Peter Halkon

Britons and Romans in an East Landscape, UK

Introduction

According to Ptolemy ( Geographia 2.3.17) the tribe living in what is now East Yorkshire were the . Superficially their name alone would fit with Julius Caesar’s (Gallic Wars V.12) 1 statement that:

“The interior of Britain is inhabited by people who claim, on the strength of an oral tradition, to be aboriginal: the coast by Belgic immigrants who came to plunder and make war – nearly all of them retaining the names of the tribes from which they originated – and later settled down to till the soil”.

The Parisi of Roman Yorkshire have been equated with the of Gaul after whom the French capital is named, also recorded by Caesar and there has been debate concerning the extent to which the two tribes are related. There has been much discussion about their origins in recent years, as invasion hypotheses have come in and out of fashion as an explanation for cross-cultural connections between Britain and the European continent in the Iron Age (c. f. Collis 2, James 3 and Cunliffe 4). To Hawkes 5 and Dunning, and Hodson 6 the people of the , named after the farm where its “signature” burial type was first excavated, were amongst the most obvious manifestations of migration, particularly due to their mode of burial, consisting of inhumation surrounded by a square ditch and covered with a low mound which became known as square-barrows. This burial technique, despite major aerial surveys undertaken over large areas of , still has its greatest concentration in the historic county of the and is most obviously paralleled in the Ardennes and Champagne regions of northern France. These similarities led to the major campaigns of research by Stead 7 on both sides of the channel. Within some of the square barrows, the dead were accompanied by two wheeled vehicles, which some authorities regard as chariots for war, others as a more prosaic piece of high status transport. Whatever their purpose, the chariot burials are also found in their biggest concentration in East Yorkshire and in the present countries of France and Belgium. There are, however, subtle differences in burial rites as the majority of the

1 CAESAR (translated by S.A. Handford) 1982, 110. 2 COLLIS 2003, 114. 3 JAMES 1999. 4 CUNLIFFE 1995, 11–26. 5 HAWKES , DUNNING 1930, 150–336. 6 HODSON 1964, 99–110. 7 STEAD 1979.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

24

XVII International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Roma 22-26 Sept. 2008 Session : Roman and Barbarian

East Yorkshire chariots were dismantled, whilst most of continental examples were interred intact and upright as if ready for use. The strong regionality of both square barrows and chariot burial distribution has been outlined above. Another remarkable localised ritual was the throwing of spears into often quite prestigious graves during the process of interment, found in cemeteries at and Garton Station 8 and Wetwang 9. With this in mind it is interesting to note that the tribal name may be interpreted as “the spear people”, as par is the Welsh for spear 10 . A further artefact clustered within the East Yorkshire region are figurines of sword bearing warriors carved in chalk, some of which appear to have been “decapitated” 11 . All in all the Iron Age people of East Yorkshire seem, to some extent, to have followed the violent stereotype often given of “Celtic” people, a view endorsed by James 12 , though criticised by Collis 13 who would prefer to use the term “burial with weapons” rather than “warrior burial”. Whether they were warlike or not, the swords and sheaths accompanying the dead such as those from Wetwang 14 and Kirkburn 15 were often highly decorated providing evidence for a strong tradition and expertise in metalworking in Iron Age East Yorkshire. The Foulness Valley 16 , is one of the most extensive iron production industries of Iron Age Britain 17 . The overall settlement pattern of Iron Age East Yorkshire has been plotted from major aerial surveys especially that undertaken on the 18 . The settlements themselves were much the same as elsewhere in Iron Age Britain, although there is a greater density of linear enclosures or “ladder settlements” in which the strings of enclosures and fields flanking a central droveway resemble the rungs of a ladder. Some of these extend over several kilometres. Houses were almost exclusively round unlike their continental counterparts, which were mainly rectilinear. Excavation and palaeoenvironmental analysis shows evidence for both arable and pastoral agriculture, though analysis of carbon and nitrogen isotopes from 62 individuals from Wetwang revealed a high animal protein intake with little evidence for the consumption of sea-food. 19 By the later Iron Age there is evidence of greater influence from the south in terms of material culture. In the later first century BC/first century AD, wheel thrown pottery arrives in the region which closely resembles vessels from the large settlement at Dragonby in the present county of North Lincolnshire 20 , augmenting the rather unprepossessing coarse straight sided jars which remained virtually unchanged throughout the Iron Age 21 . Further evidence of cross- contact is the growing number of single finds and hoards of inscribed gold coins of the , occupants of what are now the counties of Lincolnshire and Leicestershire. It is interesting to note that the coins to the north of the Humber are generally to be found on the best farmland within easy reach of the major watercourses, particularly in the valleys of the rivers Foulness and Hull. There is a concentration of coins and Dragonby type cordoned carinated vessels near Brantingham, which was ideally positioned to exploit both the Humber lowlands and the Yorkshire Wolds. Brooches with continental affinities have also been found in the vicinity (fig. 1). There may also have been a change in burial rite in parts of the region, as in addition to or instead of square barrows, large-scale geophysical survey undertaken between the modern villages of Sherburn and East Heslerton has revealed “barrowlets” or small circular ditches, which on excavation, were found to

8 STEAD 1991, 209, Fig 114, Fig 124. 9 DENT 1985, 85–92. 10 FALILEYEV 2007, 164. 11 STEAD 1988, 9–29. 12 JAMES 2007, 160–173. 13 COLLIS 2004, 573. 14 DENT 1985, 85–92. 15 STEAD 1991, 66–70. 16 HALKON 1997, 12–16. 17 HALKON 2007, 151–163. 18 STOERTZ 1997. 19 JAY , RICHARDS 2006, 653–662. 20 ELSDON 1989, 37. 21 RIGBY 1991, 94–118.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

25

P. Halkon – Britons and Romans in an East Yorkshire Landscape, UK

Abb. 1 – Iron Age in East Yorkshire. (Helen Woodhouse). enclose cremation burials associated with an extensive ladder settlements 22 . The move from inhumation to cremation parallels changes in burial practice in southern Britain exemplified at such sites as Westhampnett near Chichester in Sussex 23 . It is not clear the extent to which this represents changes in population or simply the adoption of new traditions, or the mechanism by which they took place. After the conquest of Britain in AD 43, the relationship of the Parisi to the invaders is uncertain. A site at the Redcliff, North Ferriby first recognised in the 1930s and excavated in the 1980s 24 may provide some clues, as a larger than usual assemblage of imported tableware and other artefacts dating from the period AD 43–70, such as Terra Nigra, Terra Rubra and early decorated samian pottery was found. It has been suggested by the excavators that Redcliff served as a place through which prestige goods were traded with the as yet unconquered lands north of the Humber.

