of democratic Ministry of Interior). transition was 43.89 and 64.63 In the 9 th , 10 th and 11 th presidential respectively (see saei, 2007). elections, main competition took place My argument is that the solution is to between the reformists and strengthen civil society in Iran, which conservatives. The candidates of the provides a channel for people’s Reformist Parties were ʾAkbar H āshem ī participation and the fulfillment of Rafsanj ānī, Mehd ī Karr ūbī, Mustafá democratic values in the political life. Mu ʿīn in the 9 th presidential election, Essentially, the social foundation of Mehd ī Karr ūbī, Mīr-Huseyn M ūsav ī in democracy lays in a powerful civil the 10 th presidential election and Hasan society. In this approach, democratic Rūhānī in the 11 th presidential election. state is based on democratic society. If The electoral restrictions and the civil society is weak, the state structural suppression show that the becomes stronger and the government conservatives have tried to produce a may be able to influence the private and new authoritarian cycle. However, public sphere without the participation of Iranian society has resisted against the civil society. The civil society in Iran authoritarianism. The protests against is weak, while the State is powerful. the results of the 10 th presidential However, there is a suitable structural election and the citizens’ participation in condition for a stabilization of the 11 th presidential election to elect democracy. For instance, in Iran, the rate

Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 8:57 IRST on Thursday September 30th 2021 president R ūhānī are the implications of of literacy is 84.7% (Statistical Year the resistant actions against the cycle of Books, 2011), and the number of authoritarianism. Additionally, it should intellectuals i.e., writers, academicians, be noted that the rate of democratic journalists, lawyers and teachers, transition was 46.17 in the first Islamic university graduates, and middle class republic period, while in the second has increased significantly in recent years Islamic republic period, it increased to (see Statistical Year Book , 2011; 2013). 56.92. The intellectuals and the middle class play an important role in the stabilization 5. Discussion and Conclusion of democracy. They can usually obtain or In this article, the findings show that if consolidate their political rights by the hardliners inside the government are organizing civic institutions and in turn stronger than the opposition groups, they challenge the authoritarian regimes.

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As for the practical implications of Finally, it must be considered that this research, it should be noted that scientific research is based on trial and among three types of transition processes error. Hopefully, other scholars will to democracy, i.e., transformation, continue researching on democratization replacement, and transplacement, perhaps in Iran in the light of the critics which the most suitable transition for Iran have been raised in the present paper. would be transformation. Countries which have been democratized during the References third wave of democratization can [1] Abrahamian, E., 1982. Iran between two probably confirm this proposition. revolutions . Princeton University Press. Moreover, transformation is preferable [2] Foran, J., 1993. Fragile resistance: for Iran, since replacement is based on a Social transformation in Iran from 1500 situation in which conservatives are to the revolution . Westview Press. [3] Gill, G., 2000. The dynamics of dominant in comparison to reformists democratization . New York. and the oppositions of the regime are [4] Huntington, S.P., 1993. The third wave: more powerful than the government. Democratization in the late twentieth Here, the activists are the opposition century (Vol. 4). University of Oklahoma members. Today, oppositions are not press. more powerful than the government in [5] Inglehart, Ronald and Welzel, Christian Iran. Also, violence is the strategy of ,2005). Modernization, Cultural Change, replacement. In such a replacement, neo- and Democracy: The Human authoritarianism could be reproduced. Development Sequence, Cambridge Whereas the transplacement could take University Press.

place in a situation in which there is a [6]Kātūzīyān, Hum ā, 1981 . The Political Economy of Modern Iran: power equality and balance between Despotism and Pseudo-Modernism , governmental elites and opposition (civil London: Macmillan. 8 society activists). In such condition, [7] ------, 1996. Dictatorship, both sides face crises and prefer Democracy and National Movement, compromise and negotiation. Here, the Tehran, Nashr-e Markaz. activists are governmental elites and their [8] Ministry of Interior (Iran), the Official opposition; however, is not the case in document Centre. Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 8:57 IRST on Thursday September 30th 2021 Iran. The necessary condition for transformation is the rise of reformists. [9] Mud īr Sanech ī, Muhsen, 1996. Political In this transition, the main actors are Parties of Iran , Ras ā Cultural Service governmental reformists. The Institute.

governmental reformists have been raised [10] Nuwdhar ī, ʿEzzatullah, 2001. History of Political Parties in Iran . Nav īd-e Shiraz in Iran. Hence, in the Iranian case, it Press. seems that the most suitable transition [11] Parliament library (Iran), the document would be transformation, in which the Centre. transition is based on election, [12] Potter, D.S., Goldblatt, D., Kiloh, M. negotiation and democratic compromise. and Lewis,P.eds.,1997. Democratization (Vo 8 . Here, the moderates are not strong enough to l. 2). Polity. overthrow the government.

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[13] Putnam, R. (1993) Making democracy work: Civic traditions in modem Italy. Princeton University Press [14] Saei, Ali, 2007. Democratization in Iran , ʾĀgah Publication. [15] Shajiee, Z.1993. The Political Elites in Iran: From Constitutional Revolution to Islamic Revolution. Nasr-e Sokhan Press. [16] Şārem ī, S. 1999, Governmental Parties and Their Role in Contemporary History of Iran, Documents of Islamic Revolution Centre. [17] Sorensen, G., 2007. Democracy and democratization: Processes and prospects in a changing world . Westview Press. [18] Statistical Centre of Iran, Statistical Year Books, 2011 and 2013 [19] Turbat ī Sanj ābī, Mahm ūd, 1996. Victims of Belief and Political Parties in Iran , Asia Press. [20] Rustow, D.A.,1970. Transitions to democracy: Toward a dynamic model. Comparative politics , 2(3), pp.337-363. [21] http://www.moi.ir

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