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1 Determinants and Consequences of Car Use Submitted By Determinants and Consequences of Car Use Submitted by Chng Samuel Chong Wei to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Medical Studies in May 2017 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: ………………………………………………………….. 1 “The answer to global transport challenges is not less transport – it is sustainable transport.” Ban Ki-moon 8th Secretary-General of the United Nations 2 Abstract Global demand for road travel is likely to double by 2050, creating serious environmental and human health risks. Forms of transport that are more sustainable should, therefore, be encouraged. This research aimed to generate a better understanding of personal transport decisions to contribute towards improving interventions and policies for reducing car use with four studies. The first reviewed psychological theories applied to understanding car use. These theories have evolved to become more comprehensive, however, some mechanisms of car use choice remain unaccounted for. Thus, the CAUSE framework was developed with the review’s findings to provide an integrated conceptual overview of potentially modifiable antecedents of car use. The second is a quantitative analysis exploring the relationships between public transport connectivity, commuting and two aspects of wellbeing: life satisfaction and mental distress. Life satisfaction was related to mode choice and mental distress was related to public transport connectivity. The study highlights the role of connectivity when understanding the psychological effects of travel. The third is a cross-cultural interview study investigating transport decisions and experiences among two culturally different cities. Accessibility, affordability and comfort were common transport decision considerations. However, distinct differences were observed in the attitudes and perceptions of private vehicles due to the different transport policies in both cities. The fourth is a quantitative analysis exploring the considerations of environmental factors during car purchases. Pro-environmental attitudes and behaviours were found related to environment-related consideration during car purchases in general. However, the extent of the consideration and profile of these individuals differed significantly across sociodemographic and regions, possibly as a result of different policies. Overall, this research summarises the complexity of car use behaviour both at the theoretical and experiential levels. The implications of these findings for interventions and policies are discussed further in the final chapter of the thesis, alongside future directions for research in this area. 3 Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................. 15 1.1. Evolution of transportation ................................................................. 16 1.1.1. The industrial revolution era ............................................................ 16 1.1.2. Fordism era ..................................................................................... 17 1.1.3. Post-Fordism era (globalisation) ...................................................... 17 1.1.4. The next transportation revolution ................................................... 18 1.2. Transport and urban form ................................................................... 18 1.2.1. Preliminary work: Transport choices and urban density in the UK .. 19 1.3. Urban transport challenges ................................................................ 19 1.4. Urban transport alternatives to cars .................................................. 20 1.5. Towards a car-lite society ................................................................... 21 1.6. Applying psychology to transportation development ...................... 22 1.7. Aims and overview of this doctoral programme ............................... 22 1.8. The studies ........................................................................................... 23 Chapter 2: Understanding car use: A review of key psychological theories. ......................................................................................................................... 33 2.1. Abstract ................................................................................................ 33 2.2. Introduction .......................................................................................... 33 2.3. Methods ................................................................................................ 35 2.3.1. Literature search ............................................................................. 35 2.3.2. Article selection ............................................................................... 35 2.3.3. Data extraction ................................................................................ 36 2.3.4. Quality assessment criteria ............................................................. 37 2.3.5. Inter-rater reliability .......................................................................... 38 2.4. Results .................................................................................................. 38 2.4.1. Study characteristics ....................................................................... 38 2.4.2. Quality assessment ......................................................................... 40 2.4.3. Theories identified ........................................................................... 40 2.4.4. An integrative conceptual framework of antecedents of car use (the CAUSE Framework) .................................................................................. 45 2.5. Discussion ............................................................................................ 51 2.6. Conclusions ......................................................................................... 56 4 Chapter 3. Commuting and wellbeing in London: The roles of commute mode and local public transport connectivity. ........................................... 67 3.1. Abstract ................................................................................................ 67 3.2. Introduction .......................................................................................... 68 3.2.1. The present study ............................................................................ 69 3.3. Methods ................................................................................................ 70 3.3.1. Data source and sample ................................................................. 70 3.3.2. Measures......................................................................................... 70 3.3.3. Statistical analysis ........................................................................... 72 3.4. Results .................................................................................................. 73 3.4.1. Sample descriptive and subjective wellbeing by commute mode .... 73 3.4.2. Relationships between commute mode, public transport connectivity and wellbeing ............................................................................................ 73 3.4.3. Predicting public transport commutes with public transport connectivity ............................................................................................... 77 3.4.4. Wellbeing amongst public transport commuters .............................. 79 3.5. Discussion ............................................................................................ 83 3.5.1. Strengths and limitations ................................................................. 84 3.6. Conclusion ........................................................................................... 85 Chapter 4: Driving in London and Singapore; A cross-cultural, qualitative comparison of city transportation experiences. .......................................... 91 4.1. Abstract ................................................................................................ 91 4.2. Introduction .......................................................................................... 91 4.2.1. The present research ...................................................................... 92 4.2.2. Background of London .................................................................... 93 4.2.3. Background of Singapore ................................................................ 93 4.3. Method .................................................................................................. 94 4.3.1. Participants...................................................................................... 94 4.3.2. Procedure ........................................................................................ 95 4.3.3. Thematic analysis ............................................................................ 95 4.4. Results .................................................................................................. 95 4.4.1. Theme 1: Purpose and nature of the journey .................................. 97 4.4.2. Theme 2: Transport access and feasibility .....................................
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