22 POWLESLAND 2003, 275–293. 23 FITZPATRICK 1997. 24 CROWTHER ET ALII 1990, 172–182.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

26

XVII International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Roma 22-26 Sept. 2008 Session : Roman and Barbarian

It may even be possible that “luxury” products of pottery and glassware found at the extensive settlement at Stanwick, North York- shire, interpreted by Haselgrove 25 as belonging to Cartimandua, queen of the and ally of Rome, arrived by this route. In AD51 Cartimandua handed British resistance leader Caratacus over to the Romans (Tacitus Annals XII, 36) and until AD 71 enjoyed client status. The early military installations such as Rossington Bridge, near Doncaster AD 52–726 and Templeborough near Rotherham 27 could originate from this time. Eventually the break-up of Cartimandua and her consort Ve- nutius led to civil war and a pretext for the Roman armies to move north and take control. Because of the Redcliff finds and the Abb. 2 – The weapons cache under excavation. (Photo: courtesy York Archaeological Trust). proximity of the Parisi to the client Brigantes, they have usually been regarded as pro- Roman 28 , however forts were constructed at Brough, Hayton and Malton and a temporary camp at Buttercrambe Moor 29 , all in what is thought to have been Parisian territory. Furthermore the remarkable cache of five swords in decorated scabbards and 33 spearheads found near South Cave 30 may provide further indication that not all the inhabitants of East Yorkshire were as compliant to Roman rule as supposed. (fig. 2). The hoard had been placed in the ditch of a settlement under sherds of Dressel 20 amphora along with later first century Roman greyware pottery probably from Lincolnshire 31 . The decoration and typology of the swords belongs to Stead’s Northern Group 32 and they are likely to have been made in the region. Although we may never know precisely why the swords were disposed of in the way they were, they may represent a final act of structured deposition at the end of a passing era, as the carrying of arms was forbidden by the lex Julia Vi publica (Digest 48. 6, 1). As the hoard bore no signs of deliberate destruction, and indeed may have been wrapped in some way, it is possible that someone intended to recover them, perhaps in some act of resistance as the swords and spears may have armed a warrior band of some kind. The fact that the hoard was hidden under sherds of Dressel 20 olive oil amphora does, however, demonstrate some kind of contact with the Roman world. This consideration of the Iron Age background has demonstrated the presence of a strong regional identity in eastern Yorkshire, particularly in terms of burial rites. The changes in material culture experienced in the later Iron Age have also been discussed. We will now move on to explore the impact of the Roman conquest in this region and assess the extent to which “Roman” lifestyles penetrated with emphasis on material culture, particularly in the larger settlements of East Yorkshire and countryside beyond and what we know of religion and ritual.………………………………………………………………………………………….

25 HASELGROVE ET ALII 1991, 1–15. 26 BUCKLAND 1986, 6. 27 MAY 1922; BUCKLAND 1986, 30–32. 28 HANSON , CAMPBELL 1986, 83–84. 29 HORNE , LAWTON 1998, 327–329. 30 EVANS 2006, 572–577. 31 DIDSBURY , 2003. 32 STEAD , 2006, 203.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

27

P. Halkon – Britons and Romans in an East Yorkshire Landscape, UK

Roman East Yorkshire

The larger settlements

The conquest of Yorkshire may pro- vide a context for a stone relief found at Bolton near York. It shows the figure of Victory with palm frond over her shoulder placing a wreath on an altar 33 (fig. 3). The rather crude com- position and execution of this piece is remi- niscent of the grave stone of Lucius Duccius Rufinus , signifer of the Ninth Legion ( RIB 673) from York, who himself may have marched through Parisi territory. As no inscriptions from the conquest period have yet been found in East Yorkshire, we do not know the names of any of the auxiliary units that may have ac- companied the Ninth Legion in the region, or indeed manned the early Roman forts. There Abb. 3 – The relief of Victory from Bolton (Photo: A. Arnott). are hints, however, of a Balkan presence as Kräftig profilierte brooches, a type which originating in Pannonia (mo- dern Hungary) 34 have been found at Hayton 35 and a remarkable almost complete head pot from Holme-on- Spalding Moor closely resembles examples from the same location 36 . The presence of Pannonian troops in the East and North of Britain is demonstrated by a number of diplomas 37 . Ideally positioned on the point at which the lowlands of the meet the Yorkshire Wolds uplands, the fort at Hayton was placed on a sand and gravel rise next to a watercourse (fig. 4). It Abb. 4 – Crop mark of the Roman fort at Hayton (Photo: P. Halkon). was probably occupied for less than three decades 38 and is offset by some 300m from the line of the Roman road, which was probably not constructed until towards the end of the first quarter of the second century AD. Like the forts the road here was constructed on favorable terrain taking advantage of better drained soils to the east of the Walling Fen tidal inlet 39 . At Hayton the road soon attracted ribbon development extending some 450m eastward from the point at which it crossed Hayton Beck, and also caused realignment of the Iron Age settlement

33 HALKON 1998, 322–5. 34 BAYLEY AND BUTCHER 2004, 148. 35 STRATTON , 2005; HALKON 1992, 222–8. 36 BRAITHWAITE 1984, 99–131. 37 TULLY 2005, 375–82; MARSDEN 2003, 8–9; BURN 1969 no. 100; CIL XVI.65. 38 JOHNSON 1978, 57–115. 39 HALKON 2008, 185.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

