2004 February

February

' -I~"~Z J ~" /., v/ I~

WeldingAluminuM nd the Hew Ford GT Advantages of Electron Beam Welding

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGYAND APPLICATION OF WELDING : : ;:;::x: ;: :,, I i;; !'

,: :

i I

Whatever your critical welding levels from 80-120 Ksi, Select-Arc can For more detailed requirement, Select-Arc has the right provide the low alloy electrode that is information on ~llllllllllllll~ SELECT-ARC low alloy, flux cored electrode for the ideally suited to handle your selecting the Select- I~IInlIIIIIIIMF job. That is because Select-Arc offers a individual application. Arc low alloy, flux complete line of electrodes specially cored electrode that is formulated for welding low alloy and Select-Arc low alloy, flux cored appropriate for your specific need, call high strength steels. With your choice electrode grades include: 800-341-5215 or contact: of slag systems (T-5, T-1 and all • Molybdenum position T-l) and available in strength • Nickel • Chromium - Molybdenum • Nickel - Chromium - Molybdenum • Manganese - Molybdenum • Weathering

These exceptional tubular welding electrodes are manufactured under Select-Arc's quality system, which is approved to ISO 9001, ABS-Level II, CWB 600 Enterprise Drive and the military, and are backed P.O. Box 259 by the company's unparalleled Fort Loramie, OH 45845-0259 • commitment to customer service Phone: (937) 295-5215 and support. Fax: (937) 295-5217 www.select-arc.com Circle No. 32 on Reader Info-Card Hodgson Custom Rolling inc. services a wide variety of industries in the ENERGY 44"1D 6" Thick SECTORS of hydro, petro chemical, atomic, gas, oil, 96"Long wind, etc. in addition to those in heavy manufactudng~ steel, pulp & paper, mining, marine, forestry, etc. Hodgson's commitment to providing customers superior products and personalized professional service has earned itself a reputation for excellence, making the name HODGSON synonymous with ,'paramount quality and workmanship".

America's largest plate rolling, forming, section rolling and fabricating companies. PLATE ROLLING & FLATTENING i i Hodgson Custom Rolling specializes in the rolling and flattening of heavy plate up to 7" thick and up to 12 feet wide. Cylinders and segments can be rolled to diameters ranging from 10" to over 20 feet. Products made include ASME pressure vessel sections. Crane Heist Drums, thick walled pipe, etc. PRESS BRAKE FORMING & HOT FORMING Hodgson Custom Rolling's brake department processes all types of steel sections and plate up to 14" thick. Developed shapes such as cones trapezoids, parabolas, reducers (round to round, square to round) etc. STRUCTURAL SECTION ROLLING Hodgson Custom Rolling has the expertise to roll curved structural sections into a wide range of shapes and sizes (angle, wide flange beam. I-beam. channel, bar, ~ tee section, pipe, tubing, rail. etc.). We specialize in Spiral Staircase Stringers, flanges, support beams, gear blanks, etc. FABRICATING Hodgson Custom Rolling combines expertise in rolling, forming, assembly and welding to produce various fabrications including kiln sections• rock drums, heavy weldments, ladles, pressure vessel parts, multiple Componentsfor Heavy Equipment applications etc.

ASME Cerhfied Hodgson SO 9001:2000 *~ CustomRolling Inc.

5580 Kalar Road Telephone: (905) 356-8132 U.S Address: Niagara Falls Toll-free: (800) 263-2547 M.P.O. Box 1526 Ontario, Canada Fax: (905) 356-6025 Niagara Falls, N.Y. Circle No. 28 on Reader Info-Card L2H 3L1 E-mail: [email protected] 14302 - 1526 Website: www.hodgsoncustomrolling.com Show the Welding World How to COMPETETHROUGH SMARTERWELDIHG

Exhibit Your Products to a Devoted International Audience.

Be a Part of the World's Largest Annual Welding Event.

Tools, techniques, demonstrations, publications, education, conferences, seminars, teachers, trainers, students, shopmen, foremen, presidents, owners, and about everything else you'd .,,,o.,,o,,,,,,,. ao4 CHICAGO ° APRIL 6-8, 2004

..~.;~ maimIn

a -~- ,~i

:J ":-, | - ,,. j • I! !,

in Exhibit at the 2004 AWS Welding Show • McCormick Place Lakeside Center • Call 305-443-9353 ext. 295 TO Attend, Learn More at www.aws.org/expo Circle No. 8 on Reader Info-Card CONTENTS .o,o, .,o,uoe .,uo ,, AWS Web site http:llwww.aws.org Features Departments 24 Robotic Welding of Aluminum Space Frames Washington Watchword...... 4 Speeds Introduction of Sports Car Ford's hottest new sports car races by on an all-welded Press-Time News ...... 6 aluminum space frame C. Occbialini Editorial ...... 8 News of the Industry ...... 10 28 New Developments in Aluminum Shipbuilding High-speed aluminum craft for both military and Point of View ...... 16 commercial use take advantage of new high-strength aluminum alloys R. Messier T. Anderson New Products ...... 20

32 EBW of Aluminum Breaks Out of the Vacuum Aluminum Q&A ...... 42 Nonvacuum electron beam welding of aluminum reduces cycle time and improves productivity Brazing Q&A ...... 44 K. Sehulze and D. E. Powers Soldering Q&A ...... 46 Coming Events ...... 48 40 Friction Welding of Aluminum Cuts Energy Costs by 99% Navy Joining Center ...... 52 Mazda puts into production friction welding as an alternative to conventional spot welding Welding Workbook ...... 54 R. Hancock Society News ...... 55

Guide to AWS Services ...... 70

New Literature ...... 72

Welding Research Supplement Red Hot ...... 74 39-S An Investigation of Ductility-Dip Cracking in Classifieds ...... 78 Nickel-Based Weld Metals m Part III High-resolution scanning electron microscopy and Advertiser Index ...... 80 electron backscattered diffraction are used to gain insight into elevated-temperature ductility in welded Ni-based alloys M. G. Collins et al.

50-S Liquation Cracking in Full-Penetration AI-Cu Welds Alloy 2219 was used as a tool to better understand the effect of weld-metal solute content on liquation cracking C. Huang and S. Kou

59-S Influence of Stress Ratio on Fatigue Crack Propagation Behavior of Stainless Steel Welds Crack closure measurements were used to help explain the relationship between crack growth rate and increased stress ratio C. S. Kusko et al.

Single-Pass Laser Beam Welding of Clad WeldingJournal (ISSN 0043-2296)is published 65-S monthly by the AmericanWelding Society for Steel Plate $90.00 per year in the UnitedStates and posses- The possibility of making sound welds with satisfactory sions,$130 per year in foreigncountries: $6.00 per diluuon was investigated using laser beam welding with singleissue for AWS membersand $8.00 per sin- a stainless steel filler metal gle issuefor nonmembers.American Welding So- S. Missori et al. ciety is locatedat 550 NW LeJeuneRd., Miami, FL 33126-5671;telephone (305) 443-9353. Periodi- calspostage paid in Miami,Fla., and additional mail- ing offices.POSTMASTER= Send address changes to WeldingJournal, 550 NW LeJeuneRd., Miami, FL 33126-5671. Readersof WeldingJournalmaymake copies of ar- ticlesfor personal,archival, educational or research purposes,and whichare not for saleor resale.Per- missionis grantedto quotefrom articles, provided customary acknowledgment of authors and Cover picture provided by Ford Motor Co. sourcesis made.Starred (*) itemsexcluded from copyright.

I WELDING JOURNAL mm tVASHINGTOI~ BY HUGH K. WEBSTER WATCHWORD] AWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE 2003 Congress Produced Most Bills Ever understand their concerns and possible solutions. Regarding the assistant secretary position, the exact duties have not been iden- The first session of the 108th Congress, which ended in De- tified, but it is expected that this person will be a primary advo- cember, introduced almost 7000 pieces of legislation, the most cate for manufacturing within the federal government. ever by any Congress. Of these, only 159, or less than 3%, were actually enacted into law. Campaign Finance Ruling May Bring More Regulation Proposed Greenhouse Gas Emissions Guidelines The U.S. Supreme Court's recent decision upholding almost all of the provisions of the McCain-Feingold campaign reform The U.S. Department of Energy has released proposed guide- law is expected to bring more government regulation of federal lines for the voluntary reporting of greenhouse gas emissions and elections. Even though the margin of victory was 5-4, the case reduction efforts. These guidelines are related to the Depart- was a strong endorsement of the legal authority of Congress to ment of Energy's registry program and are con- regulate election financing. And while the sistent with the current Administration's volun- ban on so-called soft money is expected tary efforts to reduce U.S. greenhouse gas emis- to greatly increase the influence of politi- sions. The guidelines, which are subject to a 60- cal action committees, these entities can day comment period, are available on the De- Structural expenses also expect that their higher profile will partment of Energy's Web site, www.doe.gov. result in increased oversight and restric- such as taxes, tions from Congress. Manufacturing Competitiveness benefits, regulatory State Ergonomics Rules Costs Study Released compliance, litigation, Rejected External, nonproduction costs add approximately 22% to unit labor costs of U.S. manufac- and energy add nearly After a bruising battle, a public ref- erendum in the state of Washington to turers (nearly $5 per hour worked) relative to $5 per hour worked to their major foreign competitors, and are the pri- drop government regulations on er- mary competitive challenge facing manufactur- U.S. manufacturing gonomics has passed. While this is a state ers and their workers, according to "How Struc- issue, advocates on both sides from tural Costs Imposed on U.S. Manufacturers costs, threatening throughout the United States participated Harm Workers and Threaten Competitiveness," and watched this matter closely, and the a new study sponsored by the National Associa- competitiveness. result is expected to resonate as other tion of Manufacturers and the Manufacturers states consider such rules. Washington Alliance/MAPI. The external costs referred to had been only the second state -- the include taxes, health care and pension benefits, other being California -- to adopt er- regulatory compliance, litigation, and energy. gonomics regulations. Federal rules were issued in 2001 but later overturned by Congress. OSHA to Renew Random Audit Program OSHA Announces Criteria for The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration Priority Enforcement Cases (OSHA), for the third consecutive year, will conduct a random audit of 250 employers to ensure data being submitted to OSHA The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration has are accurate and in compliance with applicable regulations. The issued a memorandum identifying the criteria that will qualify a program should last approximately 12 months. Certain businesses case a "priority enforcement case" and therefore merit particu- will be excluded, including those with less than 40 employees, lar attention from OSHA. Specifically, an OSHA inspection that and those that currently participate in OSHP~s Voluntary Pro- uncovers any of the following criteria will qualify: tection Programs. Companies in the construction industry are • A fatality inspection in which OSHA finds a high-gravity seri- expected to be excluded from audits under this program as well, ous violation related to the death; since they were overrepresented last year. • An inspection that results in three or more high-gravity seri- ous violations; Manufacturing Assistance Report Delayed • An inspection that results in two failure-to-abate notices where the underlying violations were classified as high-gravity seri- A highly anticipated and long-awaited report from the De- ous; partment of Commerce identifying methods of strengthening • A fatality inspection in which OSHA finds that willful viola- manufacturing in the United States that was originally scheduled tion of a standard caused the death of the employee. • to be issued in September has been postponed for several months. In March 2003, Commerce announced its "Pro-Growth Manu- facturing Agenda," which would include this report as well as es- tablishment of ~ new assistant secretary level position within Contact the A WS Washington Government Affairs Office at Commerce to focus on the manufacturing sector. Numerous 1747 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; e-mail workshops were conducted by Commerce officials with manu- [email protected]; FAX (202) 835-0243. facturing executives throughout the country in order to better

~.~! FEBRUARY 2004 ] \

SMOOTH

Premium MIGWire with MicroGuard Ultra surface treatment.

MORE of What You Need in a M IG Wire.

MORE EFFICIENCY thanks to a smoother arc and reduced cleaning time.

MORE PRODUCTION lhanks to a smoother feed and less downtime.

MORE PEACE OF MIND thanks to Lincoln Electric's 100% Satisfaction Guarantee. Why Buy Anything Else?

INCOLN SMOOTH ~ ELECTRIC J THE WELDING EXPERTS .'lectricCompany Cleveland, Ohio U.S.A. 31-8100 www.lincolnelect tic.corn ARO~-~ Circle No. 29 on Reader Info-Card F=RESS TIM| NEWS ] WELJ I t

GE Aircraft Engines Acquires Agfa's Publisher Jeff Weber Nondestructive Examination Unit Editorial GE Aircraft Engines (GEAE), Evendale, Ohio, recently completed its acquisition of Editor/Editorial Director Andrew Cullison the Agfa-Gevaert Nondestructive Testing business unit, following receipt of all required Senior Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen regulatory approvals. Agfa NDT will be combined with GEAE's Nondestructive Testing Associate Editor Susan Campbell business unit and will be renamed GE Inspection Technologies. AssociateEditor Ross Hancock The company will be based in Hiirth, Germany, and will have 1000 employees at more Peer ReviewCoordinator Doreen Kubish than 25 facilities in 25 countries worldwide. Jeff Nagel has been named president of GE Inspection Technologies. He has served as general manager of Business Development at GEAE since 2001 and previously served as president of GE Home Electric Products. Graphics and Production The purchase also includes a supply agreement for GE Inspection Technologies to Production Editor Zaida Chavez become the exclusive seller of Agfa NDT X-ray film. Agfa will retain its X-ray film production. Advertising GE Inspection Technologies offers radiographic, ultrasonic, eddy current, and other National Sales Director Rob Sahzstein inspection-related products. AdvertisingSales PromotionCoordinator Lea Garrigan "GE has a strong history in the development of nondestructive inspection technol- AdvertisingProduction Frank Wilson ogy and equipment to support its businesses," said David Calhoun, president and CEO Subscriptions of GE Transportation. "For example, GEAE has been using GE Medical Systems' tech- Leidy Brigman nology to enhance the productivity of our operations for years. The purchase of Agfa NDT provides GE with a platform on which to become a global leader in technology- American Welding Society 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126 driven inspection products that will deliver customer productivity, quality, and safety." (800) 443-9353,ext. 453 [email protected]

Lincoln Electric to Expand Welding Gun Publications, Expositions,Marketing Committee G. O. Wilcox, Chairman Product Line and Manufacturing Capabilities Thermadyne Industries Lincoln Electric Holdings, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio, recently announced plans to invest J. D. Weber, Secretary up to $10 million to expand its Magnum® welding gun product line and manufacturing American Welding Society capabilities in welding accessories. The company's aim is to dramatically increase its P. Albert, KrautkramerBranson share of the worldwide welding gun market. T. A. Barry, MillerElectric Mfg. Co. T. C. Conard, ABICOR Binzel "Automation, robotics, and other high-production welding systems are increasing de- B. Damkroger, Sandia National Laboratories mand for high-quality welding guns," said John M. Stropki, executive vice president and D. L. Doench, Hobart Brothers Co. chief operating officer. "To meet this demand, we are planning a new facility that will J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co. incorporate the manufacture of high-technology welding gun products. We also plan to N. R. Helton, Pandjiris, Inc. refocus the efforts of our best research, design, and manufacturing engineers to this en- G. M. Nally, Consultant deavor." R. G. Pali, J. P. Nissen Co. Lincoln plans to enhance its current line of Magnum@ guns for the gas metal arc, J. E Saenger,Jr., Edison WeldingInstitute flux cored arc, and submerged arc welding markets, and to invest in new designs for both R. D. Smith, The Lincoln Electric Co. steel and aluminum welding systems. D. Trees, John Deere & Co. D. C. Klingman,Ex Off, The Lincoln Electric Co. L. G. Kvidahl,Ex Off, Northrop Grumman Corp. D. J. Landon,Ex Off, VermeerMfg. Co. E. D. Levert,Ex Off, Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control Seminar to Feature Presentations on Cutting- E. C. Lipphardt,Ex Off., Consultant Edge Automotive Steel Technologies T. M. Mustaleski, Ex Off, BWXT-Y12LLC J. G. Postle, Ex Off., PostleIndustries The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) has scheduled its third Great Designs R. W. Shook,Ex Off., American WeldingSociety in Steel Seminar for Wednesday, February 18, at the Laurel Manor Conference and Banquet Center in Livonia, Mich. The free seminar begins at 7:00 a.m. with registration and continental breakfast. Attendees can also register online at www.autosteel.org by clicking on the seminar's promotional banner and following the path to "Register On- line." Automotive engineers will make most of the presentations, which will be divided among three concurrent tracks. The presentations will conclude at 3:30 p.m. Exhibits Copyright © 2004 by American Welding Society in both printed and elec- supporting the presentations will be available throughout the day. tronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or Several presentations will focus on advanced high-strength steels, which are more opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not in- durable than other steels but have less mass. Among the welding-related topics sched- tended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the uled for the seminar are sessions on gas metal arc welding of advanced high-strength part of potential users. steels, dual-phase steel applications in tailor-welded blank technology, robust schedules for spot welding zinc-coated high-strength automotive steels, and impact modeling of spot welds in high-strength steels.

MEMBER E,'II FEBRUARY 2004 I performance optimized cutting tips. The CUTMASTER 1Series family of plasma systems gives you the power and precision for any plasma cutting need, from 3/8" to 1-1/4" maximum cut capacity. And 1Series start technology eliminates HF electronic interference that can occur with other designs.

Choose from CUTMASTER 1Series models 38, 51, 81 or 101, and discover 11 the new dimension of flexibility, value, and performance that only CUTMASTER

~:i:~ ¸ lit from Thermal Dynamics can provide. ~ ~b-~f ~ i ¸' • For more information about the new Now with ' CUTMASTER 1Series line and TI other Thermal Dynamics plasma cutting products, contact your local distributor or call (800) 752-7621 1torch www.thermal-dynamics.com

YNAMICS* EDITORIAl Founded in 1919 to Advancethe Science,Technology and Application of Welding

Building a Foundation for the Officers President T. M. Mustaleski Future of Welding Education BWXT-Y12LLC Vice President James E. Greet The Education Committee (EC) has been very active in making welding edu- Moraine ValleyCommunity College cation better not only for the balance of this decade but beyond. I'd like to tell you about some of the committee's objectives and accomplishments. Vice President Damian J. Kotecki One of our first objectives was to improve communication for educators, stu- The LincolnElectric Co. dents, and prospective students with the AWS Education Department. The re- Vice President Gerald D. Uttrachi cently updated Education Department Web site (www.aws.org/education/) provides a great amount of information 24 hours a day, 7 days a week with easy ac- WATechnology, LLC cess worldwide. Their e-mail address [email protected] and (800) 443-9353 ext. Treasurer Earl C. Lipphardt 229 phone number provide two more direct routes to the departmental staff. Cur- Consultant rent initiatives of the Education Department to create additional lines of communication are its participation at events like the ACTE convention, SkillsUSA con- Executive Director Ray W. Shook vention, and the Educators booth, Plummer Memorial Lecture, and Education AmericanWelding Society Program at the AWS Show. The first of a new quarterly newsletter to the 550+ SENSE welding programs is due out shortly. A second initiative is to provide a directory of all welding education programs Directors in the United States on the Web site. Currently, an interactive map on the site T. R. Alberts(Dist. 4), New River Community College identifies and provides contact information for all of the AWS SENSE programs R. L. Am (PastPresident), WELDtech lntemationa~ Inc. by state. The map will soon be expanded to include all U.S. welding programs by A. J. Badeaux,Sr. (Dist.3), CharlesCry. Career& Tech. Center state and education level. This will not only help students locate a program at a specific level of welding education but one that is nearby. K. S. Baucher(Dist. 22), TechniconEngineering Services, Inc. A third initiative will recognize excellence in the following four categories: M. D. Bell(At Large),Preventive Metallurgy welding students, graduates, educators, and programs. Each month the AWS Ed- L. J. Bennett(Dist. 21),Allan Hancock College ucation Department Web site will feature one or more person(s) or schools from J. C. Brusk0tter(Dist. 9), Production ManagementIndustries each of these categories, including photos and other information. This showcase will include students from middle school, high school, postsecondary certificate, C. E Burg(Dist. 16),Ames Laboratory IPRT two-year technical, welding engineering technology, and welding engineering un- H. R. Castner(At Large),Edison WeldingInstitute dergraduate, graduate, and doctorate programs. The intention of this new section N. A. Chapman(Dist. 6), EntetgyNuclear Northeast of the Education Web site is to provide the following: S. C. Chapple(At Large),Consultant • Potential students will be given insight into the accomplishments of higher education level students N. C. Cole(At Large),NCC Engineering • Insight for advanced students into graduates' work experiences and challenges W.J. Enger0n(Dist. 5), EngineeredAlloy/Systems& Supply • All students can learn about the programs available that can help them pursue A. E Fleury(Dist. 2),A. E Fleury&Associates an education and career in the field of welding • Greater recognition for District and National Educator of the Year recipients J. R. Franklin(At Large),Sellstrom Mfg. Co. • Recognition of educational institutions committed to raising the level of weld- J. A. Grantham(Dist. 20), WJMG West ing skills, knowledge, and research. J. D. Heikkinen(Dist. 15), Spartan Sauna Heaters,Inc. A fourth objective is to update AWS documents and programs that support W.E. Honey(Dist. 8),AnchorResearch Corp. welding education. The update of B5.5, Specification for the Qualification of Weld- ing Educators, is in the B5E Subcommittee for review and approval. This update J. L. Hunter(Dist. 13),Mitsubishi Motor Mfg. ofAmerica, Inc. better aligns this document with 2004 state and local requirements for welding R. D. Kellum(At Large),Willamette Welding Supply educators. The modularization of QC-10, Specification for Qualification and Certi- M. D. Kersey(Dist. 12), TheLincoln ElectricCo. fication of Entry Level Welders, is in its second ballot in EC, and the modulariza- E. D. Levert(Past President), L0ckheed Mar',/n M/sales & Hre C0ntrd tion of EG2.0, Guide for the Training and Qualification of Welding Personnel: Entry Level Welder, has been prepared for its first ballot by the EC. These two docu- V Y. Matthews(Dist. 10), TheLincoln ElectricCo. ments will enable Entry Level students, despite the reduced contact hour con- J. L. Mendoza(Dist. 18), City Public Service straints of welding education in 2004, to be better prepared for going directly into R. L. Norris(Dist. 1), Merriam GravesCorp. industry and improve the transition of students continuing their welding education. It addresses new state and federal requirements T. C. Parker (Dist.14),Miller Electric Mfg. Co. for documentation of student accomplishments for O. P. Reich(Dist. 17), TexasState TechnicalCollege at Waco graduation. E. Siradakis(Dist. 11),Airgas Great Lakes I hope this information gives you some insight into R. J. Tabernik(Dist. 7), TheLincoln ElectricCo. the Education Committee's activities and that you consider this a personal invitation to join the AWS Edu- P. E Zammit(Dist. 19), Brooklyn Iron Works,Inc. cation Committee or to become an active supporter of welding education through your local AWS Section.

