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The Representation of Women in European Holocaust Films: Perpetrators, Victims and Resisters The Representation of Women in European Holocaust Films: Perpetrators, Victims and Resisters Ingrid Lewis B.A.(Hons), M.A.(Hons) This thesis is submitted to Dublin City University for the award of PhD June 2015 School of Communications Supervisor: Dr. Debbie Ging I hereby declare that this material, which I now submit for assessment on the programme of study leading to the award of PhD is entirely my own work, and that I have exercised reasonable care to ensure that the work is original, and does not to the best of my knowledge breach any law of copywright, and has not been taken from the work of others save and to the extent that such work has been cited and acknowledged within the text of my work. Signed: ID No: 12210142 Date: ii Acknowledgements This thesis is dedicated to my most beloved parents, Iosefina and Dumitru, and to my sister Cristina I am extremely indebted to my supervisor, Dr. Debbie Ging, for her insightful suggestions and exemplary guidance. Her positive attitude and continuous encouragement throughout this thesis were invaluable. She’s definitely the best supervisor one could ever ask for. I would like to thank the staff from the School of Communications, Dublin City University and especially to the Head of Department, Dr. Pat Brereton. Also special thanks to Dr. Roddy Flynn who was very generous with his time and help in some of the key moments of my PhD. I would like to acknowledge the financial support granted by Laois County Council that made the completion of this PhD possible. My gratitude goes also to Professor Ronit Lentin, former Head of the Department of Sociology, Trinity College Dublin, whose writings and advice were inspirational for this research. I would like to thank Simon Wiesenthal Center in Vienna, Austria, which opened for me the first platform of encounter with international researchers in Holocaust Studies, and to the many others that followed. I am also grateful to the European Holocaust Research Infrastructure (EHRI) and the Shoah Memorial in Paris, France, which credited me with the participation in their first three-week summer school, an excellent opportunity for me to outline, review, challenge and improve my research. A special thanks goes to Alessandro Matta, director of the Shoah Memorial of Cagliari, Italy, who kindly made available for me several of the rare Holocaust films. My deepest gratitude goes towards my wonderful parents Iosefina and Dumitru, sister Cristina and niece Irina-Brigita: I would have certainly not arrived this far without you. Your deep love, ceaseless support and life example was a constant motivation for me to never give up on my dreams. I am indebted also to my extended Irish family, especially to Peggie and Phil, for their generous, wholehearted affection. Last but certainly not least, heartfelt thanks to my husband and soul-mate Padraig for his love and patience throughout the journey of this PhD. iii Table of contents Chapter 1: Introduction ..............................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Women and The Holocaust: The Silenced Gender?............................21 2.1. Introduction............................................................................................21 2.2. The Silenced Gender Paradigm..............................................................26 2.3. Jewish Women: Between Ideal Patterns and Silenced Testimonies............36 2.4. “Other” Women: the Doubly Silenced.........................................................41 2.5. Invisible Resistance: Women’s Contribution ..............................................48 2.6. Women Perpetrators: Breaking the Silence on Nurses, Guards and Female Denouncers.................................................................................56 2.7. Conclusion ....................................................................................................66 Chapter 3: Gendered Stereotypes and Sexual Extremes: An Overview of the Literature on Women in Holocaust Films................................................70 3.1. Introduction............................................................................................70 3.2. Screening the Past in Historical Films...................................................73 3.3. The “Gender Memory Gap”...................................................................76 3.4. The “Feminization of the Jew”...............................................................79 3.5. Women in Holocaust Films: “Vicarious Victims”, “Beautiful Souls” or “Virgins and Whores”................................................................................85 3.6. Approaching the Taboo of Sexual Abuse and Rape in Film........................90 3.7. Female Perpetrators in Film: Evil as an Eroticised Woman..........................97 3.8. Conclusion...................................................................................................104 iv Chapter 4: Methodology..........................................................................................106 4.1. Introduction..........................................................................................106 4.2. Defining Holocaust Cinema.................................................................108 4.3. Selection Criteria for Film Corpus.............................................................112 4.4. Compiling the Corpus of Films to Be Considered....................................117 4.5. Textual Analysis and Filmic Discourses on Women.................................120 4.6. Notes on Terminology.................................................................................128 4.7. Conclusion..................................................................................................129 Chapter 5: The Cinematic Representation of Women as Perpetrators and Accomplices of Nazism.............................................................................131 5.1. Introduction..........................................................................................131 5.2. Embodying Female Perpetrators in Holocaust Films (1945-2000)............134 5.3. Uneven Representations: Complex Men and Poorly Drawn Women.......142 5.4. “Ordinary Women” as Perpetrators............................................................149 5.5. Conclusion...................................................................................................160 Chapter 6: Female Victims in Holocaust Films: From Universalised Portrayals To Recovered Memory.............................................................................162 6.1. Introduction..........................................................................................162 6.2. Universalised Victims: Jewish Women in Early Holocaust Films......164 6.3 Jewish Woman: the Epitome of Holocaust Victimhood.………………..175 6.4. Newcomers to Holocaust Cinema: Women in Crisis, Second Generation, Sexual Abuse, and Other Victims of Persecution..................185 v 6.5. The Trauma of Post(Memory): Women’s Memories in the Holocaust Cinema of the New Millennium........................................197 6.6. Conclusion...................................................................................................217 Chapter 7: Gendering Heroism: the Role of Women in Filmic Discourses about Resistance..................................................................................................219 7.1. Introduction..........................................................................................219 7.2. Women as Ciphers for Resistance in The Last Stage............................222 7.3 Patriarchal Discourses/Perspectives on Jewish Female Heroism…......227 7.4. The Trope of Rescue in Holocaust Films.............................................235 7.5. The Role of Heroines in Coming to Terms with the Past in Germany..…....244 7.6. Women Undoing the Past: The Nasty Girl and Sarah’s Key................251 7.7. Conclusion.............……………………………………………..….....254 Chapter 8: Conclusion..............................................................................................257 8.1 Restoring Women’s Voices: Individual versus Universal......................260 8.2. The Portrayal of “Ordinary Women” and the Lessons of the Holocaust.........................................................................................264 8.3 Instrumentalising Women to Foreground Present Concerns in Resistance Narratives..................................…..................................267 Appendix: Corpus of Reference: European Holocaust Films..............................277 Bibliography..............................................................................................................294 Filmography..............................................................................................................324 vi Tables and figures Table 1: Holocaust films directed or co-directed by women..........................................204 Figure 2: The “vicarious witness” experience in female-directed films.........................207 vii Abstract The Representation of Women in European Holocaust Films: Perpetrators, Victims and Resisters Ingrid Lewis The persistence of filmmakers in tackling the subject of the Holocaust over the last seven decades has resulted in an overwhelming body of films, which is continuously expanding. While this body of work is vast and diverse in terms of aesthetic, narrative, generic and ideological approaches, it is possible to trace cycles and patterns which
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