28

XVII International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Roma 22-26 Sept. 2008 Session : Roman and Barbarian

pattern which had developed along the stream. The results of field walking, aerial photography, geophysical survey and watching briefs on development, show that this settlement was restricted to a band about 80m deep at each side of the road itself. Some of the buildings were constructed in stone and resembled the strip houses of the extra-mural settlements along Hadrian’s Wall. The evidence from field walking showed that several buildings were well appointed with bath suites, glazed windows and mosaic floors. Pottery systematically collected from the surface of the field included amphorae of Dressell 20 type which would have contained olive oil, plain and decorated samian pottery and mortaria sherds, some of them stamped, which together and in quantity are indicative of the presence of people familiar with “Roman” lifestyles 40 . At Shiptonthorpe, about 6km to the south east, the roadside settlement 41 showed a similar pattern of development but seems to have been of slightly lower status . Several roadside plots were totally excavated, revealing a sequence of timber buildings, the most impressive being an aisled hall 20m x 8m, which is likely to have stood to a height of 7m. An unusual aspect of the finds assemblage was the large quantity of querns, suggesting that large scale crop processing had taken place there. The finds in general were a mixture of artefacts of the type which may have been lost by those travelling along the road, including some military personnel, and those to be expected from a centre servicing the needs of passers by and the rural community in countryside beyond. Within the last three decades, developer funded fieldwork and research projects by various groups and individuals, has shown that at Brough-on-Humber42 , the probable civitas capital of the Parisi, extensive settlement also developed along the Roman roads which ran northwards towards Shiptonthorpe and Hayton and to the east towards the Hull Valley. A further core of settlement at Brough may have developed from a Flavian period fort, but unlike Hayton, it seems to have had little in the way of previous Iron Age activity in its immediate vicinity. By the middle of the second century, Brough developed to a sufficient extent to possess a theatre, for a stone inscription (RIB 707) records that Marcus Ulpius Januarius , an aedile of the vicus of dedicated a new stage during the reign of Antoninus Pius . Januarius was probably the son or grandson of someone who was given Roman citizenship by the Emperor Trajan. So far the theatre itself has not been located. The theatre may be connected in some way to the small figurine of an actor now in the Hull and East Riding Museum, Hull, found about 10km away close to the line of the Roman road at Willerby, near Hull. We know little about the internal arrangement of the settlement, but the presence of an aedile implies that there were other public buildings yet to be identified which needed managing. A geophysical survey undertaken by S. Jallands of Durham University showed the presence of what could be an organized street plan and large structures in the Bozzes Field area of the present small town 43 . Perhaps these represent some kind of civic core. Since excavations began in the 1930s a number of stone houses have been excavated, some well appointed with painted wall plaster and mosaic floors. The relationship of these apparently civilian buildings and the walled area is unclear. Research at Brough has been too piecemeal to decide whether it was a “failed” civitas capital as Wacher has suggested 44 . The scale of defences with projecting towers and multiple ditches on a different alignment and at some distance from the Flavian fort supports the idea that the function of these was primarily military, rather than an urban expression of civic pride, similar to other walled towns in Britain 45 . The walled enclosure may have served as a naval base of some kind, certainly the coin histogram for Brough shows a peak 46 for the reigns of Carausius and Allectus and control of the Humber estuary surely remained important as it provided access to York which remained an important centre. It was after all where Septimius Severus died in AD 211 and his Imperial family were

40 HALKON 2008, 107–117. 41 MILLETT 2006, 48–74. 42 WACHER 1969. 43 JALLANDS 1989. 44 WACHER 1997, 394–401. 45 ESMONDE -CLEARY 2003, 73–85. 46 SITCH 1999, 38–42.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

29

P. Halkon – Britons and Romans in an East Yorkshire Landscape, UK

resident, and where in AD 306 Constantius Chlorus died and his son Constantine I acclaimed 47 . According to Wacher 48 the naval base at Brough had ceased to function by the late fourth century, for the Notitia Dignitatum records that its detachment, the numerus supervenientium Petuariesium (the anticipators from Petuaria (Brough) 49 ) transferred to Derventio , which is generally thought to be Malton, in . Derventio has also been identified as Stamford Bridge 50 which lies 7 km to the east of York though no fortifications of the kind which one would associate with a late Roman military base have yet been found there. The decline of Brough may also be part of the overall trend apparent in Roman towns in Britain, caused partly by the withdrawal of public munificence by local élites 51 . The Roman settlement at Malton lies at each side of the River Derwent where the small towns of Malton and Norton are now located. As at Brough and Hayton, the first major Roman activity here was a Flavian fort. At some time in the later first or early second century AD the fort was manned by the Ala Gallorum Picentiana whose name survives on a dedication stone set up by their prefect Candidus 52 . Extra- mural settlement developed by the later first/early second centuries AD 53 with buildings mainly constructed of timber. By the third century there were a number of well appointed stone houses, some with mosaics and painted wall plaster and construction continued well into the second half of the fourth century AD. As with the other larger settlements of Roman East Yorkshire, ribbon development has been recognised along the Roman roads here, particularly during developer funded excavations and watching briefs over the last two decades or so 54 . To the south of the Derwent in what is now Norton, pottery production took place on a commercial scale and amongst the products of this industry were jars decorated with smith’s tools and faces which will be discussed below. It was at Norton that a stone inscription (RIB 712) dedicated to the Genius of the Place records the transfer of the ownership of a goldsmith’s shop to a slave. There were, by implication, those wealthy enough to purchase the goods that were made here, providing a written context for the gold jewellery found elsewhere in such as the Thetford treasure 55 . It also confirms the use of slaves in the region. It would seem that Malton/Norton continued into the fifth century, which would fit with the transfer of the numerus supervenientium Petuariesium from Brough. Comparison of coin losses between the other larger settlements provides a chronological comparison and Sitch 56 has noted the low number of Valentinianic period coins (AD 364–78) from Brough (19 coins out of 211 examined) in marked contrast to the roadside settlements of Shiptonthorpe (900 out of 1,111 coins) and Hayton (656 out of 1864). Theodosian issues (AD 378–402) are absent from Sitch’s coin list for Brough, compared with 82 out of 1,111 for Shiptonthorpe and 47 out of 1864 for Hayton. This suggests that the two roadside settlements were still in occupation when the possible civitas capital of Brough was in terminal decline.