Dennis Klingman Chair, A WS Education Committee

E:! FEBRUARY 2004 [ ~T. STR'~E~H THROUGH J';/IHH-nVATIOH

/ / 'Next /

,/,A

"c.

~ tpC

f - , •

, k

~o . . o

/.o "4' .

Circle No. 34 on Reader Info-Card A THERMAD YNE, Company VEWS OF THE INDUSTRY ]

New Women's Business Center Sites Open 2008, according to a recent report from Business Communica- tions Co., Inc. in Seven States Diode-pumped, solid-state lasers will show the strongest growth, rising at an AAGR of 14.8% to $490.5 million in 2008. The U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) recently added However, lamp-pumped lasers will continue to constitute the 11 new sites, in 7 states, to its Women's Business Center (WBC) largest market, growing at a rate of 8% to reach $980.9 million program. The centers provide long-term training, counseling, by 2008, according to the report. and mentoring services to women entrepreneurs who want to The report,GB-292, Solid State, Gas and Dye Lasers: Out- start or grow small businesses. look for the Future, states use of lasers of various types will in- The 11 new sites will share $1,650,000 in SBA funding, to be crease and dominate a number of fields. Cost of the report is distributed among the centers. Each site is required to match a $3750. For more information, contact Business Communications portion of the federal funds with private contributions, and serv- Co., Inc., 25 Van Zant St., Norwalk, CT 06855; telephone (203) ices are tailored to the community in which each site is located. 853-4266, ; [email protected]. The program provides funding for an initial five-year term. The WBC program now has 91 centers in 48 states, the Dis- trict of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Ameri- can Samoa. For more information, visit the Office of Women's Miller Electric Celebrates 75th Anniversary; Business Ownership's home page at www.sba.gov/financing/spe- Commissions Anniversary 'Chopper' cial/women.html. There is also an online Women's Business Cen- ter that can be reached at www.onlinewbc.gov/. Miller Electric Mfg. Co., Appleton, Wis., recently started its 75th anniversary celebration with the delivery of a motorcycle it commissioned Orange County Choppers (OCC) to design and Worldwide Laser Market to Cross build. $3 Billion by 2008 The company employs approximately 1200 people in Wiscon- sin. It began in 1929 in the basement of Niels Miller's Appleton The worldwide market for all types of lasers was estimated to home after he recognized a need for a small, affordable arc weld- be just over $2 billion in 2003 and should rise at an average an- ing machine that would operate on the type of electricity avail- nual growth rate (AAGR) of 9.1%, making it cross $3 billion by able in rural Wisconsin.

vlANUFACTURERS OF CORED WELDING WIRE AND STICK ELECTRODE.( We have been told that we are the best-kept secret in the welding industry. In an effort to correct this situation we advise that: WE MAKE Stainless Cast Iron Cobalt AISI Nickel 410NiMo FC 33% Ni 1 4130 ENiCrFe-2 502 FC 55% Ni 6 4140 ENiCrFe-3 505 FC 99% Ni 12 4340 EniCrCoMo-1 E2553 FC 21 ERNiCrMo-3 E2209 FC 2101 ERNiCr-3 E630 FC 904L FC THE ABOVE ARE JUST A FEW OF THE CORED WIRES THAT WE MAKE. FOR MORE INFORMATION CALL:

Circle No. 20 on Reader Info-Card i[o| FEBRUARY 2004 I Paul Teutul, owner of Orange County Choppers, rides the Miller 75th anniversary chopper inside Miller's Appleton, Wis., headquarters.

Delivery of the Miller chopper on December 12, 2003, marked the start of a yearlong celebration, explained Vickie Rhiner, manager, marketing, Miller Electric. Detailed information on the chopper, Miller's history, and customer appreciation events can be found on a new Web site www.MillerWelds.com/75years. Rhiner said the company plans to update the site every four to six weeks and that the biggest events will not be immediately announced. To officially turn over the Miller chopper, OCC owner Paul Teutul, Sr., and chief designer and fabricator Paul Teutul, Jr., vis- ited Miller's headquarters, signed autographs, and toured the manufacturing facility as part of filming for a cable TV show. An episode of American Choppers, airing early this month on the Dis- covery Channel, chronicles the building of the motorcycle. The Miller Electric chopper features a Stars and Stripes design meant to embody the American spirit and freedom to ride. Orange County Choppers exclusively uses Miller brand power sources and welding helmets, and Paul, Jr., learned to weld using one of the company's machines.

BOC to Provide Gases and Equipment for Discovery Channel's 'Thunder Races'

Leopard Films of the United Kingdom has asked BOC North America, Murray Hill, N.J., to provide welding gases and hard goods for the welding and cutting machines used in Thunder Races, a series shown on the Discovery Channel in the U.K. and Europe. The premise of Thunder Races is that three teams of three car Circle No. 3 on Reader Info-Card

I WELDING JOURNAL Eiee fanatics/mechanical engineering experts are given $1000 and 24 Material handling continues to be the largest application area hours to buy an old wreck and spare parts and then convert it for robotics, followed by spot welding, arc welding, coating and into a vehicle they race at the end of the show. Each week the dispensing, assembly, and material removal. teams build a different type of vehicle -- dune buggies, monster trucks, etc. Because of the extreme stress the vehicles endure, welding is a critical element in their success or failure. Wolf Robotics Purchases ABB's Welding California Tool and Welding Supply, a BOC distributor, has been working with Leopard Films in Las Vegas, Nev., as it films Systems Division an American special of the show that will be shown early this year on Discovery's The Learning Channel. The distributor will sup- Wolf Robotics recently purchased the assets of ABB's Weld- ply cylinder gases and welding hard goods to the film crew and ing Systems Division in Ft. Collins, Colo. The new company is Thunder Races contestants. part of the Rimrock group, currently ABB's largest strategic partner for robot automation. The welding and cutting business has operated in Ft. Collins for nearly 60 years as Heath Engineering, ESAB Automation, Robotics Industry Up 28% in First Nine and, for the past 11 years, as ABB. Dave Prosser will stay on as Months of 2003 vice president and general manager, and approximately 25 people from the former ABB division have joined Wolf Robotics. New orders for industrial robots increased 28% through Sep- Wolf Robotics will offer a full range of products to the nonau- tember 2003, according to figures released by Robotic Industries tomotive, general industry segment, and services that will include Association (RIA), the industry's trade group. production consulting, technical service, parts, training, preven- North American robotics suppliers received orders for 10,051 tive maintenance, and programming. robots valued at $698.2 million from North American manufacturing companies in the first nine months of the year. Manufac- turing companies from outside North America ordered an addi- Industry Notes tional 331 robots valued at $29.3 million. The combined total of 10,382 robots valued at $727.5 million represents an increase of • MKS Instruments, Inc., Andover, Mass., recently opened an 28% in units and 15% in dollars over the same period in 2002. office in Shanghai to expand its local support in China. The "While it's too early to declare that the robotics industry is office includes a calibration center and spare parts warehouse on the road to new record sales, we're very encouraged by the and can provide customer training. Garret Lin, general man- fact that nearly as many robots have been ordered through three quarters of 2003 as were ordered in the entire year of 2002," said - continued onpage 73 Donald A. Vincent, RIA executive vice president. Heat up your business with the newest techniques & e~uipmentii!~,~

ii~i ¸ HOT SHOW HIGHLIGHTS: < • More than 400 exhibits • Free Sessions • Thousands of experts and highly-trained technical representatives • Hundreds of live demos • 2.6 million tons of equipment n special-interest Pavilions ~$2.500 First Prize for Best Welder in the ~mrFirs-t~Aws Professional Welding Co

• Show-only deep discounts ~.~ ,i~ select exhibitor product.,; • And much more

...... ~,i i~:!:

NI I1~I REGISTER FREE ONLINE AT ~NWW.AWS.ORG/EXPO OR CALL~TOi'L-FREE 877-868-5290

o >~

Sponsored Oy the American Welding Society

Circle No. 15 on Reader Info-Card APRIL 6-8, 2004 • CHICAGO, ILLINOIS E McCORMICK PLACE • LAKESIDE CENTER • .'. ,'~.

. ... - " - ...',i":, ". ~, . ~ .,.,...",'~.,.,[..."~t.,,.;; .... .,~ :~-.';, ..>.T,

:- . -:'. ,~-. " ,. : ,',.,~:.~".,:" • . .- '." . ',:;.'.;,..,....::,~., '., ' - -. I. . "

' " " \/~'f .... [ ... :C ,~-- ! ~ .: " ': .7,n~',~ -t.:~ " ~ ~-.-t'-,;- "-'~...'?~..~ i.,...._...... ~.... " :~. :'" : ':~J¢;:::::~: :...,.:"?:-....,:, .:., t l i - '; " " ..i i , :.::.ii .< • • -;;".:~-.: .... :" • . • ., • - ,. .k~_~ ,., -,~I .- , .. , .... :. ,~;~-~,, .....

• ... -" , - . • " .... " ;" ''::"' 1- " : ...i.. :.::.:.: : :. "~.'". "

:. .,'. . , ..- :

• . . , " •...,. ::...; • .. ," r '' " "

' "f" <'" :" ".~'', "; ." ".:';':'/J'.',''" "~ "'" ";" :''';'" "~',,~'.'1" " ':;,,'' . , ..... , . .."' *,' ".: ~'.~,. "~ ..... ' ,,~';,,~,~*..'. " ,

• .. ,:... : . .:~.. , ,...... ,~-.'.,,,.,~ ,.., ,; .>,~. Y- , : " " ~ " ": :~. ":,!~!.,,':cR',~":.,.', " ' " r.

For 100 Years We've Been Making Sparks Fly.

And, with strong new leadership in North America and the product names you've come to know and trustmDual Shield, AtomArc, AlcoTec, Arcaloy, OXWELD, PUROX, Plasmarc and Heliarc... count on ESAB for another strong century of innovation and technical leadership. And watch the sparks fly. ... ,, .~ .~ .~~ ~ ,~i~.-~.~ii,.~!ii~i~ii!~~! ~ ~ ~i.~ k~

II' :." '; • • ~.~-~ '. '.~'~!~' "'~ " "-'..... ~" -~ ~ ".'.~:i'~~."~.'~ ~ ~ "~" ~, "

...... ~ ~. ;.~"~;~,~ .~i~.~.~/~..~.'~/~ rap, ! ,~.~i~.~ ~ • ~ ~ i .. ~i~ ,.~ ./.~ ~ ,, ~ ~ ' i,...."~,~: ~ ~..~..-~.~. ~ ~.x, iii~ L~ iii~i~~ ='OINT OF VIEW] Seven Truths for Welding and .Joining Education

An educator presents his ideas on what he feels will shape the future of welding and joining education

BY ROBERT W. MESSLER, JR.

Joining, especially the process of weld- and lasted 4000 years until the dawn of involving too much repetitiveness to stim- ing, is faced with profound changes that the Iron Age, which lasted less than 2000 ulate human beings, too much complexity have begun to transform materials science years, from about 100 B.C. to at least the to rely on typical workforces, too much in ways that challenge conventional wis- 1700s. Since the Iron Age, we have expe- hazard to expose humans to, or too small dom and best practice. At the same time, rienced, but not (at least yet) formally a size to rely on human dexterity. As a an increasingly global economy is forcing named, ages dominated by steel, alu- result, automation has become the "sav- changes in the way manufacturing must minum, superalloys, titanium, and long- ing grace" of, not the "threat" to, the take place to provide the volume, diversity, range ordered alloys (or intermetallics) common worker, and embedded quality flexibility, responsiveness, quality, and cost among metals; with overlapping parallel assurance has become a necessity rather competitiveness of products demanded by ages of plastics, semiconductors, high- than a perceived luxury. increasingly sophisticated and fickle con- temperature superconductors, and, now, Yet, even with the increased sophistica- sumers. Yet, ironically, manufacturing has nanocrystalline materials. At this very tion demanded of manufacturing, it has seemingly lost some of its appeal as a moment, we are experiencing the dawn of lost some, if not much, of its appeal to career path for young engineers and tech- what may be the most profound of all young engineers, as well as to current stu- nologists compared to research, product ages, the age of tissue engineering (Refs. dents in postsecondary education and the design, technical service, patent law, busi- 1, 2). Clearly, any and every change in feed-streams from middle and secondary ness, and entrepreneurship. Finally, post- material demands an appropriate, corre- schools. The appeal of self-employment, secondary education has either not sponding change in processing, including independence, freedom to work at home, changed at all, enough, or in suitably joining in general, and welding in particu- or wherever one wants (as opposed to appropriate ways to address these other lar. Joining is, after all, the most impor- where manufacturing centers have tended changes to appropriately educate the tant of all processes in manufacturing and to be), business, service, and entrepreneur- future generations of technological construction, for without joining, nothing ship have lured young people away from thinkers and practitioners. The problem in of great size, shape complexity, impres- manufacturing. This allure has undoubted- postsecondary education is as much one of sive functionality, or economy would exist ly been helped (if not forced) by parents failure to fully recognize the profoundness (Ref. 3). who want more for their children than they and pervasiveness of the just-mentioned Manufacturing has been undergoing had for themselves, especially parents who changes as it is a seemingly institutional- changes since the dawn of the Industrial lost jobs in the manufacturing sector, often ized resistance to accepting or responding Age, which first appeared in Europe and just at the time they were sending their to any change well or quickly. the new America between 1760 and 1790. children to college. In the last few decades, however, the rate While there have been changes in mate- Very Real Changes and profoundness of change have been rials, in manufacturing, and in the appeal staggering. Quality, rather than quantity, of manufacturing as a career, there have Since the Stone Age 1, materials have became the measure of success; quantity not been comparable, or offsetting, been undergoing change with a progres- with quality at low cost became the meas- changes in postsecondary education. sively accelerating rate. The Bronze Age ure of productivity. The consumer Colleges and universities have tended to followed the 100,000-year-long Stone Age demanded products; manufacturers did- adjust their curricula to the new world of n't force unwanted choices on consumers. service, not the unrecognized new world of Automation has become more than a manufacturing. Increasing numbers of fac- ROBERT W. MESSLER, JR., is Professor means to higher productivity, it has ulty who never worked in industry, no less • of Materials Science & Engineering, Direc- increasingly become the only means to in manufacturing, drive the development tor of Materials Joining, and Associate of new courses tied to their research inter- Dean for Academic & Student Affairs for produce some products -- products the School of Engineering at Rensselaer ests as much or more than to industry's Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N.Y. 1. The Stone Age is the earliest period of time interests. Materials curricula tend to try to in which humans were known to employ cover all materials to the exclusion of depth Based on a paper presented at the A WS An- tools made exclusively from stone, spanning in any material or focus on one material to nual Meeting and Convention, April 8-10, from about 100,000 to 4000 B.C., for most the exclusion of other materials. They tend 2003, Detroit, Mich. of what is now the developed world. to gloss over processing -- if they cover it -- and they ignore joining because they

i[,1= FEBRUARY 2004 i either don't recognize its importance or pairs of shoes he/she makes, he/she will turn all four knobs. Give the welder one understand its practice. All in all, it is more make a lot of pairs of shoes, many of knob (like on a synergic power supply) and a lack of understanding what has changed which may be of poor quality. If a welder he/she will turn that one. Sometimes the and what is needed than simply not caring is paid for how much he/she welds (in knob turning is more out of a sense of guilt or responding. There is also the problem of meters or feet, kilograms or pounds), lots from not doing something than out of any not knowing how to respond. of rod will get "burned." If industry wants real need. So let's look at what must change in quality because customers want quality or The future world to be dominated by postsecondary education, as the founda- because the criticality of the structure or automated processing (see Truth #3) tion for and genesis of future designers and product demands quality, then quality not needs a new paradigm of "minimal essen- practitioners in manufacturing, in general, quantity must be the measure of success tial control" vs. "total control." Perhaps and joining and welding, in particular. and the basis for reward. an analogy will help make the point. An Workers need to be rewarded for their equine veterinarian knows everything The Seven Truths "net quality" output not their "gross" out- there is to know about how a horse works, put, with the emphasis on quality not including the detailed mechanics, kine- It is contended here that there are quantity or speed. Education must instill matics, and physiology of what makes a seven factors at play that are so basic, so in students that productivity is a measure horse run fast. A jockey knows how to ingrained, and so pervasive that they of the efficiency with which output of make a horse run fast, but rarely knows should be treated as "truths" just as cer- acceptable quality is created not the sheer much about the detailed mechanics, kine- tain "givens" are treated as truths in logic. quantity of output. matics, and physiology of the horse. The These truths arise outside of education, jockey effectively controls a complex sys- but they profoundly affect what is needed Truth #3: Automation will increasingly tem using a simple process of coaxing with from education. be forced over manual processing. verbal chortles and properly placed and timed cracks of a whip. This is minimal Truth #1: The majority of problems The increasing sophistication of prod- essential control. A veterinarian on a encountered in joining in practice arise ucts, the greater demands on perform- horse would almost certainly attempt total from the lack of application of existing ance, global competitiveness, and a control and, in the process, overcontrol to knowledge, not a lack of knowledge. shrinking force of skilled tradespeople no advantage, if not a disadvantage. will continue to force automation to Education of welding engineers must This is not a cry to stop seeking new replace and eventually predominate over emphasize control to achieve the desired knowledge through research. It is simply manual processing. As materials become end, not as an end in itself. Minimal a statement of fact that must be changed. increasingly "engineered" in their compo- essential control needs to be seen as Otherwise, if we don't use what we know, sition and microstructure, they will need proper not deficient. Control needs to be why seek to know more? to be processed more carefully, and focused on outcome, not input. If the Anyone who has conducted a failure robots will have to replace human beings. microstructure in and around a weld must analysis for a product or process knows the As speed with quality becomes the meas- be of a certain type for the weld to be con- root cause was virtually always avoidable if ure of productivity (see Truth #2), sidered of high quality, then we must existing knowledge had only been processes will have to be automated, learn to sense weld microstructure, not employed. Welds in high-strength steels employing embedded sensing for contin- voltage, current, and travel speed. crack because of hydrogen-induced uous monitoring and adaptive control. As embrittlement arising from failure to fewer and fewer young people are attract- Truth #5: Quality begins as a mindset, properly preclean using well-established ed into the skilled trades for the allure of must be pervasive throughout manufac- procedures, failure to employ commercial- (and societal pressure to obtain) a college turing, and must be assessed in situ not ly available recommended low-hydrogen education, the workforce of such people post facto. electrodes, failure to employ needed and will continue to shrink. recommended preheat, or failure to post- Automation will become the preferred We must learn how to sense and moni- weld heat treat using well-established pro- approach for routine product manufac- tor what really matters, rather than what cedures. No fundamental knowledge was ture and the necessary approach for high- doesn't matter but is easy to sense and missing. Existing knowledge was simply ly sophisticated product manufacture. monitor. Voltage, current, and travel speed not employed out of ignorance or neglect. Human beings will be used for their cre- are important parameters to produce a This is a matter of education. New ativity and adaptability, not their utility. weld, and are indirectly responsible for at designers, process engineers, and practi- Education will have to focus on teaching least some key characteristics of a weld for tioners need to know the theory and then how processes work and how they can be it to be considered of high quality, but they employ it. Increased attention needs to be controlled, not on how they can be per- are not enough. Perhaps they are easy to given to case studies. The risks of circum- formed as a trade. Troubleshooting will monitor, so we monitor them out of guilt venting best practice need to be fully be a key skill, not burning rods. not to do so, as much as a lack of knowl- appreciated. The education of a joining edge of knowing how to monitor what is specialist or welding engineer must be Truth #4: For automated processes, over- really important (i.e., Truth 4). centered on a strong foundation in theo- control is as problematic as undercontrol Education must focus on the concept ry, with appropriate accommodation of or lack of control. of total quality control, not as the result (or accounting for) faulty assumptions, of overcontrol, but as the result of proper imposed constraints, special circum- Surely there are examples where an embedded control. A model to be emu- stances, or lack of complete knowledge. automated process has not been sufficient- lated in welding is the "pop" thermome- ly controlled; examples where knowledge ter in Frank Perdue's chickens. The weld Truth #2: Poor quality in practice often of what to do, of what to control and how is done, and done properly, when some- results because high quality is not the to control it, existed but was not followed thing "embedded" to monitor the weld basis for reward, gross output is. (see Truth #1). But, there is also a tenden- indicates the weld has been done well. cy to overcontrol processes. Give a welder If a shoemaker is paid for how many four knobs to turn, and that person will Truth #6: The technology of joining will

WELDING JOURNAL ilrJ become more important than the practice same basic knowledge but different tools. Materials & Design 16(5): 261-269. of welding; an enabling technology not As joining becomes more an enabling 2. Messier, R. W., Jr. 2000. Joining just a pragmatic process. technology than simply a pragmatic technologies: Where to go from here not process (i.e., Truth # 6), the knowledge to be left behind? J. of Assembly Among a community of welders, this needed in practice will change but not Automation 20(2): 99-100. probably sounds like heresy. It's not nearly as much as the tools. In the future, 3. Messier, R. W., Jr. 1993. Joining of meant to. It's just reality. Welding is a scientists, engineers, and physicians will Advanced Materials. Stoneham, Mass.: process for joining -- an important one increasingly replace hard-hatted riveters Butterworth-Heinemann. but not the only one. The proliferation of and helmeted welders for the most 4. Messier, R. W., Jr. 2003. Joining synthetic polymers, the yet-to-be realized sophisticated and high-value-added join- comes of age: From pragmatic process to full potential of composites, the emer- ing. That's not scary; it's progress. enabling technology. J. of Assembly gence of nanomaterials and nano-struc- Automation 23(2): [t.b.d.]. tures, and the life-altering promise of tis- Summary sue engineering will challenge joining more than just welding. Joining is changing because materials Education needs to not just respond to are changing. Welding is changing, Do You Have Some News this "truth," it must anticipate and lead the because knowledge is changing. to Tell Us? needed change. Education in joining tech- Education must change because knowl- nology as an enabling technology, not just edge is what drives and sustains change. If you have a news item that as a pragmatic manufacturing process must As educators we are challenged -- if not might interest the readers of the begin immediately, not later (Ref. 4). charged -- to lead, not follow this change. Welding Journal, send it to the fol- To lead, we must embrace the changes lowing address: Truth #7: The practitioners of joining not just face them. We must accept cer- Welding Journal Dept. will become more sophisticated as the tain factors as "truths" and respond Attn: Mary Ruth Johnsen process becomes more sophisticated. accordingly, logically, eventually leading 550 NW LeJeune Rd. the change, not reacting to it. 4 Miami, FL 33126. Many of us learned to perform calcu- Items can also be sent via FAX to lations needed to solve engineering prob- References (305) 443-7404 or by e-mail to lems using a slide rule. Some of us [email protected]. learned to do so using a handheld calcu- 1. Messler, R. W., Jr. 1996. The chal- lator and others a laptop computer. We lenges for joining to keep pace with all are good problem solvers -- using the advancing materials and designs.

ATTENTIONDISTRIBUTORS... Receive TWO FREEPublications! PLUS GET MAXIMUM EXPOSURE• INCREASEDBUSINESS • UNMATCHEDSAVINGS

• Jefferson's WeMing/:'nc '('lopedia (t.I)-Id)M only) Choose from Ibm four •

awanl-wlnulng puldlcatlons! • Design am~ Planning Manual for Cost-Effectit~ Welding Increase your customer base by becoming an AWS Welding Distributor Member. Receive a spot on the AWS Distributor Locator Map - companies and individuals will be able to find your distributorship fast and easy, and you can even add a link to take them straight to your website. In addition, AWS Welding Distributor Members receive access to a variety of networking opportunities, business development tools and service discounts you won't find anywhere else.

American Welding Society For more information, call the Membership Department today at: (800) 443-9353, ext. 480, or (305) 443-9353, ext. 480 Welding DistributorMember Visit us on-line at www.aws.org/distributor

Circle No. 12 on Reader Info-Card

ml:m FEBRUARY 2004 I r~"

By attending the AWS Structural Welding Code-Steel Code Week, you can be sure you n you all the secrets you need to learn to keep your jobs and up-to-code. These seminars provide the in-depth ge you need, about the Structural Welding-Steel code from the le who know it best~AWS.

r'ou can take any combination of five intense one-day courses or save BIG on travel and tuition by signing up for the whole D1. I Code WeekIA SAVINGS OF UP TO 60%. Courses \ ~\~\ will cover: Code Road Map, Design of Welded Connections, Qualifications, Fabrication and Inspection.

As a special bonus when you register for the full week, you'll get the latest edition of the AWS DI.1/DI.I.M: 2004 Structural Welding Code-Steel manual ABSOLUTELY FREE. Attend a single-day seminar and you'll get 50% off ~hll~l~]phi~, PA: ~ the list price~A SAVINGS OF UP TO $172. This ~.~r 1 ~ ]5 y is one book you can't afford to be without. D

N~/~,~lh-~r fl-l~ /To register call 1-800-443-9353 ext. 449. For more -, j' information and course detail, or to register online visit us at ..~P,'~ I~ LI~,]|T~ /' www.aws.orcl and select "Conferences".

AWl Structural Welding Code-Steel Code Week-- we'll show you how to crack the code and put its ~"~ ..... secrets to work for you.

AmericanWeldinUSocioty

Circle No. 6 on Reader Info-Card VEV PRODUCTS ] FOR MORE INFORMATION, CIRCLE NUMBER ON READER INFORMATION CARD.

Welding Generator Electrostatic Air Cleaner Provides Excess Power Removes Oil and Smoke

The Air Boss ® Model 75 electrostatic air-purification system is available in var- tor system features a spring-mounted, re- ious capacity ranges for removing oil mist tractable autodarkening lens that can be and smoke from plant facilities. The prod- lifted, while a large, clear polycarbonate uct is factory assembled, allowing the cus- lens provides face protection during weld The Ranger" 10,000 multiprocess weld- tomer to quickly connect it to ductwork, preparation, inspection, and grinding. A ing machine includes a full-kVA 120 V/240 power, and plumbing. powered air-purifying respirator creates V outlet plus four 120-V outlets to power a positive atmosphere of filtered air that Trion Inc. 101 is 25-times cleaner than the air outside of up to 10,000 W of plasma arc cutting ma- 101 McNeill Rd., Sanrord, NC 27330 chines, grinders, lights, and tools. It pro- the helmet. Assorted filters can be stacked vides up to 225 A of AC/DC welding power in the respirator to provide additional pro- for SMAW, GTAW, GIVIAW,and FCAW. Helmet Features tection against specific vapors. Flip-Up Lens The Lincoln Electric Co. 100 Hornell, Inc. 102 22801 St. Clair Ave., Cleveland, on 44117-1199 The FlexView welding helmet/respira- 2374 Edison Blvd., TWinsburg, OH 44087

an elite group of over Company logo on your company's For more information o0 AWS Sustaining Company letterhead and on promotional materials J4oin for a competitiveedge on AWS Corporate Members and enjoy: • An attractive AWSSustaining Company Your choice of one of these money- wall plaque Membership, call saving benefits: • Free hyperlink from AWS's40,000-visitors-a- 1. AWSStandards Library (800) 443-9353, ext. ($6,500 value) month website to your company's website 2. Discount Promotional Package - save • ComplimentaryrIP passes to the 253 or 260. E-mail: on advertising WddingJournal AWSWELDING SHOW and booth space at the AWSWELDING • An additional 5% discount off the already- [email protected] SHOW (save thousands) reduced member price of any AWSconference 3. 10 additional AWS Individual for an application. or seminar registration Memberships ($870 value) • Up to 62% off YellowFreight shipping Plus... charges, outbound or inbound, short or • 10 AWSIndividual Memberships long haul ($870 value); each Individual Membership AmericanWelding Socioty includes a FREE subscription to the Welding AND MUCHMORE... 550 N.W. LeJeune Rd. Journal, up to an 87% discount on an Also available: AWS Supporting Miami, Florida 33126 AWSpublication, Members'-onlydiscounts Visit our website at www.aws.org and much more Company Membership, • Free company publicity- give your AWS WeldingDistributor Your organization company a global presence in the Membership and AWS Educational needs solutions. WeldingJournal, on the AWSWebsite, Institution Membership and at the AWSWELDING SHOW AWS means answers. • Exclusiveusage of the AWS Sustaining Circle No. 14 on Reader Info-Card Flame Spray Wire Mat Reduces Fatigue and and spatter while providing traction. Produced in Larger Size Withstands Spatter Wilson Industries, Inc. 106 123 Explorer St., Pomona, CA 91768 PMet 844 is a ~-in., cored, Ni-20A1 wire The Spatter-Mat was specifically de- designed as a bond coat for use with 420 signed for welding areas to alleviate leg Diesel Welding Generators stainless steel, aluminum bronze, and and back stress from standing and work- other flame spray coatings. The product Operate at Low Speed ing. The ~-in.-thick mat features a buoy- is supplied on 10-1b spools. ant sponge base with a pebbled rubber sur- The PRO 300 multiprocess welding face that repels sparks, hot metal shards, generator features a 22-hp, water-cooled Polymet Corp. 103 10073 Commerce Park Dr., Cincinnati, OH 45246 Laser CMM Has a 165-Foot Range

The Advantage Tracker portable coor- dinate measuring machine (CMM) has a 165-ft range and features a 72-p.m accu- racy at 20 ft. The product has a remote voice-command system and can be mounted in any position -- vertical, horizontal, or upside-down.

Faro Technologies 104 125 Technology Park, Lake Mary, FL 32746 Purge Dam Materials Flush Away in Water _q.;.'l::; YliLrjJJ J_~ ~'i,J~ ~U£TJ, J 5 -!PP~'L/I-iTU5

'~ V'121ding, ~u~.'..ir~ a.rld fl-a,ir,~'_,o ;".Pr":w"us-- " ~r~zir,~~nd 3old~riog,.:',pp:u':Eu.; '~ Compr.e_ss~d G:~s P.egulators '~" corrlpressed g:~s FIo,mP_.ter ;teSut:~'.ors " FI'/AC/;'. :rod Plumbir,g Frodu,:,.s : VYeldio~ 3/:,'.e m tdir~g Azcessories

The company's water-soluble purge paper and dam-holding tape products are used to dam inert gases during the gas tungsen arc (GTA) welding of steel or aluminum pipes. After welding, the paper and tape can be flushed away with water or steam, leaving no harmful residue. ~L

Aquasol Corp. 105 1576 Sweet Home Rd., Amherst, NY 14228 Circle No. 26 on Reader Info-Card

I WELDING JOURNAL |ll Whether training new hires or providing new skills to current workforce, ATP's selection of comprehensive training materials will provide vital information on the latest industrial processess and industry (AWS) standards.

Textbooks are authored by experts in the field. That means the content Caterpillar diesel engine producing 300 A is accurate and detai/ec/ with today's at 100% duty cycle with a welding output latest technologies. range of 20 to 410 A. The engine runs at 1800 rpm for longevity. The unit also de- Materials are normally shipped within livers 12 kW of power for lights and power 24 hours so you can get training as tools. soon as possible. Miller Electric Mfg. Co. 107 P.O. Box 100, Lithonia, GA 30058 .k Texts contain a CD-ROM with Quick Quizzes and relevant reference Gas Regulator Handles information. High Inlet Pressure

The BelGas Type P39 high-pressure gas regulator features a forged brass body and a stainless steel diaphragm. Equipped with

Circle No. 38 on Reader Info-Card

Fraction of the Cost WELDHUGGER !1~ I I'H JI i IT~Fllr [[~]b]Ti(,] i,] I;t;|;t~ t~ | :[ J]il fl COVER GAS DISTRIBUTIOH SY,~Tgna¢ • Flows gas evenly over and behind the Tack l weld pool. • Reducesoxidation and discolorization Tack II • Designed for trailing shield and a variety of other applications. TackaGK IIIUl • 316L Stainless steel noTslesand manifolds. Pulse Arc Tmilingllt'i •\•Mil der Slmu ated nozz e flow [ ABI Link-it • Link Welder I q

~dudes 6 nozzles Kit & rr~ifold

. -A

HOGGER,,c Toll Free: (877) WELDHGR (877) 935-3447 Fax: (480) 940-9366 visit our website at: www.weldhugger.com

Circle No. 37 on Reader Info,-Card Circle No. 2 on Reader Info-Card i~Pi FEBRUARY 2004 the process tool to the workpiece or bring the workpiece to a fixed tool.

Motoman Inc. 110 805 Liberty Lane, West Carrollton, OH 45449 Tool Preps Oxygen-Cut Steam Pipes for Welding

The Prepzilla Millhog ~ pipe-milling and end-prep tool clamps to the inside of lines and removes the heat-affected zone. the torched ends of oxyfuel-cut steam After producing a square end, the tool can

¼-in. FNPT ports, the unit handles an inlet -- continued on page 73 pressure of 5500 lb/in2. with outlet ranges of 0-120, 0-150, 0-225, and 0-500 lb/inz.

Marsh Bellofram 108 State Rt. 2, Box 305, Newell, WV 26050 Articulated Hose System Offers Flexibility

The Maxiflex universal articulated hose system allows positioning of cooling and cleaning fluids, gases, and vacuum delivery in grinding, milling, and other industrial applications. The ¼-in.- or H-in.- diameter hoses are nonconductive, resistant to chemicals, and not subject to vibra- tional repositioning.

Wiha Quality Tools 109 1348 Dundas Cir., Monticello, MN 55362-8434 Robot Optimized for Parts Finishing

The DX1350 six-axis robot is optimized for material removal, deburring, and parts finishing applications such as grinding and sanding. The robot can bring Circle No. 33 on Reader Info-Card

WELDING JOURNAL l,,~! ~ I

,.... ~i ¸

i i~~ ~i~i~ii!~ ..... ~!i~:~~

24 .ALUMINUM SPACEFRAMES SPEEDS .INTRODUCTION OF SPORTSCAR

A sixties'-era Ford GT40 at 24 Hours' of LeMans, 1969, just a few Two inverted welding robots work on a .[?ame mounted to a lengths ahead of a Porsche 908, with one lap to go. rotating fixture.

lb of torque -- power almost identical to space frame design that was both struc- weld these frames and keep distortion to that of the Le Mans-winning legend. turally sound and capable of being manu- within a couple of millimeters on the en- To accomplish this feat of engineering factured. We applied knowledge from pre- tire frame. mastery on such a tight timeline, 30 engi- vious programs and developed a team of "We're talking about a high-perform- neers were selected from the top of their Tier 2 aluminum suppliers for additional ance vehicle pushing 500 horsepower and respective departments within the Ford support and expertise." going 0 to 60 in four seconds with a top Motor Co., and given an off-site Detroit, Tepper and his team, together with speed around 200 miles per hour," Tep- Mich., location where they could focus on Lincoln as a source of welding expertise, per added. "That's why the welds have to the task at hand. also brought to the project years of col- be spot on." Subcontractor Metro Technologies, lective experience from working on myr- The key to manufacturing an alu- Ltd., had previously called in The Lincoln iad aluminum welding projects. minum frame with such a high number of Electric Co. on another aluminum frame "Weld shrinkage or distortion can be welds is sequencing, according to Tepper. project for Ford called the Think vehicle. a major factor when working with alu- By sequencing the robots to weld alter- The Think was a highly engineered elec- minum," Tepper said, "but we knew by ex- nate sides of the frame, it allows an area tric concept car. On the Think project, perience and experimentation how to to cool down before accepting another partners Lincoln and Metro were able to demonstrate their expertise on aluminum- framed vehicles, so when it came time to look for welding partners on the Ford GT project, Lincoln and Metro were given the task. And quite a task it was -- joining 35 aluminum extrusions, seven complex castings, two semisolid formed castings, and several stampings with more than 450 aluminum welds, each one unique, to make up the hybrid aluminum space frame. At- tempting that many robotic welds on an aluminum automobile frame was a venture into uncharted territory. Rick Tepper, robotic welding coordinator for Metro, said his team was able to complete the daunting task through team- work and comprehensive analysis. "Once Metro Technologies received the job, we worked with MVS (vehicle stampings and assemblies designer Equipped with a 500-horsepower nlid-mounted engine, the Ford (Tl" accelerates J~'om zero Mayflower Vehicle Systems) to develop a to 60 in four seconds, with a top speed of about 200 miles per hour.

I WELDING JOURNAL m,.,1."l weld, thereby reducing distortion and controlling shrinkage. To complete the job, Lincoln and Metro assembled four robotic cells utilizing a total of five robots. Lincoln's Power Wave* 455M power sources were mated with FANUC* 120iLB six-axis robots with the longest available reach of 70 inches and capable of high-speed movements. Each of these cells makes 100 to 125 welds. Rotating positioners were used to hold the parts under the robots to reduce cycle times. To complete welding operations, the team chose Lincoln's SuperGlaze TM 1.2- mm 4043 aluminum gas metal arc welding (GMAW) wire. The 4043 alloy can be tricky to feed because of its softness. To manage the feeding challenges, a Binzel* torch was used in conjunction with an MK Products* push-pull system. Argon was used as the shielding gas. All of these components were then integrated by Lincoln Electric, providing Metro with a single welding partner to take responsibility for the welding cells, Robotic weldi, q (¢'lLs fi)r the [:ord (;7' are eq,ipl~Cd with a rolati,,~ wor/~l~icc~' i)ositio,t'p: equipment, and operation. Before the welding began, Tom Larkins, communications." In these cells, if a weld where two fixtures revolve around each applications engineer at Lincoln Electric other and individually spin at the same Automations Div., utilized the Delmia U1- sequence were altered, it would have to traArc* robotic arc welding simulation pro- be altered on both robots. time. Front and rear bumper mounts, trans- gram to determine the logistics of the proj- "You not only have to program the ro- mission assemblies, and miscellaneous sta- ect. By programming three-dimensional, bots to do the welds, you have to program bilizing bars are mounted in this cell. virtual models of the robots, torches, ca- them to know each other's location to Cells two and three each utilize two in- bling, and the parts to be welded, real- avoid collisions," said Sidall. verted robots, hanging from overhead, to world placements of each component To do this, Sidall programmed one of allow for more range of motion. Rear sub- could be factored, as could the movements the robots as the "dumb" robot, which assemblies and primary castings are of the robots to reach hard-to-access weld would return to a perch position before the welded in cell two while cell three welds placements and avoid collisions. assemblies. "We used this as a tool as to ~11 four utilizes two more or not specific components of the verted robots to weld together the would work," Larkins said. "With ront and rear assemblies and attach validation, the costs and timeline e cockpit, or greenhouse, complet- ated with the project would have le frame. greatly extended." le Ford GT Spaceframe Manufactur- With the information provided ~am chose to use the Power Wave by the program, it was up to Lin- I because of its technology that con- coln's robotic technologist, and shapes the output waveform. Marty Sidall, to program the ac- I the waveform may be shaped digi- tual robots. using software without the need to "There were a lot of chal- ;e electrical components, equipment lenges with the robots running ...... waveform control can deliver cus- upside-down, and it was difficult to get the tomized results for almost any application, torch into certain areas for some of the other robot would resume its sequence. improving productivity, quality, and oper- welds," Sidall said. "In order to reach Additionally, because there were so ator appeal on a wide range of materials. every single weld in the program, we were many welds to complete, the clamps and These capabilities provide users with a ver- really pushing these robots to their limits tooling holding the parts to be welded satile and upgradable welding system. of positioning, and the placement of the were often getting in the way of the robots and the weld gun. Tepper said the technology was inte- parts had to be precise." gral in allowing Metro to achieve the welds The frequent design changes also cre- "Hats off to Metro," Sidall said. "They necessary on the 6061 T6 extruded alu- ated programming challenges for Sidall. were right in there at a moment's notice, minum ranging in thickness from 1.5 to 8 When one of the robot's 40 to 50 weld po- bending and cutting clamps and relocat- mm, with 3 mm being the most common sitions had to be altered, it created a ing clamp handles to allow for the robots size. The machine allows for a lower- domino effect in the programming in that to do their job." amperage welding procedure to be used, the entire sequence after that weld had to All said and done, the programming of critical when distortion control is required be altered. Adding to the complexities of the robots for each cell took about six for welding thin-gauge aluminum. Also, the programming was the fact that two ro- weeks. the digitally controlled inverter power bots were welding simultaneously in the Cell one utilizes one robot with what source is capable of sophisticated arc same cell, which required "handshake could be called a "double Ferris wheel," starting procedures that help to reduce