The countryside

The realignment of pre-existing Iron Age settlement caused by the construction of the Roman roads has been referred to above and it was the roads that provided the main conduit along which Roman acculturation travelled, though it is important that the role of the watercourses within the region is not forgotten, a point endorsed by the distribution of lead pigs, many of them stamped, which were traded though the Humber estuary from Lutudarum in Derbyshire 57 . The distribution of samian pottery and coinage

47 HARTLEY ET ALII 2006. 48 WACHER 1969; 1997, 394–401. 49 Ramm 126 citing MORRIS 1973, 16. 50 CREIGHTON 1988, 387–406; LAWTO n 1994. 51 ESMONDE -CLEARY 1989. 52 JARRETT 1994, 35–77. 53 WILSON 2003, 258–269. 54 WILSON 2003, 258–269. 55 JOHNS , POTTER 1983. 56 SITCH 1998, 41–46. 57 SITCH 1989, 10–15.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

30

XVII International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Roma 22-26 Sept. 2008 Session : Roman and Barbarian

Abb. 5 – Roman East Yorkshire (Helen Woodhouse).

from the first and second centuries AD taken from various sources of information, shows a close relationship with the corridors of the Roman roads themselves, and although possible biases in recovery must be borne in mind, it would seem that for some time the adoption of the Roman cultural package remained restricted to these areas. There is a clear difference between the pottery assemblages from rural sites in the region and the roadside settlements. At Hawling Road, 58 , a site which started in the Iron Age and continued throughout the Roman period, only about 1km away from the Roman road, there was a greater proportion of jars, a trait regarded by Evans 59 as reflecting an Iron Age past and seen in Roman rural sites elsewhere. Use of amphorae and mortaria is also less common here than in the roadside settlements. The rural settlements show little evidence for change in the first century or so of Roman rule as the linear enclosure complexes continue to be occupied 60 though certain tendencies, such as settlement agglomeration, seem to accelerate in some regions such as the Foulness Valley 61 . It is likely that many

58 CREIGHTON 1999, 168–220. 59 EVANS 2001, 26–35. 60 FENTON THOMAS 2003, 61–72. 61 HALKON 2008, 194.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

31

P. Halkon – Britons and Romans in an East Yorkshire Landscape, UK

people still continued to live in round houses though some re-planning of surrounding enclosures may have taken place as at the settlement at Easington in Holderness 62 and Bleadlands Nook 63 on the Yorkshire Wolds. The earliest villa in the region at Welton Wold was also associated with a linear enclosure settlement and a corridor house was built inside a pre-existing enclosure. Although the settlement remained in occupation until the end of the Roman period, it never prospered in the way that some of the other villas in the region did 64 . From excavation and aerial photography it can be seen that there are 30 villas to the south and east of the River Derwent in the putative territory of the Parisi, the largest number in any area of northern Britannia. The majority had some evidence for Iron Age activity either directly below them or in the vicinity, but it is not easy to deduce whether this provides evidence of direct continuity or was simply due to the location being favourable in both eras. Half of all the East Yorkshire Villas are located to the extreme east of the Vale of York and the western fringes of the Yorkshire Wolds and their distribution seems to have been determined by proximity to the Roman road, a water source and the best available farmland. There is some clustering around the possible civitas capital of Brough, Malton/Norton at Hayton/ and the area between the and the head of the Hull Valley. A single possible villa has been located in Holderness near Elstronwick 65 (fig. 5). At Hayton 66 on a site around 1km to the north of the roadside settlement, round houses within enclosures were replaced by several timber buildings including an aisled structure. At first these buildings respected the enclosure ditches which had been laid out in the Iron Age. A small stone bath house was attached to the most northerly range of timber buildings and these were in turn replaced by a range of stone structures on the same alignment as the bath house. Some of the buildings had decorated wall plaster and the demolition debris inside the timber line well was found to include a decorated piece of wood which may be part of a cupboard door. At Langton 67 , one of the group of villas near Malton, a series of buildings were constructed in the third century AD to the north of a linear enclosure complex which is likely to be of Iron Age date 68 . By the fourth century a stone house with hypocausts, a mosaic floor, painted wall-plaster and glazed windows had been added. Further north on the edges of the North Yorkshire Moors at Beadlam 69 , three ranges of buildings, two of winged-corridor plan containing hypocausts, a geometric mosaic, and walls decorated with painted plaster were constructed around a courtyard at around the same time as those at Langton, displaced from the main area of Iron Age activity. Although as yet unexcavated, a similar displacement seems to be apparent from the geophysical and field walking survey evidence at a villa site near Pocklington 70 which the gradiometer survey indicated had very similar plan to Beadlam. The reason for the slight shift in location is unclear and may perhaps relate to change of ownership, the need for more space, or signify a change of self perception of the occupants who wanted to disassociate themselves with their past. The most well appointed villa in the Great Wold Valley/Upper Hull valley group was excavated at Rudston 71 (fig. 6). Buildings were arranged around three sides of an open area. The most westerly was of winged corridor type and contained three tessellated floors: the so-called aquatic, geometric and Venus mosaics. Much has been written about the Venus mosaic which appears on first site to be highly naïve and of poor quality workmanship 72 yet as Smith states “the mosaic is entirely and in every detail a product of

62 Archaeological Services 2007. 63 DENT 1983, 35–44. 64 MACKEY 1999, 21–33 and forthcoming. 65 HYLAND 2007, 75. 66 HALKON , MILLETT 2003, 303–309. 67 CORDER AND KIRK 1932. 68 STOERTZ 1997. 69 NEAL 1996, 17–41. 70 HALKON 2008, 128–129. 71 STEAD 1980. 72 SMITH 2005, 9–13.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

32

XVII International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Roma 22-26 Sept. 2008 Session : Roman and Barbarian

Roman traditions and art” 73 . The central panel shows a rather pear-shaped goddess holding a golden apple in her right hand with an armlet around her left arm. She appears to have dropped a mirror. To her left is a merman or Triton holding a torch, reflecting the maritime origins of Venus, a theme also visible in North African mosaics. Four birds with fanned tails which may be doves, or belong to the pheasant or peacock family, occupy the corners. Apart from a figure of either Bacchus or Mercury located at the top of the mosaic in between two strands of vine scroll and a pair of canthari the rest of the mosaic depicts humans and animals from the arena. Of particular note are the figure of a bull with an inscription TAURUS OMICIDIA (“the bull manslayer”) and a lion labelled LEO FRAMINIFER (“fiery lion”). The lion has been run through by a spear, the spurting blood in- dicated by red tesserae. Above the bull is a short spear-like weapon which has been identi- fied as an ox goad, the symbol of the Telegenii , one of the teams of animal fighters in the African amphitheatre. The origins of these Afri- can affinities are not known. Laid down in the Abb. 6 – The Venus mosaic from Rudston. (Photo: Mike Park, courtesy Hull Museums). first half of the fourth century AD they are some hundred years later than the time that Severus and his family were in York and the head pots and casserole dishes with African origins produced by the potters of the VI Legion 74 . Although perhaps completely coincidental, resear- chers have recently found males with a Y chromosome of African origin 75 in East Yorkshire though the period in which this occurred is unknown. The possibility of an African con- nection however serves as a reminder of the multi-ethnic na- ture of being “Roman”. It is, however, clear that the owners of the Rudston villa were interested in Roman style sports as the most impressive and best executed mosaic in the region shows a triumphant charioteer of the Red Faction in his quadriga (a chariot drawn by four horses) laid around AD 300. This full frontal depiction is very rare in Roman Britain and is also seen at Colerne in Wiltshire. Aspects of the marine Venus can also be found in the south-west of England 76 . The Abb. 7 – The head of Spring from the chari oteer mosaic (Photo: Mike Park, courtesy Hull Museums). corners of the charioteer mosaic are decorated with the four seasons and the skill demonstrated here, particularly in the