Ii,.[,11 FEBRUARY 2004 I the risk of starting porosity and contribute to a flat, attractive weld bead profile. It also provides seamless arc welding process changes from GMAW to pulse or Pulse- on-Pulse TM from one weld to the next with minimal spatter. As for interfacing with the Lincoln equipment, Tepper said, 'Nctually, the robots, together with Lincoln's control panels, are pretty easy to use. Once we developed our welding procedures, we didn't have any problems." Tepper said by the time they welded the fourth frame, they were running "production intent," or parts intended for use in actual production, featuring weaved welds and all. Three months prior to the centennial celebration deadline, nine prototypes of the finished car hit the road to test various components. By the June 16 deadline, three production models were ready and were driven, one by Bill Ford, to kick off the company's centennial celebration. Two of the original three GTs have been dedicated "media cars" and are cur- Side-rear view of the car's aluminum frame with wheel suspension. rently making the circuit of leading automobile media outlets where they are driven and reviewed by journalists. An ad- mantled and shipped to Milford Fabricat- -- a grand total of 4500 GTs expected to ditional 15 GTs were built for crash tests ing Co. in Detroit. Milford, a subsidiary retail at $140,000-150,000. If initial feed- and other studies. of the Budd Co., will handle production back from the automotive press is any in- With the completion of the first 18 of the vehicles. dication, the GTs should be zipping off the GTs, the robotic welding cells and other The plan is to build eight GTs per day, showroom floor as fast as their 500-horse- production mechanisms are being dis- five days a week for two and a half years power engines can take them. •

Ul CBANIAIESARE IN GREATDEMAND. Of the few schools that offer underwater welding certification, the College of Oceaneering's program is one of the most comprehensive available anywhere. As a College of Oceaneering certified WeldTechTM, your skills and expertise put you in high demand from underwater construction companies the world over. EARN AN ASSOCIATEOF SCIENCEDEGREE IN MARINETECRHOLRGY. You can decide how far you want to go in your career. Our training qualifies you for a fully-accredited degree. SEE IF YOU UALIFY. There are age, academic and personal requirements, including stamina, perseverance and a commitment to succeed. Callus or log on to see if you quali~ Then dive in.

COLLEGE OF OCEANEERING FOR MOREIIF0 F80 O WWW.COO.EDU An affiliateof the National UniversitySystem

Circle No. 18 on Reader Info-Card I WELDING JOURNAL i'Jrl i~ ¸ ~. J!

I Ii

in Aluminum S ipbuilding This article was inspired by current activities within the U.S. military, the extraordi- nary developments in aluminum shipbuilding that have been taking place in Australia, and the creation of new high-strength aluminum alloys, primarily in Europe, for the shipbuilding industry. A recent visit to Incat Tasmania Pty. Ltd. (shipbuilding), off the southeast coast of Australia, revealed a manufacturer that has taken aluminum shipbuilding to exciting new levels. In 1977, it launched its first high-speed catamaran, and today it is manufacturing the new generation of 98-meter (322-ft) wave-piercers, which are being evaluated by the United States military. Incat has constructed more than 50 vessels of various lengths. The company's first passenger/vehicle ferry was delivered in 1990, a 74-meter (243-ft) wave-piercing catamaran with a maximum deadweight capacity of 200 metric tons (440,000 lb). The more recent 98-meter Evolution 10B range has a deadweight four Welded aluminum times that amount. While Incat-built ferries initially revolutionized transport links around the U.K., today its ships operate in North and South America, Australasia, the Mediterranean, meets the needs of a and throughout Europe. Incat's extensive shipbuilding activity is conducted from a modern facility with over 32,000 m 2 under cover, located at Hobart's Prince of Wales Bay in changing military Tasmania. Aluminum Welded Ships within the U.S. Military

In response to great interest from the U.S. military in high-speed craft, Incat, via its U.S. affiliate, Incat USA, formed a strategic alliance with an American shipyard to mar- BY TONY ANDERSON ket and build innovative craft designs for military and commercial markets. The Bollinger/Incat USA strategic alliance combines Incat, the premier builder of the world's i,,t:ll FEBRUARY 2004 fastest vehicle/passenger ferries, with of the secretary of defense and the U.S. Just three weeks after the awarding of Bollinger, a proven builder of a variety of Army. Spearhead is being used to demon- the contract for Spearhead came another, high-speed, reliable, and efficient patrol strate and evaluate its ability to perform separate, order from the U.S. military. boats for the U.S. Navy and Coast Guard. during certain mission scenarios, to assess Military Sealift Command is the contract- The U.S. government has awarded its usefulness to the U.S. military, and to ing arm that has leased a 98-meter craft Bollinger/Incat USA, New Orleans, La., refine the requirements for the next gen- from Bollinger/Incat USA to support U.S. the charter for a high-speed craft (HSC) eration of Army watercraft. The TSV is Navy Mine Warfare Command. The craft, for a multiservice program operated by critical to the Army's ability to perform HSV-X2 Swift, was constructed at the Ho- various arms of the military. The HSC ves- its Title 10, intratheater mission. Spear- bart, Tasmania, shipyard and will be sta- sel, now known as Joint Venture HSV-X1 head is utilized on missions to maximize tioned in Ingleside, Tex. The ship is capa- (Fig. 1), is being used for evaluation and its speed and flexibility and is needed for ble of maintaining an average speed of 35 demonstration trials to assess the useful- both sustainment deliveries and the move- knots or greater loaded with 500 short tons ness of such technology in military and ment of Army prepositioned stocks and (453,600 kg) consisting of 350 personnel Coast Guard applications. The Joint Ven- troop units. Theater support vessels prom- and military equipment. A minimum op- ture was selected as the optimum vessel to ise to change the way the U.S. Army gets erating range of 1100 nautical miles at 35 deliver the best performance for the scope to the fight. They will allow the Army to knots is required by the contract, as is a of work required by the military. Under- quickly deliver intact packages of combat- minimum transit range of 4000 nautical going a major refit with innovative design ready soldiers and leaders with their miles at an average speed of 20 knots. Fur- and construction, the craft was upgraded equipment and supplies, enabling them to thermore, the craft must be capable of 24- and fitted with military enhancements "fight off the ramp" if necessary. Deliver- hour operations at slow speeds (3-10 such as a helicopter deck, stern quarter ing intact units within a theater also will knots) for small boat and helicopter op- ramp, rigid-hulled inflatable boat, deploy- reduce the need for a large-scale onshore erations. ment gantry crane, troop facilities for 363 reception, staging, onward movement, It will be fitted with a stern ramp ca- personnel, crew accommodation, storage and integration of soldiers, vehicles, and pable of on/off loading directly astern or facilities, medical facilities, and long- equipment within the battle space. The to the starboard quarter. The ramp is ca- range fuel tanks. As the Joint Venture con- future vessels promise to transport units pable of loading/unloading a multitude of tinues to excel in her experimental role, within a theater of operation in hours in- military vehicles up to and including bat- Incat's intention to see the military poten- stead of days. The TSV will support the tle tanks of up to 140,000 lb (63,500 kg). tial of such craft realized took another Army Transformation goal of deploying a The ramp is also capable of launch and step forward in September 2002 with the combat-ready brigade anywhere in the recovery of amphibious assault vehicles. sale of USAV TSV-1X Spearhead to world within 96 hours, a division in 120 To achieve this, the ramp tip end can be Bollinger/Incat USA for charter to the hours, and five divisions within 30 days. submerged, allowing the amphibious ve- U.S. Army. Speed, coupled with a large cargo capac- hicles to drive on and off. Spearhead (Fig. 2) is the U.S. Army's ity, will provide greater payload through- The ship is also capable of launch and first theater support vessel (TSV) and is put at long ranges as well as the ability to recovery of small boats and unmanned ve- part of the Advanced Concept Technol- rapidly reposition and mass assets within hicles up to 10,400 kg (23,000 lb) while ogy Demonstrator program by the office a theater of operations. underway.

TONYANDERSON ([email protected]) is Technical Director of Alco Tec Wire Corp., Traverse City, Mich.; Chairman of the Alu- minum Association Technical Advisory Committee for Welding and Joining; Chairman of the A WS D I OH Subcommittee on Aluminum Piping; Chairman of the A WS D3A Subcommittee on Aluminum Hull Welding; Chairman of the A WS/SAE Subcommittee on Automotive Arc Welding of Aluminum; and Vice Chairman of A WS DIG Subcommittee 7 on Aluminum Structures.

I WELDING JOURNAL ~I and a mixture of argon/helium shielding gas -- Fig. 3. The addition of helium of up to 75% is not uncommon and is useful when welding thicker sections. The helium content provides higher heat during the welding operations, which assists in combating the excessive heat sink when welding thick plate. The extra heat associated with the helium shielding gas also helps to reduce porosity levels. This is very useful when welding the more critical joints such as hull plates that are often subjected to radiographic inspection. The design strengths of these alloys are available from the material manufacturers; however, there would appear to be few as- welded strength values incorporated in current welding specifications. Certainly these relatively new base alloys are not listed materials within the AWS D1.2, Structural Welding Code --Aluminum, and consequently no minimum tensile strength requirements are included in this code. If this material continues to be used for welded The vessel is fitted with a NAVA1R- These improvements provided potential structures there will be a need to address certified helicopter deck for operation of for significant weight savings in the design this situation by establishing appropriate MH-60S, CH-46, UH-1, and AH-1 heli- of aluminum vessels and included a mini- tensile strength values and including them copters. An area protected from the mum of 15% increase in the postweld yield in the appropriate welding codes. weather for storage and maintenance of strength, improvements in corrosion Early testing on the 5059 (Alustar) base two MH-60S helicopters is provided, as is properties, and a 10% increase in fatigue alloy indicated that problems could be en- a Carriage Stream Tow and Recovery Sys- strength. These developments, coupled countered relating to the weld metal not tem (CSTARS). This helo deck has the ca- with formability, bending, cutting, and being capable of obtaining the minimum pacity to transfer equipment up to 2720 weldability characteristics at least equal tensile strength of the base material heat- kg (6000 lb) to and from the vehicle deck. to that of 5083, made the 5383 alloy very affected zone. One method used to improve attractive to designers and manufacturers the weld tensile strength was to increase the New Developments in High- who were pushing the limits to produce amount of alloying elements drawn from Strength Aluminum Alloys for bigger and faster aluminum ships. the plate material into the weld. This was Marine Applications More recently, in 1999, the aluminum assisted by the use of helium additions to manufacturer Corus Aluminum Walzpro- the shielding gas, which produces a broader Until fairly recently, the most popular dukte GmbH in Koblenz, Germany, regis- penetration profile that incorporates more base metal used for aluminum shipbuild- tered the aluminum base Alloy 5059 (Alus- of the base material. The use of 5556 filler ing, 5083, had very little rivalry from other tar) with the American Aluminum Associ- metal rather than the 5183 filler metal can alloys. The 5083 base alloy was first regis- ation. This alloy was also developed as an also help increase the strength of the de- tered with the Aluminum Association in advanced material for the shipbuilding in- posited weld material. 1954, and while often referred to as a ma- dustry, providing significant improvements Obviously these high-performance ves- rine aluminum alloy, it has been used for in strength over the traditional 5083 alloy. sels require high-quality welding. The many applications other than shipbuild- The 5059 alloy is promoted by Corus as pro- training of welders, development of ap- ing. The popularity of the 5083 alloy viding improvements in minimum mechan- propriate welding procedures, and imple- within the shipbuilding industry has been ical properties over Alloy 5083. These im- mentation of suitable testing techniques largely based on its availability and also provements are referenced as being a 26% are essential in producing such a high- its ability to provide excellent strength, increase in yield strength before welding performance product. corrosion resistance, formability, and and a 28% increase in yield strength (with weldability characteristics. Other lower- respect to Alloy 5083) after welding of The Future strength alloys such as 5052 and 5086 have H321/Hl16 temper plates of the AA5059 been used for the manufacture of usually (Alustar alloy). With the increasing demand to create smaller, lower-stressed, and typically in- larger and faster ships, particularly for land lake boats, but 5083 has been pre- Welding the New military service, and the development of dominant in the manufacture of oceango- Aluminum Alloys new, improved, high-performance alu- ing vessels. minum base materials, it is apparent that In recent years, progress has been The welding procedures used for these aluminum welding has acquired an inter- achieved by aluminum producers in the high-strength alloys are very similar to the esting and important place within the development of improved aluminum al- procedures used for welding the more tra- shipbuilding industry. Also, with the pend- loys specifically targeted at the shipbuild- ditional 5083 base metals. The 5183 filler ing introduction of this unique technol- ing industry. In 1995 the aluminum man- metal and the 5556 filler metal are both ogy into the United States, it is important ufacturer Pechiney of France registered suitable for welding 5383 and 5059 base that designers, manufacturers, and, par- the aluminum Alloy 5383 and promoted metals. These alloys are predominantly ticularly, welders and welding engineers this material to the shipbuilding industry welded with the gas metal arc welding are adequately trained and familiar with as having improvements over 5083 alloy. (GMAW) process using both pure argon this new technology. •

Bc[Jl FEBRUARY 2004 I i

;!,:}C. " .....

Every year, more than 25,000 students begin an education that could lead to a successful career in welding. As a welder. As an engineer. As a scientist. As a teacher. Or one of hundreds of other rewarding professions in welding. The problem is, we need twice as many. The American Welding Society Foundation is raising funds in support of welding education scholarships by raffling this Harley-Davidson ® Sportster ~ XL 1200 motorcycle at the AWS 2004 Welding Show in Chicago, April 6-8. You don't have to go to the show (although you certainly should). For raffle tickets by mail, fill out the coupon below and return it with payment. Coupons must be received by April 6 (we FedEx them to the Show for drawing April 8th). Also, visit our silent auction on line at: www.aws.org/foundation/auction. You can bid on welding equipment, trips and other exciting items.

Harley-DavidsonMntor Company is not endorsing,sponsoring, orotherwise Foundation, Inc. affiliated with this promotion.Taxes and shipmentfrom Chicagoare the responsibilityof the winner. BuildingWelding's Future through Education

ENTER TO WIN A HARLEY-DAVIDSON® SPORTSl"ER® XL 1200 MOTORCYCLE

NAME COMPANY

ADDRESS

CITY STATE ZIP

DAYTIMEPHONE. EVENINGPHONE

-- TICKETS@ $5 EACH -- TICKETS@ 3 FOR$10 -- TICKETS@ 7 FOR$20 [] CHECK ENCLOSED (MAKEPAYABLE TO AWS FOUNDATION,INC.) AMOUNT [] CREDIT CARD PAYMENT: (CIRCLEONE) VISA MASTERCARD AMERICANEXPRESS

CARD# EXPIRATIONDATE.

SIGNATURE MAIL TO: AWS FOUNDATION, INC., 550 NW LEJEUNE ROAD, MIAMI, FL 33126 Participantsneed not be present to win.

&mmmmmmmBmmmimimmmmmm~ii~=iii=i~ii~i=~i~ii~ii~iiliii~ilii~~,J Circle No. 10 on Reader Info-Card Electron beam welding (EBW) is a high- energy-density beam welding method that is recognized as providing the capacity to achieve higher weld speeds, lower heat in- puts, and greater depth-to-width aspect ratios than most other fusion-type welding methods. However, while generally recognized as having the capability to provide these desirable process characteristics while being utilized in some form of vacuum environment, it is not as commonly recognized that the EBW process can also be employed for use on workpieces located outside a vacuum environment (i.e., directly in atmosphere) m Fig. 1. This nonvacuum means of electron beam welding eliminates the neces- BY KLAUS-RAINER SCHULZE AND DONALD E. POWERS sity of having to evacuate a workpiece's sur- roundings before initiating welding, thereby KLAUS-RAINER SCHULZE is with PTR reducing the overall cycle time required for Praezisionstechnik GmbH, Maintal, Germany, and DONALD E. POWERS is with PTR-Preci- producing parts. sion Technologies, Inc., Enfield, Conn.

B,CP.m FEBRUARY 2004 I < 10"4 mbar <10 .4 ml

lO-lmbar 36

~- 50 75 Workpiece 10 -4 ....10

beam width

~;i ,' 77,: .-~: ...... i: i •

Although electron beam welds proof these new European NVEBW produc- assembly and entering the surrounding at- duced directly in atmosphere (using non- tion applications are being used for alu- mosphere, the beam of electrons begins vacuum electron beam welding, or minum part fabrication. This is not only to broaden due to collisions with gas mol- NVEBW) aren't usually capable of ex- due to the importance placed on the use ecules in the ambient environment. This hibiting fusion zone characteristics iden- of aluminum in modern day automotive then causes the beam's diameter to grad- tical to those accomplished when some production, but also because of the out- ually increase with distance traveled out sort of vacuum environment is employed, standing weld quality the NVEBW into the surrounding atmosphere. The de- nonvacuum EB welds exhibit a fairly high process provides under high-volume pro- gree to which the beam diameter increases aspect ratio and relatively low total en- duction conditions for high-speed weld- as a result of these collisions depends both ergy input, especially at the higher welding of this challenging-to-weld material. on the makeup of the surrounding gas ing speeds that have been demonstrated (i.e., heavier gases, such as air, will pro- as achievable with the NVEBW process. duce a more rapid broadening effect than Because of its ability to reliably and re- Process Basics and lighter ones, such as helium) and the dis- peatedly produce acceptable welds at very Equipment Overview tance the beam travels in this ambient at- high part-production rates, the NVEBW mosphere before striking the workpiece process has been successfully utilized in The electron beam used for NVEBW (i.e., the length of exit orifice-to-work- the U.S. automotive industry for close to processing is generated in a high-vacuum piece spacing). Irrespective of this beam 40 years. During that time span, the environment. An electron gun is used to dispersion effect, since NVEBW equip- process has been employed on upward of produce the beam through electrostatic ment commercially available today is eas- 100 welding systems that have a combined collimation and acceleration of thermal ily able to provide 25 kW of beam power production output numbering in the hun- electrons emitted from an incandescent or more, the power density being deliv- dreds of millions of parts. Some examples filament. Upon exiting the gun area, the ered to the workpiece is still of a high of the variety of parts that have resulted beam, which consists of electrons accel- enough magnitude to allow keyhole-type from this mass production utilization of erated up to an operating voltage level of welds to be readily achieved at "standoff" the NVEBW process are torque convert- about 175 kV, is electromagnetically fo- (i.e., exit orifice-to-workpiece spacing) ers, catalytic converters, steering column cused down through a set of orifices sep- distances ranging up to 30 mm in length jackets, tailored blanks (used for provid- arating a series of increasing pressure- (Fig. 2) (Ref. 2). ing deep-drawn frame segments), plane- level vacuum stages. Therefore, in Although this beam dispersion effect ul- tary gears, timing gears, and die-cast alu- NVEBW, the beam is initially generated timately limits the maximum standoff dis- minum manifolds (Ref. 1). under high-vacuum conditions, but is then tance that can be utilized when applying the Besides two U.S.-originated units in- extracted out of this ideal environment, process, it simultaneously helps reduce the stalled in France some 25 years ago, the and applied to a workpiece located di- degree of part preparation needed for em- first European enterprises that pioneered rectly in atmosphere. This is accomplished ploying the process. This is due to the fact the use of the NVEBW joining method by employing a series of differentially that the beam divergence and resulting for mass production were in Germany -- pumped vacuum stages (all isolated from beam spot size increase at the workpiece. first in 1995, then with more installations each other and atmosphere by a set of ax- This dispersion effect allows gaps, mis- in 1999 and 2001. The current number of ially aligned orifices) that the beam passes matches, and beam-to-joint misalignments German NVEBW installations will soon through in its travel route out into the am- resulting in poor joint fitup values in the increase, since more facilities are adding bient atmosphere. range of 0.5-mm-magnitude to be welded. the process to their production lines. All Upon exiting the NVEBW gun column In addition, although a metal vapor plasma

l WELDING JOURNAL Itl~ll tainable result ultimately dependent on the material being welded, as well as the standoff distance and weld speed being employed. Figures 3 and 4 indicate the type of weld profiles (i.e., weld depth and depth-to-width ratio) achievable from employing the NVEBW process under various conditions. These figures illus- trate the variety of welds (seam, flange, fillet, butt, etc.) that can readily be accomplished with the process. The process is also capable of providing weld speeds from less than 0.5 to greater than 50 m/min, depending on type and thickness of material being welded and standoff distance being employed. It should be noted that the NVEBW process sometimes employs a "helium blowdown" technique. This is a method that generates a stream of helium in such a manner that it blows out into the ambient atmosphere coaxially with the beam's travel path. This directed flow of helium tends to partially shield the beam from the ambient atmosphere, thereby helping reduce the rate at which beam broadening occurs. Utilization of helium blowdown is not a requirement for employing the process, and whether or not to use this technique is evaluated on a case-by-case basis. In addition, although NVEBW can normally be accomplished without the need to utilize some type of adder material, either for acting as a deoxidizing agent or as a filler material (to help accommodate excessively poor joint fitup conditions), the process is quite adaptable to having material continuously fed into the melt zone during welding, should the need to employ such a tactic ever arise. Each NVEBW machine is comprised of three primary systems: Beam Generating System -- This consists of the beam generation gun column assembly, plus the high-voltage power supply, vacuum pumps, control units, etc., Fig. 4 -- Examples of NVEB welds in alu- Fig. 3- Examples of NVEB welds in steel." utilized for operating the assembly. minum: A -- fillet weld, Al-3%Mg, A --fillet weld, 5.7 + 6.7mm, 6.4 m/min, Part Clamping and Motion System -- 2×2.5mm, 7.6 m/min, lO.7 kW," B-- seam 26 kI4~ B -- seam weld, 2.4 + 3.5 mm, 6.4 This depends on the size and shape of weld, Al-3%Mg, 2.4 mm + Al-7%Si- m/min, 15 k W," C--butt joint weld, 25 mm, workpiece to be welded, and can vary from O.15%Mg, 3.5 mm, 10.2 m/min, 3.7 kW," 0.5 m/min, 30 kW. a system providing straight linear trans- C -- butt joint weld, Al-2%Mg-O.8%Mn, 5 fer of parts in and out of the weld area and mm, 7.5m/min, ll.7kW. production of a simple circular weld path during welding, to a system employing results from employing a keyhole method NVEBW process can also be used to join complex part-transfer means and provid- of welding, this plasma neither interferes any conventionally weldable metal without ing three-dimensional weld path motion. with nor detracts from the NVEBW fear of a negative influence from the mate- In general, since the beam generator col- process's ability to produce a satisfactory rial's surface texture condition and/or re- umn can weigh on the order of 400 kg, weld. Thus, as a consequence of this plasma flectivity value, nor as a result of the degree welding motion is normally accomplished being "transparent" to an electron beam, it of beam impact angle being employed. through movement of the part only. How- need not be disposed of (i.e., forcefully The weld depth achievable in a single ever, various applications have employed blown out of the beam's path) as is required pass with the NVEBW process spans the an integrated motion of both column and in the case of laser beam welding. The range from 0.5 to 25 mm -- with the at- part to perform the weld task required. m,cEm FEBRUARY 2004 ] c

Fig. 5 -- Nonvacuum electron beam-welded aluminum struc- Fig. 6 -- Macro section of the NVEB weld (12 m/min, 19.3 kW) at the tural beam for a car's instrument panel here completed by flange of 2 × 2.5 mm Al-3%Mg deep-drawn shells. GMA - welded attachments.

Fig. 7-- Project scheme and photograph of the round table NVEBW machine for structural beam production (1995).

X-Ray Protection System-- This also deformed from 1.5-mm-thick steel sheets), • Welding is possible without need for pends on size of the workpiece being then a 40% reduction in this part's weight degreasing or pickling the aluminum half processed, as well as on the complexity of could be achieved, resulting in an almost shells. the part transfer and weld path mechanisms 3-kg weight saving per car -- Fig. 5. Con- • Edge welding of the beam's two being utilized. Thus X-ray protection sys- sequently, an investigation was conducted flanged joints (Fig. 6) can be accom- tems can vary in size from very small (desk into how these aluminum half shells could plished without need for using filler wire size) to very large (room size) structures, reliably and repeatedly be joined in pro- -- even when root openings up to 0.5 mm, as outlined in Ref. 14. In all cases, however, duction. After an extensive evaluation of mismatches up to 1 mm, and lead/lag an- the design of these safety structures is such all the various joining methods available, gles on the order of 30 degrees are that no hazard exists to workers engaged in which involved comparing the adaptabil- involved. operating the units, nor to any other work- ity of each of these methods to the joint • Welding can be performed using air ers in the immediate vicinity of these units. geometry and fitup tolerances associated only, but is presently being done in pro- with the formed parts to be welded (in ad- duction utilizing a helium blowdown, Present Use of NVEBW for dition to examining the stiffness and fin- thereby allowing a greater work distance Large-Scale Production of ished weld properties of the finally welded to be employed, which results in a broader Aluminum Structural Beams components, maximum weld speeds melt zone being produced as well as in achievable, etc., resulting from each join- helping increase the operating lifetimes Some years back, the Audi/VW group ing method), it was determined that non- of both filament and orifices. determined that if an aluminum instru- vacuum EB welding was the best process • "Burn away" of the 3% Mg content ment panel beam (produced by using two for manufacturing these parts (Refs. 5, 6). of the base material could be reduced (a formed and welded half shells manufac- Based on the results of tests done on remaining value of 2.6% in the fusion zone tured from 2.5-mm-thick AI-3%Mg ma- the NVEBW sample welds, the following is presently attainable) by utilizing an en- terial) were used as a direct replacement conclusions were reached regarding the ergy input of only 900 J/cm, thus alleviat- for the steel one that was then being uti- process (all of which have now been reaf- ing the risk that cracking would occur. lized (which was produced by gas metal firmed by several years of daily use in pro- • Weld speeds on the order of 18 arc [GMA] welding together two sections duction): m/min could be achieved when doing

I WELDINGJOURNAL ~#'! / / /// J

I ¥

Fig. 8- Project scheme and photograph of the finear-axes NVEBW machine for structural beam production (1999).

For welding the 3-D joint contours involved, the workpiece and EB gun column are simultaneously

• ~.P..~ moved under computerized numerical control (CNC). No motion of beam inclina- tion angle, however, is required to accommodate the up to 60 degree "slopes" contained in the beam's travel path, and only z-axis adjust- ment of the EB gun column assembly is required to address these vertical variations. Up to seven seconds are needed to accomplish a Fig. 9 -- Nonvacuum electron beam welding of die-cast alu- single joint weld, and each minum manifolds: 6 mm welding depth, 10 m/min, 21.7 kW part contains two joints to be (1978). welded. Including all "idle times" associated with part- transfer functions (i.e., turn- 1 ing parts, moving joint to joint, alternating tables, straight-line weld samples, but speeds tions, each of which contained an x-y table opening and closing the X-ray housing, more on the order of 12 m/min are used -- Fig. 7. access ports, etc.), two fully welded parts for doing the three-dimensional parts 2) Two parallel linear y-axes, each car- can be produced every 65 seconds, result- being welded in production. rying a table -- Fig. 8. ing in a production rate capability of ap- • Fatigue test comparisons showed the In both cases, installed on the tables proximately 110 parts per hour (PPH). NVEBW continuous welds in aluminum (for parts holding) are automated hy- Based on the success (both in quantity and to have a better performance than the pre- draulic clamping units suitable for load- quality of parts produced) experienced by vious GMA intermittent welds in steel. ing and unloading via manual or robotic the production installations that have In order to meet mass production re- means. Also, in each case, the EB gun col- been operating for some years now, addi- quirements (i.e., producing upward of umn assembly is gantry-mounted (verti- tional similar facilities are being started 2000 parts per day, with every part need- cally orientated, above the tables). In the up in Europe. ing two 1359-mm-long welds) the various first scheme, the EB gun is equipped with It should be noted that, although the manufacturers utilizing this process in z-axis motion capability only, while in the NVEBW systems delivered for this pro- production investigated numerous meth- second scheme it is equipped with both duction joining task were specifically de- ods for cyclically producing these parts x- and z-axis motion capability. The spe- signed and built to be capable of operat- and ultimately chose the following two cific X-ray protective housing concept ing in a continuous fashion under fairly schemes: used depended on which tooling scheme stringent high-volume production condi- 1) An indexing table with two worksta- was being employed. tions, end users of the equipment were

Bob'! FEBRUARY 2004 obliged to recognize that it was still necessary to incorporate a mandatory preventive maintenance schedule (similar to that conventionally employed with other high-tech equipment being operated at their facility) in order to ensure the units were able to achieve this goal. Use of NVEBW for Welding Die-Cast Aluminum Manifolds

Confirmation of NVEBW's ability to be employed for high-production joining applications even under the most stringent of industrial conditions dates back to the 1970s, when the process was used in the United States for welding engine inlet manifolds fabricated from die-cast aluminum Alloy 380 -- Fig. 9. Its successful employment for welding both the four- and six-port version of this type of manifold, coupled with a demonstrated capac- Fig. 10 -- Nonvaccum electron beam welds in butt joints on different alloys, prepared with ity to successfully weld different styles and sheared edges, using suitable filler wires. A--Al-5%Mg-Mn (1 mm) + wire AI-4.5Mg-Mn, materials of automotive components since 30 m/min welding speed; B- Al-O.4%Mg-l.2%Si (1 mm) + wire Al-4.5%Mg-Mn, 30 its original introduction to U.S. industry m/min welding speed; C--Al-O.4%Mg-l.2%Si (1 mm) + wire Al-12%Si, 60 m/min weld- during the 1960s, have helped solidify the ing speed; D -- AI-Mg-O. 7%Si (4 mm) + wire Al-5%Si, 10 m/min welding speed• process's reputation as a totally viable production tool. To weld these manifolds, two half shells are positioned (one seated atop the other to form a vertical edge-weld style joint around the entire periphery of the part as -o shown in Fig. 9) in a clamping fixture at the operator's station, located outside the lead room housing the weld area. The transfer pallet on which this clamping fixture is mounted is then transferred inside to the weld area by means of a power-and- free conveyor. Upon reaching the weld area, a pick-and-place device grasps this clamping fixture and moves it off the transfer pallet and onto a CNC x-y table Fig. 11 -- Nonvacuum electron beam welds on Al-O. 4%Mg-1.2%Si transition zone to base assembly. This x-y table assembly then metal, different magnifications. traverses the part in a two-dimensional (x-y contour style) fashion to accurately trace the complex peripheral joint to be design as shown in Fig. 9) to produce a riety of joint configurations (butt, lap, welded underneath a fixed, vertical EB satisfactory weld even when root openings edge, etc.), and welding at very high gun column assembly. Thus, this x-y table greater than 0.5 mm in width occur as a speeds (> 50 m/min). The conclusion was automatically traverses the entire joint result of the two cast half shell parts not that no other approach to aluminum weld- path to be welded underneath the beam, fitting together well. ing could be envisioned that would involve a total length of some 2.5 m on the fairly such little trouble and yet yield such ex- large six-port manifolds. Utilizing approx- Potential Future Employment: cellent results with regard to quality, in- imately 22 kW of beam power and an av- Welding Other Aluminum Alloys tegrity, and strength of weld (Ref. 9). erage weld speed of about 8 m/min (weld Results indicated that welds can be speed is programmed to automatically Various institutes have investigated the produced that are free of pores and cracks, slow down during short-radius path seg- feasibility of employing NVEBW for a with a grain structure (in both the weld ments, and speed up during the more range of other of aluminum alloys, as well zone and heat-affected zone) that is fine straight-line path segments, and thus as the mechanical properties of weld sam- and shows smooth transitions. In addition, varies from 5 to 11 m/min), a part ples produced in this fashion. The spec- the welds demonstrate mechanical prop- throughput of some 200 PPH per system trum of tests encompassed welding both erty values close to that of the base mate- is easily achievable. Because of NVEBW's with and without filler metal (as means rial while simultaneously exhibiting good inherent beam characteristics, the process for influencing metallurgy and/or filling deep-draw characteristics. While not pro- can readily melt enough of the sacrificial root openings), joining both thin sheet and viding a complete picture of all results joint-forming edge material provided (by heavy section components, utilizing a va- achieved, the self-explanatory examples

WELDING JOURNAL D¢]rm As a result of References these investiga- 30 tions, the alu- 1. Powers, D. E., et al. 1980. Progress of minum alloy join- nonvacuum electron beam welding. DI/S- ing abilities of the Berichte 63:70-77. 250 2.5~_ NVEBW process 2. Gajdusek, E. 1980. Advances in nonvacuum electron beam technology. Welding Jour- m have been so con- nal 59(7): 17-21. 20 § vincingly demon- 3. Powers, D. E. 1994. Schweissen mit dem i strated that more elektronenstrahl an atmosphaere. DerPraktiker | is0 15 and more manufac- 46(10): 526-528. n ~i turers involved 4. Powers, D. E., and LaFlamme, G. R. 10 "~ with materials of 1992. How high-energy-density beam welding this nature have manufactures transmission components. Weld- 5 begun to direct ing Journal 71 (6): 47-52. 50 5. Schulze, K. R. 1997. Nonvacuum electron their attention to beam welding for automotive suppliers. Pro- 0 the process -- fully ceedings HW/Comm. Xll Seminar, Wels. GW: AIMgSMnmit GW: ACt 20 rnit ACI~ ~t recognizing that, in 163-171. AIMgSMn AIMg4,fMn AC120 AIMg4,~Mn AlSi12 order for the 6. Gomes-Buco, J., et al. 1997. Nonvacuum- process to be eco- elektronenstrahlschweissen yon aluminium- Fig. 12 -- Tensile strength (Festigkeit) and elongation (Dehnung) nomically competi- traegern in der grossserie des automobilbaus. of different aluminum alloys in base material (GW) and NVEB tive to other means DVS-Berichte 186:59-62. welds. for joining such 7. Hinrichs, J. E, et al. 1974. Production parts, the following electron beam welding of automotive frame must be realized: components. WeldingJournal 53(8): 488--493. 8. LaFlamme, G. R., and Schubert, G. 1996. provided in Figs. 10-12 (Refs. 10-13) give • The number of similar parts to be Welding of tailored blanks in atmosphere with some insight into what results are possi- welded must be of a sufficient quantity to the electron beam. Proceedings IBEC, Detroit ble, including the potential for being able ensure that the NVEBW machine is uti- 11-120. to employ processing speeds greater than lized to the fullest. 9. Hauser, E, Keitel, S., and Marquardt, E. 60 m/min, as well as to readily weld mag- • Welding to be done must be of suf- 1997. Vergleich der verfahren laser- nesium alloys in a excellent fashion. ficient length to ensure that the time strahlschweissen, elektronenstrahlschweissen needed for welding greatly exceeds the an atmosphaere und plasmaschweissen beim cumulative idle time resulting from oper- fuegen von aluminumlegierungen. DVS- Summary and Outlook Berichte 186: 179-181. ating in a cyclic production fashion. (How- 10. Draugelates, D., Bouaifi, B., and ever, it should be noted that one German The NVEBW process, since first being Ouaissa, B. 2000. Hochgeschwindigkeits- manufacturer now employing NVEBW Elektronenstrahlschweissen von aluminium- introduced to industry some 40 years ago, for producing large aluminum parts states legierrungen unter atmosphaerendruck. has been utilized to weld a wide variety of that, even though weld times do not Schweissen & Schneiden 52(6): 333-339. high-volume production components for greatly exceed idle times in their present 11. Draugelates, D., Bouaifi, B., Ouaissa, the automotive industry, and, as such, has operation, the quality and repeatability of B., and Schulze, K.-R. 2001. Elektronen- clearly demonstrated its inherent ability strahlschweissen an der atmosphaere -- Ver- to readily adapt to the broad range of the welds produced are so much better fahrenspotential und industrielle anwendung. workpiece conditions and operating envi- than what was attainable from other pro- DVS-Berichte 216:13-20. ronments that the industry has come to duction joining methods investigated that 12. Bach, E-W., Versemann, R., Niemeyer, recognize as "common practice," and they are now looking into using the M., Szelagowski, A., and Zelt, M. 2001. Non- which they generally assume all equip- process on even smaller parts m regard- vacuum-elektronenstrahlschweissen an AI- und Mg- feinblechen. Proceedings 5, Konferenz ment being supplied will conform to. less of the fact that this would make weld and idle times even closer in value.) Strahltechnik, Halle 46-53. Consequently, recent investigations 13. Schubert, G., and Joaquin, A. 2001. Thus the NVEBW process's demon- into employing the process have been Electron beam process delivers consistent aimed at widening the field of NVEBW strated potential for increasing productiv- welds. WeldingJournal 80(6): 53-57. applications both inside the automotive ity while also helping lower operating 14. Schulze, K.-R. 2001. Nonvacuum-elek- sector (based on its plans to utilize "plat- costs and raising weld quality consistency tronenstrahlschweissen in der industrie: mit form" concepts to extend production vol- has now gained the attention of those pro- vielfalt der anlagenkonzepte zu hoher umes) and outside of it (by tapping into ducing components in the following in- wirtschaftlichkeit. Proceedings 5, Konferenz the ship, rail, and other industries). The dustrial areas: Strahltechnik, Halle 60-66. intent of this application-broadening in- • Structural-style automotive parts vestigation was not to compete with the manufacturing. well established and quite different form • Aluminum tailored-blank production. Change of Address? of welding, "deep penetration welding," • Railroad car panel manufacturing. Moving? being performed in vacuum by the high- m Component manufacturing for ship vacuum electron beam welding construction. Make sure delivery of your Welding (HVEBW) process, but rather to present • Component manufacturing for aircraft Journal is not interrupted. Contact the the nonvacuum EBW method as an "al- production. Membership Department with your ternative form" of beam technology that • Container and tank production. new address information -- (800) 443- all industries should at least consider. • Special tube manufacturing. • 9353, ext. 480; [email protected]. mct:m FEBRUARY 2004 I \

Id you. . , allow weldnn J

without " \ \ \ \ ~ / /

mu m nlk, rnunu'mw~ ~ ~ .~ ~-. ~ , , I _-, ,, I

Then don't let your staff work -~-,>'k>\ , ~,'",, '-,,,,!,i,,:~.'Z~j~.'~ ~,~ "~ ~,== without the NEWEST O~.l Steel Code~ ~k~;y. ;,~~~

If you don't have this, you don't have the latest .... ~ ,: . -- welding requirements for quality fabrication, The industry reference since 1928, the 2004 edition covers: • Design of Welded Connections • Pre-qualification of Welding Procedure Specifications • Qualification for Procedures and Personnel • Fabrication • Inspection • Stud Welding • Strengthening and Repair of Existing Structures NEW for 2004 • Clarifies when an engineer~ approval is needed • Details newest allowable stress range formulae • Latest restrictions on pre-qualified FCAW and GMAW power sources • Most current tolerances for PJP and CJP groove welds • Adjusts welder qualification essential variables • Adjusts pre-qualification figure details • Latest revision of the pre-qualified base metal list

Order today. Call us at 800.854.7179 or visit global.ihs.com to get your copy. ANSI approved, Department of Defense adopted, NASA NON- preferred, U.S. customary and metric units of measurement. MEMBER :v

D1.1/D1.1 M:2004 (Web OrderCode: DI.1/D1.M) $344 $258

D 1.1/D 1.1 M:2 004 CD (WebOrder Code:D1.ltO1.1M CD) $375 S28~ Full D1.1 -2004 text, as well as graphics and tables now on a CD-ROM. Find specific provisions fast with five American Welding Society convenient search methods. <•~1 9 to Advance t'~he Science"~'m Technology and Application of Welding. D 1. I/D 1.1 M COMBO (WebOrder Code: DI.1/DI.IM Combo) $616 ~ 4 ,'~2 Buy the hardcopy D1.1 and companion CD ROM and SAVE. To become an AWS member, call 800.854.7179 or visit our website at http://www, aws.org 5ales, fulfillment and customerservice managedby GlobalEnginering Documents Circle No. 16 on Reader Info-Card Friction Welding of Aluminum Cuts Energy Costs by 99% Mazda develops alternative to resistance spot welding BY ROSS HANCOCK

Engineers of Mazda Motor Corp. have introduced a new welding technology in the production of the RX-8 sports car. The aluminum rear doors and hood of the car are joined using spot friction welding

Close-up photo of a completed friction spot weld in an RX-8 aluminum rear door.

metal and forming a welded joint in the aluminum panels. Because they conduct electricity and heat better than steel, aluminum panels are somewhat difficult to spot weld with arc or resistance welding processes. Mazda says it has reduced electricity where resistance welding would usually consumption by 99% using the method, be performed. which, unlike resistance spot welding, For joining these panels, Mazda uses does not need coolant, compressed air, welding robots controlling a friction weld- or large electric current. Furthermore, ing gun. The gun grips the parts from both the equipment involves 40% less capital sides and plunges a spinning pin, which investment compared to resistance weld- creates frictional heat, softening the ing apparatus for aluminum.