73 SMITH 2005, 11. 74 SWAN 1993, 21–38; SWAN AND MONAGHAN 1992, 21–38. 75 BRADMAN AND THOMAS 2007, 3–4. 76 SMITH 2005, 25.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

33

P. Halkon – Britons and Romans in an East Yorkshire Landscape, UK

Abb. 8 – Foulness Valley in the early and later Roman periods (Helen Woodhouse).

head of Spring (fig. 7) contrasts greatly with the Venus mosaic. The largest villa so far discovered in the territory of the Parisi at Brantingham was also furnished with tessellated floors, the most impressive being the Tyche mosaic, named after the central bust wearing what has been interpreted as a mural crown, thus personifying a city. Alternatively the bust, along with the figures that surround it, could represent the muses, the crown being of feathers not walls 77 . Whatever its designation, the room the mosaic was in was large, measuring 11.13x7.77m and marks the zenith of the villa complex which had its origins in the later Iron Age. The area was also one with a concentration of Iron Age gold staters and wheel-thrown pottery. Again it is unclear whether there was direct continuity of occupation or that progressive settlements benefitted from the convenient location between the Humber lowlands and estuary and the high quality farmland of this part of the Yorkshire Wolds. It is clear that the majority of the population of Roman East Yorkshire did not reside in such grandeur, continuing to live in the ladder and agglomerated enclosure settlements revealed through aerial photography. They become more visible within the landscape with the adoption, manufacture and distribution of wheel-thrown greyware pottery such as that produced around Holme-on-Spalding Moor 78 , which had once been the centre of an Iron Age iron industry (fig. 8). The purchase of pots was facilitated by the wider adoption of Roman currency which was in turn made possible by low value copper-alloy coinage. Various explanations have been proposed for the lack of early coin use amongst native British populations, including the inappropriateness of high denomination early coinage for ordinary daily transactions or even a “deep- seated northern native distrust of coinage as a Roman institution” 79 On the surface, the latter idea would seem to support Fincham’s 80 hypothesis of native/Roman relations in the Silt Fens of East Anglia for the earlier Roman period, though the reading of resistance into the absence or presence of pottery or other artefacts is difficult to sustain. The Portable Antiquities Scheme has revealed a considerable quantity of later

77 SMITH 2005, 30. 78 HALKON AND MILLETT 1999; HALKON 2002, 21–33. 79 SITCH 2006, 102. 80 FINCHAM 2002.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

34

XVII International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Roma 22-26 Sept. 2008 Session : Roman and Barbarian

Roman coins lost in the landscape of East Yorkshire, though the largest numbers are still to be found along the Roman roads. There are, however hoards buried at significant places in the countryside 81 . Eventually by the mid-later fourth century AD, the Holme-on-Spalding potteries were out-marketed by the Crambeck industry which supplied the army, and its wares were transported up to the northern frontier in large quantities 82 . Crambeck Painted Parchment ware was amongst the latest fineware to be made in Roman Britain 83 . It is perhaps significant that hand-thrown clamp fired pottery remained in use throughout the Roman period in East Yorkshire. It has been noted that by the late fourth century AD even at Rudston villa, 89% of the pottery found in the well was from hand-thrown vessels compared with 38% at the beginning of that century 84 .

Religion and ritual

The varied and multi-ethnic nature of religion in Roman Britain is well known 85 . In many ways the archaeological evidence in East Yorkshire reflects that from Britain as a whole. “Roman” deities Venus and Mercury or Bacchus are portrayed on the Rudston mosaics and as would be expected in a garrison town, at Malton there is a dedication to Mars Riga set up by Scirus, who is referred to as “DIC” (RIB 711) 86 possibly an abbreviation of Decurion. The “Celtic” characteristics of this sculpture have however been noted 87 . The bronze figures found at various locations throughout the area imply that some houses possessed a lararium. There are several figures of Mercury from the region in Hull and East Riding Museum and at Hayton and in the Millington area, small votive figures of sheep/goats similar to those from the excavated temple at Uley in Gloucestershire 88 which are also associated with this god. The votive sheep/goat from the Millington area may well relate to the possible circular temple and associated structures at Millington 89 though further work needs to be done if this is to be confirmed. The landscape location at the junction of four valleys and close to springs and a stream was clearly of great importance in the placement of the structure. The only other excavated building that could be a temple or shrine was found at West Heslerton 90 associated with a dry valley and spring. The hillside here had been deliberately terraced and the large number of oyster shells and bread ovens suggested seasonal mass catering for pilgrims. The relief of Victory has been referred to above, but otherwise very few stone sculptures have been found in the region. This may partly be due to local geology and the lack of suitable stone. The well at Rudston did however contain fragments of a relief of Fortuna 91 . The early Roman head pot from Holme-on- Spalding Moor has been mentioned above. There are a significant number of pots decorated with the bearded face of Vulcan and/or smith’s tools and small votive hammers axes and anvils also associated with Vulcan, an appropriate deity for an area with a tradition of furnace based industries 92 . Altar fragments, one with a dish carved in the top, presumably to take libations was found at Elmswell 93 and its location close to the source of the is probably not coincidental, for there is a strand running through the religion and ritual of East Yorkshire relating to water, which may have strong continuity with the Iron Age. This is perhaps best illustrated at the Shiptonthorpe roadside settlement where

81 HALKON 2008, 201. 82 EVANS 1988, 323–327. 83 WILSON 1989. 84 STEAD 1980, 89 cited in MACKEY , forthcoming. 85 HENIG 1984. 86 RAMM 1978, 68. 87 RAMM 1978, 68. 88 HENIG , ELLISON 1978, 368–70. 89 HALKON 2008, 198–200. 90 POWLESLAND , 2003, 29–31. 91 PHILIPS 1990, 129. 92 HALKON 1992, 222–8. 93 DENT 1988, 89–97.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

35

P. Halkon – Britons and Romans in an East Yorkshire Landscape, UK

a waterhole became the focus for animal burials and other objects in the fill of the waterhole itself which could be interpreted as items of structured deposition, one of the most interesting being mistletoe detected in a pollen core, a plant connected with the Druids 94 .