Body panels are pinched together while a spinning pin is plunged into the workpieces.

The new process does not require pre- cleaning of the workpieces, and does not generate fumes or spatter. The Mazda RX-8 incorporates aluminum body parts to increase its fuel economy and performance. The company says it can adapt friction welding to other large body parts in the future.

ROSS HANCOCK ([email protected]) is A robot controls the friction spot welds in an aluminum door. Associate Editor of the Welding Journal.

EI=i FEBRUARY 2004 I I American Welding Society the Science, Technology and Application of Welding AWS Certification is the welding industry's most respected sign of

FEBRUARY 2004 SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATES Seminar and Exam Schedule Denver, CO ...... 2/1-6 ...... 2/7/2004 Seattle, WA ...... 2/t-6 ...... 2/7/2004 Course Schedule Ontario, CA...... 2/1-6 ...... 21712004 DI.1 Code Clinie...... Sunday; 1 p.m.- 5 p.m. Birmingham, AL ...... 2/8-13 ...... 2/14/2004 Louisville, KY...... 2/8-t3 ...... 2/14/2004 Monday; 8 a.m.- Noon Miami, FL ...... Exam Only ...... 2/19/2004 API 1104 Code Clinic ...... Monday; 1 p.m,- 5 p.m. Columbus, OH ...... 2/t6-20 at NBBPVI ...... 2/21/2004 Welding hspeetion Teehnolo~ ...... Tuesday-Thursday; 8 a.m.- 5 p.m. Norfolk, VA...... 2122-27 ...... 2/2812004 Chicago, IL ...... 2/22-27 ...... 2/28/2004 Visual hspeetion Workshop ...... Friday; 8 a.m.- 5 p.m. Corpus Christi, TX ...... Exam Only ...... 2/28/2004 Exam ...... Saturday; report for exam at 7:30 a.m. indianapolis, IN ...... 2/29-3/5 ...... 3/6/2004 Hartford, CT ...... 2/29-3/5 ...... 3/6/2004 Circle No. 5 on Reader Info-Card

MARCH 2004 SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATES Rochester, NY ...... Exam Only ...... 31612004 Las Vegas, NV ...... 3/7-12 ...... 3/13/2004 To register or for more information on an exam prep Perrysburg, OH ...... Exam Only ...... 3/13/2004 course, call (800) 443-9353. ext. 229; to request an Miami, FL ...... Exam Only ...... 3/18/2004 Mobile, AL ...... Exam Only ...... 3/20/2004 application for CWI exam qualification, call ext 273. Houston, TX ...... 3/14-19 ...... 3/20/2004 New Orleans, LA ...... 2/14-19 ...... 312012004 To find out about AWS Customized In-House Training Sen Francisco, CA ...... 2/21-26 ...... 312712004 Anchorage, AK ...... 3/2t-26 ...... 3/27/2004 and Quality Assurance Programs for yHr company, call AWS, toil-free at 1-800-443-9353, ext. 482, or APRIL 2004 SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATES Miami, FL ...... Exam Only ...... 411812004 check the box on the registration form. Portland, ME ...... 4/18-23 ...... 412412004 Roanoke, VA ...... 4/18-23 ...... 412412004 Visit our website www.aws.org for additional dates. Corpus Christi, TX ...... Exam Only ...... 51112004 Detroit, MI ...... 4/25-30 ...... 51112004 Bakersfield, CA ...... 4125-30 ...... 51112004 Ag;'Sreserses the fight to cancel or change the published date of an exam preparation sere nat lis ed f an nsutfic en number of regis rations are rece ;ed Prices are subject to change v,ithout notice. 4LUMINUI~ Q•A ] BY TONY ANDERSON

Q: I am having problems passing the guided bend tests for my procedure qualification tests. I am working to AWS DI.2

Structural Welding Code -- Aluminum. My base material is 6061-T6 and my filler metal is ER4043. I am using the plunger- type guided bend jig. I am passing the reduced section tension tests on the same test specimen, and there would appear to be no relevant discontinuities in the weld and, therefore, no apparent reason for the bend tests to fail.

A: The guided bend test has been around for many years and is a common method of testing the integrity of welds made in many different material types. Where properly used, it can be very revealing; however, when testing aluminum, the testing methods used must be thoroughly understood in order for the test results to be meaningful. The guided bend test is a relatively Fig. 1 -- Guided bend test samples. Top sample shows a side bend section prior to full prepa- quick and, usually, a comparatively eco- ration and bending. Lower sample shows a completed side bend specimen. nomical method of establishing the soundness of a groove weld. This test is designed to help determine whether the weldment tested contains discontinuities such as cracks, incomplete fusion, incom- sharply in the heat- plete joint penetration, or severe porosi- affected zones and T ty. Various types of bend tests are used to kinks and breaks evaluate welds. Guided bend specimens without adequately may be longitudinal or transverse to the bending the weld 3/4 in. MIN weld axis and may be of the root bend, metal, resulting in a (19 ram) test failure. In order T + 1/16 i \-,~\. face bend, or side bend type. The type of (1.5 mm) ~,~ bend test (root, face, or side) is deter- to avoid such mean- mined by which surface of the weld sam- ingless test failures, ple (root, face, or side) is on the convex the wraparound bend ~ (outer) side of the bent specimen and, test fixture should consequently, subjected to tension load always be used for '---ROLLER during the testing operation. Probably the testing aluminum. 1 most common combination of bend tests This testing method used for welder performance and welding forces the test speci- procedure test samples are two transverse men to bend progres- root bend tests and two transverse face sively around a pin or bend tests per test plate. mandrel so that all portions of the weld T = SPECIMENTHICKNESS Bend Testing Aluminum Is Different than zone achieve the Bend Testing Steel same radius of curva- WRAPAROUND BEND TEST JIG ture and, therefore, Most guided bend testing of steel is the same strain level. conducted with the use of a die and There are a num- Fig. 2 -- The mechanism for the wraparound bend test fixture, the plunger arrangement often referred to as ber of other pitfalls to preferred method of bend testing aluminum weldments. The ')t" the plunger-type guided bend test. The avoid when bend-test- dimension shown on the drawing will vary depending on plate plunger-type guided bend test is not rec- ing aluminum. We thickness and base metal~filler metal being tested. ommended for testing aluminum. The should be concerned heat-affected zones of welds in aluminum about bend test sam- alloys, and particularly in the heat-treat- ple preparation prior able aluminum alloys, are significantly to bending. A common mistake is to leave results, samples should have a smooth sur- softer and weaker than the surrounding the corners of the sample square. Most face, free of sharp notches that may pro- material. If these welds are bent around a codes allow up to a tA-in. (3-mm) radius on vide stress concentration during the bend- plunger, the bend sample usually bends the corners of the test specimens. For best ing operation.

EP.I FEBRUARY 2004 I Specimen Mandrel

Directionof ~"~ g Rotatio~~ler ~ j

Fig. 3 -- A -- Wraparound testing machine with an aluminum test sample loaded and ready to be tested; B -- basic design of a wraparound testing jig.

Special Bending Conditionsfor • There is an optimum method of bend TONYANDERSON is Technical Director of Aluminum Alloys testing aluminum (the wraparound AlcoTec Wire Corp., Traverse City, Mich. He is bend test). We should be aware that most codes, Chairman of the Aluminum Association • There are major differences between Technical Advisory Committee on Welding and and certainly AWS D1.2, stipulate special the testing procedures used, which are Joining; Chairman of the AWS Committee for bending conditions for various base and often dependent on base material and DIO. 7 Gas Shielded Arc Welding of Aluminum filler metals. Test samples of base metals filler metal types being tested. lhpe; Chairman of the A WS B8.14 Committee for within the 6xxx series (M23) or other Automotive and Light Truck Components -- base metals welded with the 4xxx series If test samples are prepared correctly Aluminum; Chairman of the A WS D3. 7 Guide for (F23) filler metals are required to be and test procedures specific to the mate- Aluminum Hull Welding; and Vice Chairman of tested under either of two special bend- rial and filler metal being tested are used, the A WS Committee for D1.2 Structural Welding Code--Aluminum. Questions may be sent to Mr. ing conditions: as-welded or annealed. If we can go a long way toward assuring that testing is to be conducted in the as-weld- Anderson c/o Welding Journal, 550 NW LeJeune we have no questionable test results. • Rd., MiamL FL 33126; e-mail ed condition, the test specimen is [email protected]. required to be reduced from the standard 3/,-in. (10-mm) thickness to '/, in. (3 mm) prior to bending, and then bent over a diameter of 16~ T. If annealed prior to testing, the standard Y,-in. (10-mm) spec- GUARANTEED FOR LIFE! imen is required to be bent over a 6~-T | diameter. The specified annealing practice con- You Won't Find A Better Weld ,oNG,EcKs | tained in AWS D1.2 is to heat the bend M specimens to 775 ° F (410 ° C), hold them Cleaning Toof...Anywhere! ..... at this temperature for 2-3 hours, then Rigorous impact testing proves Atlas ~ - control-cool at 50°F/h (28°C/h) down to hammers outlast imports 10 to 1. If you buy SUPERTOMAHAWKS 500°F (260°C). The rate of cooling below any inferior hammer on price, you'll end up 500°F (260°C) is unimportant. Welds made with the 2219 base mate- with heads on the floor, replacement costs and =nmzb, rial (M24) are required to be annealed possible injury, gU_A L-T=OO_LS and bent over an 8-T diameter. Welds L.~,,~vvi i i I i v, .---'y made with 7005 base material (M27) are Atlas guaranteesthat our exclusivehead-to-handle A MARKERS required to be bend-tested within two connection will not come apart, and that .~-~- ~ERS 1 weeks of welding. This requirement for heads will not crack, chip or break, or we ~'~~ 7005 materials is based on the ability of replace your hammer FREEof charge. this alloy to gain substantial tensile SCALEMASTERS~" strength over time, and, consequently, • Atlas hammers meet Federal and ANSI specs for suffer a reduction in ductility through natural aging. performance and safety. • Heads are induction It is obvious that there are many o heat treated for hardness. • And millcertified, c_,,,,,~l .... requirements that need to be considered "~ SBQforging grade steel assures ...... if we expect to obtain the desired results ,,-~,-® toughness and long life. ~ SAFETYTOMAHAWKS ~ from our guided bend testing procedures. It is most important to understand the 0 following: ~. Since 1939 6 • The preparation of test samples prior z That's why you can't beat MADE IN THE USA quality to bend testing is very important. .o at a fair price... GUARANTEED! ATLAS WELDING ACCESSORIES, INC. Troy, MI 48099 800-962-9353 • www.atlasweld.com • [email protected] WELDING JOURNAL N~.lcl BRAZIN( (~A ] BY R. L. PEASLEE

Q: We vacuum furnace braze dental is caused by the brazing filler metal dis- As a general rule, the more base metal equipment with BNi-5 and are unable to solving more of the base metal, resulting that dissolves into the filler metal, the obtain the smooth fillets that the cus- in the liquid filler metal at the brazing wider the melting range of the filler metal. tomer requires. Our fillets are rough and temperature having a wider melting Thus, more porosity is present. porous. How can we obtain smooth fillets? range. For best results, the brazing tem- 9) Cooling rate vs. porosity. Slow cool- perature should be as low as practical. ing allows dendrites to form first, and on A: The question about surface quality of 4) Time at heat vs. porosity. The longer further cooling, the remaining liquid por- fillets is one that comes up frequently. the time at heat the more base metal is tion pulls back into the joint exposing the The solution requires the understanding dissolved into the filler metal resulting in rough, porous fillet. of many variables, one or more of which more porosity. 10) Eutectic filler metals vs. porosity. can cause the rough porous fillet. 5) Location of the filler metal vs. poros- Eutectic filler metals are better, and have 1) Rough porous fillets have caused ity. Apply the filler metal on the opposite less porosity, assuming that one or more considerable confusion when penetrant side of the joint from where the smooth of the above variables do not enter into inspecting. Many times, porosity is taken fillet is desired, preferably on the inside the brazing cycle. for cracks, as the bleeding fluid from the or lower part of the joint. 11) An element that has a single melt- pores comes together to form a line. For 6)Atmosphere vs. porosity. BNi-5 is one ing point will dissolve other elements from this reason, AWS C3.6 Specification for of the filler metals more sensitive to at- the base metal during brazing, and can re- Furnace Brazing includes the following; mosphere quality. Vacuum pressure is sult in fillet porosity and roughness, de- "These inspection techniques are not suit- only one of many things that makes up at- pending on the variables listed above. able for inspection of brazed fillets be- mosphere quality. Therefore, a very good To produce fillets with little or no poros- cause they routinely give false results." atmosphere quality is required to mini- ity will require exercising very careful con- 2) Fillet size vs. porosity. In general, the mize porosity. The application of the T- trol of the variables mentioned above.. larger the fillet size the more porosity and specimen in the furnace is a good indica- roughness occurs. For this reason, the tor of atmosphere quality R. L. PEASLEE is Vice President, Wall smaller the fillet, the less porosity and 7) Filler metal solidus-to-liquidus range Colmonoy Corp., Madison Heights, Mich. roughness will form. vs. porosity. In general, the wider the melt- Reader may send questions to Mr. Peaslee c/o 3) Brazing temperature vs. porosity. ing range, the more porosity can be ex- Welding Journal, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, Generally, higher brazing temperatures pected. FL 33126 or via e-mail to yield more porosity and roughness. This 8) Solubility of base metal vs. porosity. [email protected].

f TRIANGLE BEVEL-MILL® PLATE BEVELERS ENGINEERING, INC. *Super capacity *Fast-clean bevels up to 1 3116" Services for the Welding Industry *Variable angle *Made in U.S.A. quality • Weld engineering and consulting - WPS, PQR • Welder training and qualification coupons • Destructive test equipment • Full testing services

(

Member

Several models available FREE CATALOG Call 1-800-886-5418 Fax 1-810-632-6640 P.O. Box 1205, 6 Industrial Way www.heckind.net West Hanover, MA 02339 (781)878-1500 • (617)471-1762 • Fax(781)878-2547 ~. P.O. Box 425 www.trieng.com Hartland, Michigan 48353

Circle No. 36 on Reader Info-Card Circle No. 25 on Reader Info-Card m~m FEBRUARY 2004 I ,\

Professional welders are-:-Jn~~;i~~ ~i~in the ;:~ world's largest profess=~~~~, ~:;~~-,~* ,.r~ ~'i~ ;~;=ompetiti...... ~!:!~i~ .... ,

"; i" Contes ,t~antsmust cre~a multiPas~ h, ,ri~jt©ntal f~Uetweld - ~*~ ' using shillded metal a~ welding on IoW-c ~rpo steel• which will • ~nd quaiity, / be e~luatedl,\l~ ~ /"~:~b~l~ed on speed•ThePlace~We/d~\l\!¢ gtl

0AW~/elding Show 2004, McCormick P ace,

\ ~ ,i : The Date \ The first-place winner will receive a 500 prize and \ . ~ ~ ~1 custom-painted welding h@lmet. ~econd- andEachoftheto~t~welders~/illr~ei~e~r~AW~,~uffelbag. third- placSwlnners each ~vlll ~¢el~ $ 1.000 lind $500 respectively. All participants Will receive an official AW~ Professional Welders Competition, T-Shirt.

To be eligible contestants must be over the age ~-lg, and ptofei~'ionalwelders w~th SMAW experience. All contestants pay a $10 entrance fee. Enrollment is limited. Participants are encouraged to preregi~ter online ~It www.weidingcontest.com beginning December 1, 2003. 0nsite registration will begin at 10 AM on Tuesday April 6, and continue through Wednesday morning, April 7. Competitive welding will begin at 12:30 PM on Tuesday afternoon, April 6, and continue through 4:30 PM, Wednesday April 7.

Circle No. 9 on Reader Info-Card

JOIN US AT THE AWS WELDING SHOW 2004 m ~ AmericanWelding Sociely THE PREMIERE TRADE SHOW FOR THE WELDING INDUSTRY. 550 NW LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126 APRIL 6-APRIL 8, 2004 McCORMICK PLACE, www.aws.org CHICAGO, IL WWW.AWS.ORG $OLDERIN( TOPICS ] BY A. E. GICKLER AND F. H. LEPREVOST,JR. Tips for Soldering Aluminum

Aluminum soldering can be simple but has a number of critical areas that need tight process control. Tenacious aluminum oxide makes most attempts to solder using conventional means difficult. In addition, care must be taken regarding alloy choice due to potential galvanic corrosion consequences because of aluminum's dissimilarity with many conventional solders. The varieties of aluminum alloys, gauges, and tempers often display widely varying soldering results, and how aluminum accepts or rejects heat during soldering must be carefully studied for each individual job. Soldering can be done with either soft solders (Sn-based, lower temperature) or hard solders (Zn-based, higher temperature) and with appropriate fluxes to fit Close-up confirms total wetting. Appearance processing temperature ranges. By defini- changes where reaction occurs between the tion, soldering is a low-temperature join- flux and surface oxidation, yet residues are ing process. Therefore, less distortion of considered noncorrosive. Joints of this type the aluminum component is expected by are generally stronger than the base material. soldering than by brazing, welding, or other fusion joining processes. Soldering temperatures of 225 to 490°C are well below the 661°C aluminum melting tem- aluminum oxide layer and allowing sub- perature, although 490°C is above the Coupons of Alloy 6111, 2 × 4 × 0.036 in. surface wetting of the aluminum. No flux annealing point. Stresses in the aluminum with 2-in. overlap. The top coupon has a is used. Tin/zinc soft solders are typically from shearing, drawing, and heat treating 0.125-in. hole centered in the overlap area used with the first two fluxes since their are changed by the localized heating to facilitate introduction of Zn/15Al hard melting point is under 330°C and the zinc encountered during soldering, and distor- solder wire. Solder flows to every edge pro- portion helps in preventing galvanic cor- tion may result. Preheating, noncontinu- viding complete wetting of the joint. rosion. Zinc-based hard solders use fluxes ous joints, and careful selection of joint that offer higher melting temperatures to geometry becomes critical. activate. The residues of some soft sol- Various aluminum alloys have differ- dering fluxes may be still active after sol- ent solderability: lxxx, 2xxx, 3xxx, 4xxx, aluminum, the heat source must be tai- dering and must be removed. Solders and 7xxx are easier to solder than the 6xxx lored to the job. used for aluminum generally contain zinc series alloys. Due to their magnesium with some lead, cadmium, tin, copper, or content, 5xxx series alloys are the most Use of Flux aluminum. However, any solder that con- difficult to solder. tains tin may cause an electrochemical Methods or processes in aluminum The rapid formation of an aluminum corrosion problem due to its galvanic soldering involve mechanical rubbing of oxide layer and the difficulty in removing potential. With the anticipated worldwide aluminum with solder, ultrasonic bath that oxide layer so the solder can wet the ban on lead in solder, most industries soldering, thermal spray (these three do aluminum are the reasons for the use of have already or are switching to lead-free not use fluxes), heating the assembly by flux. In "normal" soldering of copper, solders. This removes some of the more induction, flame, infrared, hot plate, fur- removal of the copper oxide is relatively ductile and/or higher-temperature soft nace, soldering iron, laser, and arc lamp easy with mild organic and inorganic flux- solders available. Cadmium-bearing sol- (all of which usually involve the use of es. Aluminum oxide is not so easily ders have been effectively banned due to fluxes). Soldering aluminum requires an removed and may require stronger fluxes worker health issues. adequate volume of heat on the compo- such as an organic amine-based flux (up nent, not the solder. Because of the high to 285°C), inorganic fluxes (chloride or Additives thermal conductivity and reflectivity of fluoride up to 400°C), and complex fluo- roaluminate salts (above 550°C). The use Lead-free and cadmium-free alloys of mechanical rubbing, ultrasonics, or that are commonly used to solder alu- A. E. GICKLER and E H. LEPREVOST, thermal spray depends upon using the minum include 91Sn9Zn, 70Sn30Zn, and JR., are with Johnson Manufacturing Com- molten zinc to abrade or blast away the 98Zn2A1. Other alloys in the Zn/A1 fami- pany, Princeton, Iowa.