The mixture of Iron Age and classical is also reflected in what is perhaps the most unusual burial in East Yorkshire 95 from this period, excavated in 1936 close to the Roman Road to the north of Brough. Dating from the first century AD, it lay under thin limestone slabs and the only remaining traces of the coffin were iron nails. The grave goods included iron hoops, about 12cm in diameter, which would have held together the wooden staves of a bucket. Decorating the bucket was a small bronze human bust around 1 cm across the shoulders with swept back hair, a drooping moustache and prominent eyes, very “Celtic” in appearance, not dissimilar to the pommel of the anthropomorphic hilt of the short sword from North Grimston 96 . The two iron sceptres topped with crested helmeted heads also buried in the grave were in contrast classical in feel. There is some dispute as to who this person was and what the grave goods signify. Ross 97 states that this is the burial of a “British Nobleman” and the bucket would indeed fit with the south-eastern late Iron Age high- status burials 98 . The sceptres on the other hand are clearly symbolic in some way 99 and they might be the regalia of a priest. Apart from the Brough example, 16 Roman burial sites are recorded in the Foulness Valley, including cremations and inhumations. Some of these are single, such as the coffined burial at Bishop Wilton, other are in cemeteries for example that discovered at Hayton in 2001. When the sites are plotted, they show a close relationship to the Roman road. Only three recorded are further than 3.5 km from a road and all within 4 km. At Shiptonthorpe 100 an enclosure within the road side settlement was primarily for burial, which in this case was cremation in grey ware pots. A burial was found in a lead coffin at Tollingham, (Holme-on Spalding Moor) in 1899, though its precise provenance is unknown 101 (Halkon and Millett 1999). It is possible that there may be some relationship between this and the Roman pottery industry which seems to have concentrated around Throlam and Tollingham in the fourth century AD, referred to above.

Conclusion

The main aim of this account was to consider the extent of penetration of Roman material culture on the Parisi: in many ways this more or less fits with what would be expected given the nature of the region’s topography and geographical position in terms of Roman Britain as a whole. With military establishments present for most of the Roman period at Malton and possibly at Brough and the lack of flourishing independent “urban” development, it shares aspects in common with the rest of northern Britannia where the influence of the army remained strong 102 . Surviving inscriptions tell us, however, that the region possessed a theatre and at least one of its larger centres was prosperous enough to support a goldsmith’s shop. On the other hand, the relatively large concentration of villas and mosaics in the East Yorkshire is a southern trait and the Rudston Charioteer and Brantingham Tyche mosaic are as competent as any in the province. To a visitor to the region today, the similarity between the soft, rolling chalklands of the Yorkshire Wolds and the South Downs and Cotswolds of southern England is clear; both areas now possess very productive farmland

94 MILLETT 2006, 314. 95 CORDER AND RICHMOND 1938, 67–74. 96 MORTIME r 1905, 354–357. 97 ROSS 1974, 129. 98 NIBLETT 2004, 30–41. 99 ALDHOUSE -GREEN 2004, 3–4. 100 MILLETT 2006, 315–318. 101 HALKON AND MILLETT 1999. 102 MILLETT 1989, 75.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

36

XVII International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Roma 22-26 Sept. 2008 Session : Roman and Barbarian

and the villas of both regions reflect their relative prosperity in the Roman period. In the countryside native influence remained strong and it is likely that linear enclosure complexes so characteristic of East Yorkshire were occupied throughout the Roman period. Like most of the rest of the lowland provinces of Britain with suitable geology, East Yorkshire developed coarseware pottery industries, however, jars, as in the Iron Age, remained the favoured form of vessel. The lack of graffiti on pottery 103 and small number of inscriptions may be taken as indications of relatively low levels of literacy. The villas of Langton and Beadlam 104 , however, both included styli amongst their finds assemblages as did the settlement at Burnby Lane, Hayton 105 where there was also a hypocaust tile inscribed CANDID (short for Candidus ). The Portable Antiquities Scheme Database (www.finds.org.uk) records a fine copper alloy stylus from Sancton in the Foulness Valley, a lead object from Everingham that might be a stylus , and a possible stylus from Kilham. Fragments of several wooden writing tablets of wax- recessed type were found in the fill of the water-hole at Shiptonthorpe 106 The little we know of the religion and ritual in the territory of the Parisi shows that although there is some evidence for “Roman” style a belief, particularly in the larger settlements and villas, Iron Age style religion remained important. The end of the Roman period in the territory of the Parisi has been covered elsewhere 107 and is out of the scope of this contribution. It is worth noting however, that although this was one of the earliest in regions in Eastern England with early Anglo-Saxon cremation cemeteries, it emerges in the Anglo-Saxon period as the Kingdom of with more or less the same boundaries.

Acknowledgements I am most grateful to the British Academy for making my attendance at the conference associated with this contribution. The maps were drawn by Helen Woodhouse. Mike Park took the photographs of the Roman mosaics from Rudston, courtesy of Kingston-upon-Hull City Museums.

Dr Peter Halkon FSA Lecturer in Archaeology, Department of History University of Hull E-mail: [email protected]

Bibliography

ALDHOUSE -GREEN M. J., 2004. An archaeology of images: Iconology and Cosmology in Iron Age and Roman Europe . and New York, 3–4. BAYLEY J., BUTCHER S., 2004. Roman brooches in Britain: a technological and typological study based on the Richborough collection. London. BRADMAN N., THOMAS G. Y., 2007. Chromosome travelled north. Heredity , 99, 3–4. BRAITHWAITE G., 1984. Romano-British Face Pots and Head Pots. Britannia , 15, 99–131. BUCKLAND P. C., 1986. Roman South Yorkshire: a source Book . Sheffield: Dept of Archaeology and Prehistory. Sheffield.