I~.[,11 FEBRUARY 2004 [ any joining process approaching these temperatures for more than a brief inter- val may begin to alter the properties of the base metals being joined. Overheating may result in stress relieving, sagging or warping panels, altering hardness, temper, surface condition, re-alloying of the base metal in the immediate joint area, hot cracking, or even a dread- ed meltdown. Generally speaking, soft solders do not pose much of a risk to the base materials from heating, provided the parts are not held at soldering temperatures for an extended period of time. However, in some cases, exposure of aluminum to a molten zinc alloy for even a short period of time may result in re-alloying of the base metal within the heat-affected zone Close-up confirms good fillets on both sides. Zn-based hard solders may not be as (HAZ). This may change its properties pretty as soft solders, yet they are not sus- and cause what appear to be heat cracks ceptible to galvanic corrosion when solder- that emanate beyond the HAZ. ing aluminum, as are Sn-based alloys. One final tip: Working in the laboratory can aid in process, alloy, and flux selection. A mock-up might be helpful to determine the type, location, and volume Coupons of Alloy 6111 soldered using of heat required to accomplish the Zn/15Al and a flux based on complex fiuo- Cladding or Coatings desired result. As in other processes, pre- roaluminate salts. For the purpose of this heating or hybrid heating may be helpful test, one length of O.093-in.-diameter solder In some cases the aluminum can be and may change the original process was placed on one side of the joint, then clad with a more solderable alloy, plated selection. Cooldown times and delay pulled through to the opposite side with with nickel, or coated with zinc by thermal before handling may vary substantially heat. spray or other methods. This surface is from the laboratory to the production then more solderable and eases the above floor. Aluminum soldering is not difficult, problem since they are both easier to sol- but neither is it very forgiving. Control ly include 85Zn/15AI, 90Zn/10A1, and der than just aluminum. Soldering alu- the process tightly. • 97Zn/3A1. Other variations are minum to other metals (steel, galvanized 60Sn/40Zn and 80Sn/20Zn, which are in steel, copper, brass, stainless, etc.) is also Works Consulted the Sn/Zn family. done, but with some difficulty since the Aluminum often has other elements joint design must allow for differential Metals Handbook, 10th Ed.,Vol. 2. added to improve strength, rigidity, cor- thermal expansion and many fluxes do not 1990. Properties of wrought aluminum rosion resistance, machinability, and work for both metals. The simple job of and aluminum alloys. Materials Park, formability. Some additives cause no heating the assembly at the joint area Ohio: ASM International, pp. 102-103. problem for soldering, but magnesium is becomes difficult since the aluminum con- ASM Desk Editions Online- Metals the exception. Magnesium-containing ducts heat away from the joint very rapid- Handbook Desk Edition. Brazing and sol- aluminum alloys (e.g., 5xxx and 6xxx ly vs. other metals' tendency to conduct dering. Retrieved August 1, 2002, from series) are used for extending the heat away much more slowly (stainless http://www.asminternational.org/asm/servlet/ strength-to-weight ratio and to provide steel comes to mind). A general rule of Navigate. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM better corrosion resistance in some appli- thumb in soldering is "heat the compo- Intemational. cations. However, the authors are not nent, not the solder." This allows the sub- Fenton, E. A. 1963. Brazing Manual. aware of any solder or flux that is very strate to transfer heat to the solder and New York, N.Y.: American Welding effective with magnesium-containing alu- melt the solder once it is up to the melting Society. p. 9. minum alloys. The magnesium oxide temperature. Fluxes can insulate the sol- Rivard, John D., Sabau, Adrian S., and reforms very quickly and does not allow der from the substrate and cause the reac- Schwartz, M. M. 1987. Brazing. Metals solder wetting to take place. Titanium tivity of the flux to expire before the sol- Park, Ohio: ASM International. and some exotic additives such as vanadi- der melts or, perhaps, leave a hard residue um and chromium may also cause prob- that the solder cannot penetrate in order lems. The lxxx (99% AI or higher), 2xxx to wet the substrate. Cored soft solders (copper added), 3xxx (manganese may be used to eliminate this problem added), 4xxx (silicon added), and 7xxx since the flux is not released until the sol- An Important Event (zinc added) series are generally solder- der melts; however, not all aluminum sol- on Its Way? able. The 5xxx (magnesium added) series ders are available with flux cores. is probably not solderable and the 6xxx Send information on upcoming (silicon and magnesium added) series Dangers of Overheating events to the Welding Journal may or may not be solderable depending Dept., 550 NW LeJeune Rd., upon the individual alloy. The 6061 alloy Due to its low melting temperature, Miami, FL 33126. Items can also be is definitely solderable and the 2xxx series aluminum may be annealed or tempered sent via FAX to (305) 443-7404 or in sheet form may have a 6xxx cladding at temperatures as low as 325-350°C in a that could change its soiderability. relatively short time. This suggests that by e-mail to [email protected].

I WELDING JOURNAL l.~l ~OMIN~ EVENTS ] NOTE: A DIAMOND (*) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.

*Eighth Robotic Arc Welding Conference and Exhibition. Engineering, Center for Professional Development. For registra- February 9-10, Grosvenor Resort in the Walt Disney World tion and more details, visit http://cpd.engin.umich.edu. Resort, Orlando, Fla. Sponsored by the American Welding Society. Contact AWS Conferences, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Advanced Surface Engineering for Gears Symposium. March 9, Miami, FL 33126, (800) 443-9353 ext. 449 or, outside the U.S., Detroit, Mich. Sponsored by ASM International. For further (305) 443-9353 ext. 449, FAX: (305) 443-1552; www.aws.org. information, visit www.asminternational.org/events.

,DI.I Code Week. DI.1 Road Map, February 16; DI.1 Design of WESTEC Advanced Productivity Exposition. March 22-25, Los Welded Connections, February 17; DI.1 Qualifications, February Angeles Convention Center. The WESTEC Conference will be 18; Fabrication, February 19; Inspection, February 20. Grosvenor held concurrently with cooperation from Boeing. Both events Resort in the Walt Disney World Resort, Orlando, Fla. DI.1 sponsored by the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME). Road Map seminars are also available in April, May, September, For additional information and to register, visit www.srne.org. October, and November. Sponsored by the American Welding Society. Contact AWS Conferences, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., *AWS Welding Show 2004. April 6-8, McCormick Place, Miami, FL 33126, (800) 443-9353 ext. 449 or, outside the U.S., Lakeside Center, Chicago, IlL Exhibition of the latest and best (305) 443-9353 ext. 449, FAX: (305) 443-1552; www.aws.org. technology in the welding industry. For information, contact: AWS Convention and Exhibition Dept., 550 NW LeJeune Rd., SOUTH-TEC Charlotte. March 2-4, Charlotte Convention Miami, FL 33126, (800) 443-9353 ext. 256 or, outside the U.S., Center, Charlotte, N.C. Sponsored by the Society of (305) 443-9353 ext 256, FAX: (305) 441-7451. To register for Manufacturing Engineers (SME). Cosponsored by the American free,visit www.aws.org/expo. Machine Tool Distributors Association and the Association for Manufacturing Technology. For additional information and to ,AWS Detroit Section's Sheet Metal Welding Conference. May register, visit the SME Web site at www.sme.org. 11-14, Sterling Heights, Mich. Sponsored by the AWS Detroit Section. Contact (810) 231-2502 ; www.sheetmetalwelding.org. 12th Annual Automotive Laser Applications Workshop. March 8-11, St. John's Golf and Conference Center, Plymouth, Mich. ,2004 International Conference on Aluminum Structural Sponsored by the University of Michigan, College of Design (INALCO 2004). June 2-4, The Lincoln Electric Co.,

Features: • Connects To A Output Welder • Connects to B 24VDC over 2 36VDC over3.= • 100% duty cy( • Standard 1 or Spools from .023-3/64 • Standard Tweco #2 Consumables • Two Year Limited Warranty

Model 10250 Welds up to 3/4" Aluminum, Steel and Stainless

(800) WELD-MIG Call for a dealer (800) 935-3644 near you. www.readywelder.com

Circle No. 21 on Reader Info-Card Circle No. 31 on Reader Info-Card

~f:ll FEBRUARY 2004 I I Cleveland, Ohio. Cosponsored by The Lincoln Electric Co., the EPRI NDE Training Seminars. EPRI offers NDE technical skills American Welding Society, the Aluminum Association, ASCE training in Visual Examination, Ultrasonic Examination, ASME Structural Engineering Institute, the Japanese Light Metal Section XI, UT Operator Training, and more. For specific infor- Welding and Construction Assn., and Univ. Prof. Dr. D. Kosteas, mation, contact Sherryl Stogner, (704) 547-6174, e-mail: sstogner Light Metal Structures and Fatigue, Technical University of @epri.com. Munich. For information on submitting papers on aluminum structural design research and practice, contact Victor 2004 Training Seminars. Victor Equipment Co. will be [email protected]. conducting training programs for gas apparatus and service repair technicians, end users, and sales personnel in 2004. For a complete schedule, contact: Aaron Flippen, (940) 381-1217; Educational Opportunities www. victorequip, com. Emmet A. Craig Resistance Welding School. April 5-6, The Fabricators & Manufacturers Assn., Int.(FMA), and the McCormick Place, Lakeside Center, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by TUbe and Pipe Assn., Int. (TPA), Courses. A course schedule is the Resistance Welder Manufacturers' Assn. (RWMA). Contact available by calling (815) 399-8775; e-maih RWMA, 1900 Arch St., Philadelphia, PA 19103-1498, (215) 564- [email protected]; www.fmametalfab.org. 3484, FAX: (215) 564-2175, e-mail: [email protected]; www. rwma. org. Malcom Plastic Welding School. A comprehensive two-day, hands- on course that leads to certification in accordance with the latest Hobart Institute of Welding Technology. Welding for the Non- European DVS-approved plastic welding standards for hot gas and Welder, February 15, May 24, August 16, or October 11. extrusion welding techniques. Contact: Sheila Carpenter, Fundamentals of Visual Inspection, February 3, April 13, July 7, Administration, Malcom Hot Air Systems, 1676 E. Main Rd., or September 8. Classes are held at the Hobart Institute of Portsmouth, R102871, (888) 807-4030, FAX: (401) 682-1904, e-mail: Welding Technology, Troy, Ohio. For further information and [email protected]; www.plasticweldingtools.com. 2004 schedules, call (800) 332-9448 or e-mail [email protected]; www. welding, org. He)lier NDT Courses. A course schedule is available from Hellier, 277 W Main St., Ste. 2, Niantic, CT 06357, (860) 739- Unitek Miyachi Corp. Training Services. Unitek Miyachi's 8950, FAX: (860) 739-6732. Applications Labs offer personalized training services to customers desiring further education regarding resistance and NACE International Training and Certification Courses. Course laser welding and laser marking. For more information, con- description, dates, and registration forms are available from tact Unitek Miyachi's Applications Labs at (626) 303-5676 or NACE Membership Services, (281) 228-6223, FAX: (281) 228- via e-mail at [email protected]; www.unitekmiyachi.com. 6329, e-maih [email protected],; www.nace.org.

Become a Certified Commercial Diver in Just 5 Months! Cool Jobs! Great Pay! Oxy-Acetylene Hose Reels Call Now Eliminate hose handling hassles. Rapi - to Enroll Hose Reels mount to carts, vehicles, or for a FREE and more. All-steel construction, Information Kit powder-coat paint, top-grade 800"238"DIVE im components, and 50' to 300' hose capacity. Dozens of manual-rewind 856"9661871 ll..) models at prices that make sense. iI~L~ EL~,:~ DIVERS ACADEMY INTERNATIONAL Dealer hTquiries &vited. iACADEMYi The Nations Premier Federally Accredited 800-523-4321 Professional Diving School Since 1977 www.RapidReel.com www.diversacademy.com

Circle No. 30 on Reader Info-Card Circle No. 23 on Reader Info-Card I WELDING JOURNAL Ir.~.I~ll Educational Opportunities

AWS Schedule m CWIICWE Prep Courses and Exams Exam application must be submitted six weeks before exam date. For exam information and an application, contact the AWS Certification Dept., (800) 443-9353 ext. 273. For exam prep course information, contact the AWS Education Dept., (800) 443-9353 ext. 229.

Cities Exam Prep CWI/CWE Cities Exam Prep CWI/CWE Courses Exams Courses Exams

Anchorage, Alaska March 21-26 March 27 Louisville, Ky. February 8-13 February 14 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Birmingham, Ala. February 8--13 February 14 Miami, Fla. EXAM ONLY February 19 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Miami, Fla. EXAM ONLY March 18 Chicago, Ill. February 22-27 February 28 Miami, Fla. EXAM ONLY April 15 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Mobile, Ala. EXAM ONLY March 20 (CRAW Seminar February 26-27) New Orleans, La. March 14-19 March 20 Columbus, Ohio February 16-20 February 21 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Corpus Christi, Tex. EXAM ONLY February 28 Norfolk, Va. February 22-27 February 28 Dallas, Tex. March 8-13 Ontario, Calif. February 1-6 February 7 9-YEAR RECERTIFICATION COURSE (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Detroit, Mich. February 9-14 Perrysburg, Ohio EXAM ONLY March 6 9-YEAR RECERTIFICATION COURSE Portland, Maine April 18-23 Arpil 24 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Hartford, Conn. February 29-March 5 March 6 Rochester, N.Y. EXAM ONLY March 6 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) San Francisco, Calif. March 21-26 March 27 Houston March 14-19 March 20 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Seattle, Wash. February 1-6 February 7 Indianapolis, Ind. February 29-March 5 March 6 (API 1104 Clinic also offered) (API 1104 Clinic also offered) Las Vegas, Nev. March 7-12 March 13 (API 1104 Clinic also offered)

AWS 2004 International Schedule m CWI/CWE Prep Courses and Exams

MEXICO CWI Training: March 8-12, June 21-25, November 8--12 Examinations: March 13, June 26, November 13 Location: DALUS, S.A., Monterrey, N.L. Contact: Lorena Garza Telephone: 52 (81) 8386 1717 FAX: 52 (81) 8386 4780 E-mail: [email protected]

VENEZUELA CWI Training: June 9-13 Examination: June 14 Location: Centro Internacional de Education y Desarrolo Contact: Carlos Quintini Telephone: 582 906 4694 FAX: 582 906 4690 E-mail: [email protected]

HEAVY DUTY TUNGSTEN GRINDER INDIA FOR 3/1 6" - . 04 0" CWI Training: June 14-18 Examination: June 19 Encloseddiamond wheel grinding area Location: Industrial Quality Concepts WELDQUMJTY: 20 aa finish improvestungsten life,starting & arc stability Contact: V. Raghavendran PIlODUCrlVl~: Longitudinaldiamond grind yourtungsten under 30 seconds Telephone: 44 2 499 3826 VALUE: Diamondflat, grind &cut yourtungsten economically Fax: 44 2499 3826 E -mail: iqc.in, org@vsnl, com DIAMOND GROUND PRODUCTS~ 2550 Azurite Circle, Newbury Park, California 91320 Phone (805) 498-383? • FAX (805) 498-9347 Email: [email protected] ° Website: www.diamondgrnund.com -- continued on page 73 Circle No. 22 on Reader Info-Card ~1~! FEBRUARY 2004 I I I

ELJ

C:}

! V, I.J.J r~ I----

4ff

~' ,~ ~'

I----

,~ T,,,~,~- ~ • nUDellU "~ ~~~.~ " ~i~,~ L~ ~ ~i ~ ~ ¸ :~ ~,,., Februarv 9 10, 2004 Orlando, ;:~ ~" ~Gro~svenor Resort- Walt nisnev World '-~2~naYCOnference I1~ Exhibition :~',.www.aws:org/iol]l)tic or ~:all 1-800-443-9353 ext. 449 ~ VAVY JOININ( CENTER] A MANTECH CENTER OF EXCELLENCE OPERATED BY EWl O NJC Materials Joining Technology Presented at DMC 2003 The Defense Manufacturing Confer- ence (DMC), hosted by the U.S. Air Force in conjunction with the Joint Defense 'Manufacturing Technology Panel (JDMTP), was held in Washington, D.C., December 2003. Based on the theme "De- fense Manufacturing Technology: Transi- tioning Affordable Combat Power to Otir Warfighters," the conference provided an overview of government and industry programs as well as a vision for the future of defense manufacturing and sustainment needs. The Navy Joining Center and more than 75 other organizations exhibited to more than 700 attendees at the conference. The various exhibits showcased state-of-the-art government, industry, and academic capabilities and successes for transformation of U.S. warfighters. The NJC participated.in both Technical and Poster Sessions, and shared information with attendees on a number of development activities under way at the center. The NJC's contribution to the Poster Session highlighted Friction Stir Welding for Defense Applications. Friction stir Navy Joining Center staff exhibits at DMC 2003. welding (FSW) can improve the weld performance and reduce distortion when defense acquisition programs requiring compared to conventional welding meth- the use of composite/steel bonded joints. Mark Your Calendar: ods. The NJC has developed manufactur- The NJC is developing adhesive joining ing procedures for aircraft engines, air- technology that is producible, cost effec- NJC to Exhibit at craft structures, and combat vehicles. tive, and meets the functional require- Highlighted within the session was the de- ments of the structures, signatures, and AWS Welding Show 2004 velopment of FSW procedures in 2519 longevity. Once developed, the NJC will aluminum armor structures for the Ma- support transition of the technology to the Visit the NJC at Booth #5050 rine Corps Expeditionary Fighting Vehi- shipyards. at the AWS Welding Show in cle (EFV). This system was formerly The NJC exhibit presented several de- Chicago, Illinois, April 6-8. The • known as the AAAV. The results of this velopment activities aimed at transition- show will be held at McCormick activity demonstrated improved producing technology to the warfighter in sup- Place Lakeside Center. Brochures tivity, reduced acquisition costs, and max- port of the DOD tri-services. Demonstra- and articles will be available high- imized performance of the aluminum tion hardware was presented showing lighting NJC projects. Navy Join- armor material. translational friction welding (TFW) for ing Center staff will be available The Navy presented its vision for fu- fabrication of a dual-alloy titanium airfoil ture warfighting capability during the (BLISK), a laser beam welded titanium for discussion of various project JDMTP Technical Subpanel and Agency wing spar assembly, adhesive bonding of development activities. Status Briefings. Within this technical ses- composite structures for aircraft primary sion, the NJC presented a short briefing structures, and adhesive bonding of a full- on the "Large Marine Composite-to-Steel scale composite-to-steel joint for the Adhesive Joints" project. The increased DD(X). Each of these applications is pro- The NavyJoining Center . use of composite materials has brought viding new materials joining solutions to about a need to develop new joining tech- 1250 Arthur E. Adams Dr. enhance the performance, affordability, rl.dc Columbus, OH 43221 niques for large composite-steel struc- and cost requirements for our nation's Operated by Phone: (614) 688-5010 tures. This development activity is di- warfighters. FAX: (614) 688-5001 rected at meeting the new design and per- For more information, contact Larry e-mail: NJC@ewLotg formance criteria for the DD(X) multi- Brown at (614) 688-5080 or EIMi www:http://ww~.ewLorg mission surface combatant as well as other larry_brown @ewi.org. . Contact: Larry Brown

II."P,,IB FEBRUARY 2004 Every year, more than 25,000 students begin an education that could lead to a successful career in welding. As a welder. As an engineer. As a scientist. As a teacher. Or one of hundreds of other rewarding professions in welding. The problem is, we need twice as many.

The American Welding Society Foundation has helped thousands of students who otherwise would be unable to afford a welding education. We are proud of the fact that we help hundreds of welding students annually by providing them with funding towards their education. In fact, we are the only industry foundation set up specifically, to further educations and in so doing, create the careers that sustain and grow our industry.

We get these funds from your contributions. So if you don't contribute, then we will not be able to expand our work and our students' educations. And there is so much work to be done.

If you would like to make a scholarship contribution, or even set up your own Section Named Scholarship, contact your Section or Bob Witherell, AWS Foundation Director of Development, by phone at 1-800-443-9353, ext. 293 or by email at bobw@aws, org.

Thank you for your continued support. Foundation, Inc. Building Welding's Future through Education

Circle No. 11 on Reader Info-Card O American Welding Society2003 FDN 1015 VELDIN6 WORKBOOK ] Datasheet 255a Preparing Aluminum for Welding

Cutting. Sawing, shearing, and other mechanical methods are commonly used for cutting aluminum. The cutting is done dry RAKER (NO SETI whenever possible, but cutting lubricants may be used when nec- .• TE"'ET:7T: 'Or /-- .... essary. Cutting wax is not recommended for use on blades because of the difficulty of its complete removal from the weld area. Sawing aluminum requires relatively coarse teeth and high ,o,T blade speeds. Band saws can be used for cutting small pieces. UNTEMPERED BAN CH~ CLEARANCE The blades should have 2 to 4 teeth per in. (8 to 16/cm), and a BETWEEN TEETH blade speed of at least 6000 ft/min (1800 m/min) under load. A typical band saw blade for aluminum is shown in Fig. 1. Circular Fig. 1 -- Typical band saw blade design for aluminum.