103 EVANS 2006, 137. 104 RAMM 1978, 89. 105 HALKON , MILLETT 2003, 303–309. 106 MILLETT 2006, 238. 107 LOVELUCK 1999, 228–236 and 2003, 151–170.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

37

P. Halkon – Britons and Romans in an East Yorkshire Landscape, UK

BURN A. R., 1969. The Romans in Britain-An anthology of inscriptions . Columbia. CAESAR J., 1982. The Conquest of Gaul translated by S. A. Handford revised with new introduction by Jane Gardner. London. COLLIS J., 2003. The Celts-origins, myths and inventions . Stroud. COLLIS J., 2004. Weapons with warriors. Letters. Current Archaeology , 192, 573. CORDER P., KIRK J. L., I932. The at Langton. Roman Malton and District Report 4. CORDER P., RICHMOND I. A., 1938. A Romano-British interment with bucket and sceptres, from Brough, East Yorkshire. Antiquaries Journal , 18, 67–74. CREIGHTON J., 1988. The place names of East Yorkshire in the Roman Period. In J. PRICE , P. R. WILSON with C. S. BRIGGS , S. J. HARDMAN (eds), Recent Research in Roman Yorkshire . Oxford, British Archaeological Reports British Series 193, 387–406. CREIGHTON J., 1999. Excavations at Hawling Road, Market Weighton. In P. HALKON , M. MILLETT (eds), Rural Settlement and industry: Studies in the Iron Age and Roman Archaeology of lowland East Yorkshire. Yorkshire Archaeological Report 4. Leeds, Yorkshire Archaeological Society, 168–220. CROWTHER D., WILLIS S., CREIGHTON J., 1990. The topography and archaeology of Redcliff. In S. ELLIS , D. CROWTHER (eds), Humber Perspectives. Hull, 172–182. CUNLIFFE B. W., 1995. Iron Age Britain . London. DENT J. S., 1983. The impact of Roman rule on native society in the territory of the Parisi. Britannia , 14, 35– 44. DENT J. S., 1985. Three cart burials from Wetwang, Yorkshire. Antiquity , 59, 85–92. DENT J. S., 1988. Roman religious remains from Elmswell. In J. PRICE , P. R WILSON , C. S BRIGGS , S. J. HARDMAN (ed), Recent research in Roman Yorkshire: studies in honour of Mary Kitson Clark (Mrs Derwas Chitty) . Oxford, BAR British series 193, 89–97. ELSDON S., 1989. Later Prehistoric Pottery in England and Wales. Shire Archaeology, Aylesbury. ESMONDE -CLEARY S., 2003. Civil defences in the west under the high empire. The Archaeology of Roman Towns. Studies in honour of John S Wacher. Oxford, 73–85. EVANS D., 2006. Celtic art revealed. The South Cave weapons hoard. In J. MAY (ed), Current Archaeology 203, 572–577. EVANS J., 1988 All Yorkshire is divided into three parts: social aspects of later pottery distributions in Yorkshire. In J. PRICE , P. R. WILSON , with C. S. BRIGGS , S. J. HARDMAN (eds), Recent Research in Roman Yorkshire . Oxford, BAR British series 193, 323–337. EVANS J., 2001 Material approaches to the identification of different Romano-British site types. In S. JAMES , M. MILLETT , J. THORNILEY -WALKER (eds), Britons and Romans: advancing an archaeological agenda . York, CBA Research Report 125, 26–35. FALILEYEV A., 2007. Dictionary of Continental Celtic Place-Names. Aberystwyth. FENTON -THOMAS C., 2003. Late prehistoric and early historic landscapes on the Yorkshire Chalk . Oxford, BAR British series 350. FINCHAM G., 2002. Landscapes of Imperialism. Roman and native interaction in the East Anglian Fenland. Oxford, BAR British series 338. FITZPATRICK A. P., 1997. Archaeological Excavations on the route of the A27 Westhampnett Bypass, West Sussex, 1992 Volume 2: the Late Iron Age, Romano-British, and Anglo-Saxon cemeteries . Report 12 Wessex Archaeology. HALKON P., 1992. Romano-British Facepots from Holme-on-Spalding Moor and Shiptonthorpe, East Yorkshire. Britannia , 23, 222–8. HALKON P., 1997. Fieldwork on early iron working sites in East Yorkshire. Historical Metallurgy , 31(1), 12–16. HALKON P., 1998. A Roman Relief Depicting Victory from Bolton, East Yorkshire. Britannia , 29, 322–5. HALKON P., 2002. The Roman pottery Industry at Holme-on-Spalding Moor, East Yorkshire. In P. WILSON , J. PRICE (eds), Craft and Industry in Roman Yorkshire and the North. Oxford, 21–33.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

38

XVII International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Roma 22-26 Sept. 2008 Session : Roman and Barbarian

Halkon P., 2007. Valley of the First Iron Masters. In P. Y. MILCENT (ed), L'économie du fer protohistorique: de la production à la consommation du métal . Actes colloque AFEAF Toulouse (Association Française pour l'Etude de l'Age du Fer). Bordeaux: Aquitania Supplément, 14/2, 151–163. HALKON P., 2008. Archaeology and Environment in a Changing. East Yorkshire Landscape. The Foulness Valley c. 800 BC to c. AD 400. Oxford. HALKON P., MILLETT M., 2003. East Riding: An Iron Age and Roman landscape revealed. Current Archaeology , 187 , 303–309. HANSON W. S., CAMPBELL D. B., 1986. The Brigantes: from clientage to conquest. Britannia , 17, 73–91. HASELGROVE C., FITTS R., TURNBULL P., 1991. Stanwick, North Yorkshire, part 1: recent research and previous archaeological investigations Archaeological Journal , 147, 1–15. HAWKES C. F. C., DUNNING G. C., 1930. The Gaul and Britain. Archaeological Journal , 30, 150–336. HENIG M., 1984. Religion in Roman Britain. London. HENIG M., ELLISON A., 1978. Objects from the Romano-British temple on West Hill, Uley, Gloucestershire. Antiquaries Journal , 58, 368–70. HODSON F. R., 1964. Cultural Grouping within the British Pre-Roman Iron Age. Proceedings Prehistoric Society , 30, 99–110. HORNE P. D., LAWTON I. G., 1998. Buttercrambe Moor Roman Camp, Buttercrambe with Bossall, North Yorkshire. Britannia , 29, 327–9. HYLAND L., 2007. The Romans in Holderness : Appendix A: A Gazetteer of Roman (and Possible Roman) Archaeological Evidence in Holderness. Unpublished BA Dissertation, University of Hull. JARRETT M. G., 1994. Non-Legionary Troops in Roman Britain: Part One, The Units Britannia , 25, 35–77. JAMES S., 2007. A bloodless past: the pacification of Early Iron Age Britain. In C. C. HASELGROVE , R. E. POPE (eds), The Earlier Iron Age in Britain and the Near Continent . Oxford, 160–173. JAY M., RICHARDS M. P., 2006. Diet in the Iron Age cemetery population at Wetwang Slack, East Yorkshire, UK: carbon and nitrogen stable isotope evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science , 33(5), 653–662. JOHNS C. M., POTTER T., 1983. The Thetford Treasure: Roman jewellery. London. JOHNSON S., 1978. Excavations at Hayton Roman fort, 1975. Britannia , 9, 57–115. LAWTON I., 1994. Derventio. A Roman settlement at North Farm, Stamford Bridge . CBA Forum. The annual newsletter of CBA Yorkshire , 8–13. LOVELUCK C., 1999. Archaeological expressions of the transition from the late Roman to early Anglo-Saxon period in lowland East Yorkshire. In P. HALKON , M. MILLETT (eds), Rural Settlement and industry: Studies in the Iron Age and Roman Archaeology of lowland East Yorkshire. Yorkshire Archaeological Report 4. Yorkshire Archaeological Society. Leeds, 228–236. LOVELUCK C., 2003. The Archaeology of Post-Roman Yorkshire, AD 400–700: overview and future directions for research. In T. MANBY , S. MOORHOUSE , P. OTTAWAY (eds), The Archaeology of Yorkshire An Assessment at the Beginning of the 21st Century. Yorkshire Archaeological Society with English Heritage, CBA, Leeds. MACKEY R., forthcoming. Welton and other eastern Yorkshire villas – evidence for change in the 4th century and beyond. In R. M. FRIENDSHIP , D. E. TAYLOR (eds), From villa to village . Upper Nene Archaeological Society, Fascicule 7. MACKEY R., 1998. The Welton villa-a view of social and economic change during the Roman period in East Yorkshire. In P. HALKON (ed), Further Light on the Parisi- Recent Research in Iron Age and Roman East Yorkshire. East Riding Archaeological Society, University of Hull Department of History, East Riding Archaeological Research Trust, 23–35. MARSDEN A., 2003. A Roman military diploma fragment from mid Norfolk. The East of England region Portable Antiquities Scheme Newsletter 1, 8–9. MAY T., 1922. The Roman forts of Templeborough, near Rotherham. Rotherham Corporation. MILLETT M. (ed), 2006. Shiptonthorpe, East Yorkshire. Archaeological Studies of a Romano-British roadside settlement . Yorkshire Archaeological Report 5. Leeds: RAS YAS and ERAS.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

39

P. Halkon – Britons and Romans in an East Yorkshire Landscape, UK

MORTIMER J. R., 1905. Forty years researches in the British and Saxon Burial Mound of East Yorkshire. Including Romano-British discoveries and a description of the ancient entrenchments on a section of the Yorkshire Wolds . London. NEAL D. S., 1996. Excavations on the Roman villa at Beadlam, Yorkshire . Leeds: Yorkshire Archaeological Reports 2. NIBLETT R., 2004. The native elite and their funerary practices from the First Century BC to Nero. In M. TODD , A Companion to Roman Britain. Historical Association/Blackwell Publishing, 30–41. PHILIPS E. J., 1980 Sculptures and architectural fragments. In I. M. STEAD , . Leeds. POWLESLAND D., 2003. The Heslerton Parish Project: 20 years of research in the Vale of Pickering. In T. MANBY , S. MOORHOUSE , P. OTTAWAY (eds), The Archaeology of Yorkshire An Assessment at the Beginning of the 21st Century. Leeds, 275–293. POWLESLAND D., 2003. 25 years of archaeological research on the sands and gravels of Heslerton . English Heritage/Landscape Research Centre, 29–31. RAMM H. G., 1978. The Parsi. London. RIGBY V., 1991.The pottery. In I. M. STEAD , Iron Age cemeteries in East Yorkshire . London, 94–118. ROSS A., 1974. Pagan Celtic Britain . London. SITCH B. J., 1989 A small Roman port at Faxfleet near Broomfleet. In P. HALKON (ed), New Light on the Parisi. Recent discoveries in Roman East Yorkshire. ERAS University of Hull School of Adult and Continuing Education. Hull, 10–15. SITCH B. J., 1998. Recent research on Roman coins from the East Riding. In P. HALKON (ed), Further Light on the Parisi. Recent research in Iron Age and Roman East Yorkshire . Hull, 41–46. rd SMITH D. J., 2005. Roman mosaics at Hull . 3 edition revised by Martin Foreman. Hull. STEAD I. M., 1988. Chalk figurines of the Parisi. Antiquaries Journal , 68, 9–29. STEAD I. M., 1979. The Arras Culture . York. STEAD I. M., 2006. British Iron Age Swords and Scabbards . London. STOERTZ C., 1997. Ancient Landscapes of the Yorkshire Wolds . RCHME. STRATTON S., 2005. Analysis of Roman metal detected artefacts from Hayton . Unpublished BA Hons Dissertation, University of Hull. SWAN V., 1992. Legio VI and its men: African legionaries in Britain. Journal of Roman Pottery Studies , 5, 1– 33. SWAN V., MONAGHAN J., 1993. Head pots: a North African tradition in Roman York. Yorkshire Archaeological Journal , 65, 21–38. TULLY G. D., 2005. A Fragment of a Military Diploma for Pannonia found in ? Britannia , 36, 375–82. WACHER J., 1969. Excavations at Brough on Humber, 1958–61. Society of Antiquaries Research Report, 25, London. nd WACHER J., 1997. The Towns of Roman Britain (2 edition). London. West Yorkshire Archaeological Services, 2007. The Langeled Project, Easington East Riding of Yorkshire. WILSON P. R. (ed), 1989. The Crambeck Roman Pottery Industry . Roman Antiquities Section Yorkshire Archaeological Society. WILSON P. R. (ed), 2003. The Roman Towns of Yorkshire: 30 years on. In P. WILSON (ed), The Archaeology of Roman Towns. Studies in honour of John S Wacher. Oxford, 258–269.

Bollettino di Archeologia on line I 2010/ Volume speciale E / E10 / 3 Reg. Tribunale Roma 05.08.2010 n. 330 ISSN 2039 - 0076 www.archeologia.beniculturali.it/pages/pubblicazioni.html

40