Carbide-tipped blades are 60%100 * _L_ good, especially where _CZ -k--;,l, ,,--1 t'-- o.3,,,-T --1 I--o-,/0 --V 0-110

60"-I00" 00°.00 • blade lubrication isn't 1/2T • 1/16

allowed. o-3,1, L---BACK GOUGED AND WELDED saws fitted with high-speed blades are run at 8000 surface ft/min NOTE: DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES. (2400 m/rain) or faster. For other tool steel blades, the speed is at 4000-6000 surface ft/min (1200-1800 m/min). Carbide-tipped Fig.. 2 -- Typical joint designs for gas shielded arc welding of alu- blades are good, especially where blade lubrication is not allowed. mmum. If shearing is used, it should be clean and sharp with correct clearances between blades for the metal thicknesses. Properly sheared edges can be welded satisfactorily up to ¾6 in. (4.88 mm). a rough surface, a secondary operation should follow to provide The edges should be clean whether they are welded "as-sheared" adequate smoothness for proper cleaning before welding. or after dressing. Shearing is not recommended for aluminum Cleaning for Welding. Common cleaning procedures for alu- alloys containing 3.5% or more Mg because the edges become minum consist of degreasing followed by hand or power wire sensitive to stress corrosion cracking. brushing. Degreasing is usually done with a commercial solvent Plasma arc cutting is fast and accurate, although the equip- by wiping, spraying, dipping, or vapor degreasing. Such solvents ment can be expensive. There is cost justification with the process may be toxic, therefore welding and cleaning operations should in conditions that require cutting of one-inch or thicker plate, be done in well-ventilated areas. It is good practice to degrease stack cutting of thin plate, or with quantities of identical parts. all surfaces for a distance of 3 to 6 in. from the joint edge. Edge Preparation. The preparation of edges is often done as Wire brushes should have stainless steel bristles from 0.005 the sheet or plate is cut to size and shape. Below ¾, in. (4.8 mm) to 0.015 in. (0.13 to 0.38 mm) in diameter. They should be de- thickness, a square edge may be satisfactory. Above this thick- greased periodically to prevent contamination. Pressure on the ness, a single or double-bevel, or J-shape edge geometry may be brush should be light to avoid burnishing the surface or imbed- required. Typical butt joint configurations are shown in Fig. 2. ding foreign matter. Edge preparation should be in accordance with the welding pro- For very tightly adhering contaminants or very thick oxide, cedure specification. If air-operated tools are used, the air sup- methods such as machining, scraping, filing, grinding, or sanding ply should be free of oil, moisture, and dirt since any of these ma- may be required. Chemical methods include the use of caustic terials could contaminate the weld area. High-speed milling ma- soda, acids, and proprietary solutions. When mixing solutions, chines, routers, planers, and various types of saws can be used the chemical should always be added slowly into the water or sol- for edge preparation. Heavy-duty industrial tools are recom- vent while stirring. mended. The use of sanding or grinding is not generally recom- Cleaning should be done before joint fitup because it is diffi- mended, but if used, the abrasives should be approved for the cult to remove solvents or solution from assembled joints. Weld job. Remove any residue left from sanding or grinding to avoid joint surfaces may become contaminated again if they are ex- weld contamination and porosity. If the cutting operation leaves posed to the shop atmosphere for more than eight hours.

Excerpted from AWS D3.7, Guide for Aluminum Hull Welding. l.'~m FEBRUARY 2004 Students Create a Wonder in Metal

The bald eagle is crowned with thousands The massive arched base support for the The eagle is nearly ready )br mounting on of handmade stainless steel feathers. eagle is decorated with 32 layers of vari- its base. ous metals to create the colored images.

Middlesex County Vocational and retain its gold luster. Technical High School students in All of the eagle's parts, components, Piscataway, N.J., are close to comple- and its 2000 feathers were individually tion of an incredible work of art they handcrafted by the students. have named Fierce Allegiance. The front view of the base presents The 6800-1b metal project when American scenic wonders, adding inter- completed will be a monumental sculp- est and proclaiming the sculpture's ture fabricated entirely of numerous patriotic theme. As viewed from the metals selected for their colors and tex- rear, the base is seen to be a massive tures. The basic materials include mild supporting structure, adorned with steel, stainless steel, brass, bronze, cop- stars and stripes, to hold the eagle aloft. per, and aluminum. The frontal art was created using 32 The sculpture consists of two major layers of various ferrous and nonfer- Stars and stripes adorn the rear of the components: the eagle and a massive rous metal pieces, hand cut and shaped arched base support. vividly decorated supporting base. to picture the sun, moon, stars, and The eagle's wingspan measures 18 ft clouds. Pictured too, are snow-capped from tip to tip; and it towers 14 ft from mountains, cliffs, forested foothills, a illusion the eagle is in free flight with no wing tip to talon. Joseph Gess, Jr., the mountain lake, and waterfalls. Metallic apparent mounting point to the base. designer of the sculpture and a teacher oxidation will eventually transform the Clenched in the eagle's beak will be a at Middlesex Vo-Tech, said he designed materials into various shades of green, streaming red, white, and blue banner. the eagle to be anatomically correct in brown, and gray. When finally assembled, the sculp- its stance, proportions, and textures. The supporting base is 8 ft tall and ture will stand 21 ft high and weigh "I planned its construction to make 16 ft wide. It weighs about 6000 lb; serv- approximately 6800 lb. it relativeiy light yet strong for its size." ing as a counterbalance for the weight At the time of this writing the sculp- The eagle's 800-1b body has some sur- of the cantilevered eagle that will be ture is nearly completed. A few more faces exposed to permit natural oxidiz- mounted at the top. weeks of hard work and the project will ing; other surfaces are protected to keep The height and space restrictions in be finished and ready for its permanent a lasting luster. The bird's wings and the high school's shop restricted the home, to be announced. body are fabricated from mild steel, students from mounting the eagle in its John Gess, Jr., and his students take which will oxidize to a deep brown color. final position. As pictured, the eagle is pride that their hard work has resulted The head and tail feathers are made currently mounted on a work stand. At in a stunning monument that will soon from surgical-quality stainless steel, to the time of installation, the eagle will be inspire many observers with its beauty ensure its bright luster indefinitely. The permanently affixed on the base struc- and strength through the science of beak and talons are brass, coated to ture with a unique design that gives the metallurgical technology. •

I WELDING JOURNAL ~1,'! AWS Foundation Announces Its Fourth Annual Silent Auction The AWS Foundation is proud to announce the current donors to its Fourth Annual Silent Auction, April 6-8, at McCormick Place Lakeside Center in Chicago, IlL The auction benefits the AWS Foundation's scholarship programs. Companies wishing to donate items for the auction ($240 minimum value), please call Vicki Pinsky at (800) 443-9353 ext. 212 or e-mail to [email protected]. To bid in advance, visit the American Welding Society's Web site at www.aws.org/foundation/auction/orcontact the AWS Foundation at (800) 443-9353 ext. 212 with the item name and your bid, complete name, address, and telephone number. To bid on an item while attending the AWS Welding Show, please go to the AWS Foundation booth.

Welding Engineering Supply Co. Malcolm Gilliland Nelson Stud Welding 2520 lb ~6 diameter x 60 lb Coils of 600-A CV Welding Power Source Series 4000 Model 300 Stud Tri-Mark Triple 7 Flux Cored Arc Retail Value: $3000 Welding System Welding Wire Minimum Bid: $1500 Retail Value: $2950 Retail Value: $3150 ($1.25 per lb) Bid Increment: $100 Minimum Bid: $1500 Minimum Bid: $1600 Bid Increment: $75 Bid Increment: $100

~YNAMIC$"

Thermadyne Industries, Inc. Select Arc, Inc. Thermal Arc 185TSW Portable/ Nordan Smith Welding 1 Pallet of 1200-1b Welding Wire, Shielded Metal Arc E71T1 FCAW Wire Select 720.052 Retail Value: $1731 Welding Machine Retail Value: $1600 Minimum Bid: $900 Retail Value: $2100 Minimum Bid: $800 Minimum Bid: $1000 Bid Increment: $50 Bid Increments: $60 Bid Increment: $75

Quality 1 Welding & Applied Robotics Saf-T-Cart Consulting Inc. QS-AWSDNP - Robotic 552-16FE Welder Training Fixture Collision Sensors Retail Value: $607 Retail Value: $1295 Retail Value: $845 Minimum Bid: $300 Minimum Bid: $650 Minimum Bid: $450 Bid Increment: $20 Bid Increment: $30 Bid Increment: $15

ESAB Welding & Cutting Products Miller Electric Mfg. Co. Miniarc 150 APS Power Supply Millermatic® 175 All-in-One ITW Hobart Brothers Retail Value: $937 GMA Welding Machine $600 Training Equipment Minimum Bid: $500 Retail Value: $793 Retail Value: $600 Bid Increment: $50 Minimum Bid: $400 Minimum Bid: $300 Bid Increment: $50 Bid Increment: $20 ESAB Welding & Cutting Products Purox GT-350 Deluxe Gas Welding Sonesta Beach Resort Harris Calorific, Inc and Cutting Outfit Two-Night/Three-Day Harris Port-A-Torch Retail Value: $500 Stay for Two Retail Value: $566 Minimum Bid: $200 Retail Value: $750 Minimum Bid: $300 Bid Increment: $20 Minimum Bid: $375 Bid Increment: $20 Bid Increment: $20 Welder Training & The Lincoln Electric Co. Testing Institute Calco Controls, Inc Two Front Straight AWS CWI Prep Course Mcllrath Electric Tickets for the NASCAR Retail Value: $950 Gas Heater Winston Cup in 2004. Minimum Bid: $475 Retail Value: $660 Retail Value: $500 Bid Increment: $15 Minimum Bid: $330 Minimum Bid: $250 Bid Increment: $20 Bid Increment: $25

B.I,'~ FEBRUARY 2004 The Lincoln Electric Co. AWS Foundation Black Leather NASCAR Bomber Jacket Retail Value: $260 Announces Its Fourth Minimum Bid: $130 Annual Silent Auction Bid Increment: $20

ArcOne Welding & Safety Products Jackson Products Metabo Corp. I 80 STS HSL 100 American Eagle Welding W10-150 Quick 6 deg Retail Value: $250 Helmet with NexGen" EQC® Lens Angle Grinder Minimum Bid: $137 Retail Value: $409 Retail Value: $321 Bid Increment: $15 Minimum Bid: $188 Minimum Bid: $160 Bid Increment: $20 Bid Increment: $15 AWS San Antonio Section Gift Certificate from Four-Points by Sheraton Victoria's Secret PFERD, Inc. Two-Night Stay for Two Including Retail Value: $250 50 each PFERD POLIFAN Flap Discs Dinner in York, Pa. Minimum Bid: $160 Retail Value: $400 Retail Value: $320 Bid Increment: $15 Minimum Bid: $200 Minimum Bid: $150 Bid Increment: $15 Bid Increment: $15 AWS York Central Section Patriotic Cylinder Bell Hyatt Regency AWS Central-Pennsylvania Section with Stand McCormick Place Welded Brass Bonsai Retail Value: $250 Two-Night Weekend Stay for Two Tree Sculpture Minimum Bid: $125 Retail Value: $384 Retail Value: $300 Bid Increment: $10 Minimum Bid: $175 Minimum Bid: $125 Bid Increment: $20 Bid Increment: $15 Flexovit Abrasives Metal Hog Basket District 5 Director Retail Value: $250 Jackson Nexgen EQC JAZ USA, Inc. Minimum Bid: $125 Welding Shield Wire Brushes and Bid Increment: $10 Retail Value: $375 Abrasive Wheels Minimum Bid: $188 Retail Value: $300 Dressel Welding Supply Co. Bid Increment: $20 Minimum Bid: $150 ArcMaster Head Shield Bid Increment: $20 Retail Value: $249 Earl Lipphardt, AWS Treasurer Minimum Bid: $125 1 Set of Golf Clubs The Lincoln Electric Co. Bid Increment: $10 Retail Value: $350 Washington Redskins Minimum Bid: $160 Racing Helmet Laser Quest of Austin Bid Increment: $20 Signed by Joe Gibbs Two Birthday Party Retail Value: $300 Gift Certificates Inweld Corp. Minimum Bid: $150 Retail Value: $240 Medium-Duty Welding and Bid Increment: $20 Minimum Bid: $75 each Cutting Kit Bid Increment: $10 each Retail Value: $340 Lancaster County Career & Minimum Bid: $170 Technical Center Abicor Binzel Bid Increment: $15 Brass & Pewter Chess Set Two sets of Alpha MIG Guns Complete with Board Retail Value: $250 each set IWDC (Weldmark) Retail Value: $300 Minimum Bid: $180 Weldmark Medium-Duty Deluxe Minimum Bid: $125 Bid Indrement: $15 Welding & Cutting Kit Bid Increment: $15 Retail Value: $340 Minimum Bid: $170 Hornell Bid Increment: $15 AWS St. Louis Section Speedglas Protop with 9000V Lens Sony DSC-P52 Digital Retail Value: $356 Steiner Industries Still Camera Minimum bid: $180 Welder's Safety Kit Retail Value: $277 Bid Increment: $15 Retail Value: $340 Minimum Bid: $135 Minimum Bid: $170 Bid Increment: $15 Bid Increment: $15 Sellstrom Mfg. Co. Revco Industries, Inc. Five themed Titan with Attitude

Jerry Uttrachi Tool Handz TM Series Welding Helmets with Striker AWS Vice President Glove Package Autodarkening Filter. Gas Saver System Retail Value: $275 Retail Value: $143 each Retail Value: $328 Minimum Bid: $140 Minimum Bid: $75 Minimum Bid: $164 Bid Increment: $15 Bid Increment:S10 Bid Increment: $15 WELDING JOURNAL B,'lrJ AWS Welcomes Sustaining Member Company Stillwater Technologies, Inc., has New Suppor'dng Stillwater Technologies, Inc. experienced sufficient growth and devel- 1040 S. Dorset Rd. opment over the last 45 years to place the Companies Troy, OH 45373 company firmly in the position of being Phone: (800) 338-7561 one of the top suppliers of resistance New Educational www.stlwtr.com welding tip-dressing equipment through- Institutions out the domestic and international automotive marketplaces. Stillwater Technologies' diverse selection of electric and pneu- Institute for Construction Education matic tip dressers in both single and dual-head models offers a wide variety of choic- 2240 E. Geddes Ave. es unmatched in the field. These tip dressers, matched with the company's new auto- Decatur, IL 62526 mated tip-changing system, can provide a hands-off solution to users of robotic resistance welding cells. Neo Welding Institute Modern Erectors, Gravipuram By maintaniing control of all machining and fabricating in-house, Stillwater can Kollam, Kerala 691 011 service many of its customers' resistance welding needs for gun arms, tips, shanks, and India specially designed tooling and fixturing. The company's mission statement says it all: Virginia College Technical "To serve our customers with professionalism, integrity, quality, and value." • 2790 Pelham Parkway Pelham, AL 35124

William J. Dean Technical High School AWS Welcomes New Affiliate 1045 Main St. Holyoke, MA 01040 Member Companies New Supporting Companies AMG, Inc. Solar Atmospheres 301 Jefferson Ridge Parkway 1969 Clearview Rd. Vaughn's, Inc. Lynchburg, VA 24501 EO. Box 64476 3960 Boone Rd. S.E. Souderton, PA 18964 Salem, OR 97301 Don Foss Fabrications 2356 Ethel Porter Dr. Napa, CA 94558 Specialty Welding, Inc. EO. Box 1101 Pipe & Tank Erection Ltd. Moses Lake, WA 98837 27C Rousseau Rd. AWS Kingston 5, Jamaica ValcoFabricating&Machining 1235 St. Luke Rd. Membership RPM & Associates, Inc. Windsor, Ontario N8Y4W7 333 Concourse Dr. Canada Rapid City, SD 57703 Member As of Wilborn Steel Company Ltd. Grades January 1, 2004 Serimer Dasa North America EO. Box 10208 10777 Clay Rd. San Antonio, TX 78210 Sustaining Companies ...... 414 Houston, TX 77041 Supporting Companies ...... 211 * Educational Institutions ...... 318 Affiliate Companies ...... 217 Welding Distributor Companies ...... 44 AWS Life Members Receive Total Corporate Members .. 1,204 Free Registration for the Welding * During the month of March, the Society launched Show Professional Program the Welding Distributor Company Membership. Those Supporting Company Members identified as As longtime supporters of the American Welding Society (AWS), AWS Life welding dinributors were upgraded to ~ new cor- Members are being offered complimentary registration to the AWS Welding Show porate member catego~ 2004 and the complete Professional Program (a $325 value). The Professional Program will take place April 6-8 in Chicago, I11., at the McCormick Center, with the Welding Show occurring on the same dates. Individual Members ...... 43,350 Registration to the Professional Program entitles AWS Life Members to attend Student Members ...... 4,438 any of the seminars or sessions occurring over the three-day period. Please be sure to include any applicable fees for special events or spouse attendance when you reg- Total Members ... 47,788 ister. Registration forms will be available in upcoming issues of the Welding Journal as well as in the Advance Program, which was mailed to members in January. To register, please mark "AWS Life Member: FREE Registration" at the top of the registration form, then fax both sides to Cassie Burrell, Associate Executive Director, Membership, at (305) 443-5647; or mail the form to AWS, 550 NW LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126. • m,-'}:! FEBRUARY 2004 Shown at the Green & White Mountains Section meeting November 13 are (from left) Wesley Mekurt, Ron Williams, and John Corrado. Shown at the Boston Section's Welders' Night program, Steve Flowers (right) and his students received a plaque in appreciation for their continuing support. DISTRICT 1 Director: Russ Norris Phone: (800) 559-9353 GREEN & WHITE MOUNTAINS NOVEMBER 13 Speakers: John Corrado, Ron Williams, Wes Mekrut Affiliation: Filler Metals LLC Topic: Aluminum welding techniques Activity: Kevin McGloughlin, Mark Waizak, and Geoff Putnam received their 25-year AWS membership awards.

Bill Polanski (left) receives the New York New York Section Chair Ray Henderson BOSTON Section's speakers award from Vice Chair H (left) presents the 35-yearA WS Mem- DECEMBER 1 Bob Waite at the November 17 meeting. bership Award to Richard Couch, Jr. Activity: Steve Flowers, metal fabrication instructor, Southeastern Regional Vocational High School, and his students presented a Welders' Night pro- DISTRICT 3 gram jointly with members of the local Director: Alan J. Badeaux, Sr. chapter of American Society for Non- Phone: (301) 934-9061 destructive Testing. Tom Ferri received recognition for his services as outgoing LEHIGH VALLEY Section Chair. OCTOBER 21 Speaker: Colin Phelps, QA technician. Affiliation: Alstrom Power, Inc. Topic: Documentation for welders for DISTRICT 2 pressure vessels, including PQRs, Director: Alfred F. Fleury John Otto was honored at the Philadel- WPSs. Phone: (732) 868-0768 phia Section program in December.

NEW YORK PHILADELPHIA READING NOVEMBER 17 DECEMBER OCTOBER 16 Speaker: Bill Polanski, sales rep. Activity: John Otto was named the Sec- Activity: The Section held its Past Chair- Affiliation: G-Tee Natural Gas Systems tion's first Student of the Month. A stu- men's Recognition program at Crystal Topic: Oxygen cutting and soldering dent at Gloucester County Tech Insti- Springs Restaurant in Sinking Spring, Activity: The meeting was held at Buck- tute welding program, Otto is also ac- Pa. Dick Unger (1983-1984) hosted the ley's Restaurant in Brooklyn. tive in the SkillsUSA-VICA program. nostalgic event.

WELDING JOURNAL ~"#! Speaker Dick Unger (left) is shown with Reading Section Past Chairs shown at the October 16 meeting are (from left) Francis Reading Section Chair John Miller at the Butkus, Dick Unger, Paul Levengood, Joseph Progin, Merilyn McLaughlin, Larry October 16 meeting. Heffner, John Miller, Dennis Hornberger, and Dave Hibshman.

~i ' ii? ~

Lehigh Valley Section Chair Frank Wemet (right) presents the speaker award to Colin Shown with their District 4 awards at the Tidewater Section meeting November 13 are Phelps at the October 21 meeting. (from left) Steve Harris, John Gomez, District Director Ted Alberts, Jon Cookson, and Gary Roy. CUMBERLAND VALLEY NOVEMBER 11 Speaker: Carlo Rosati Affiliation: FBI, Laboratory Div. Topic: Applied metallurgy as used in crime investigations. Activity: The meeting was held at Richard- son's Restaurant in Hagerstown, Md.

YORK CENTRAL PENNSYLVANIA NOVEMBER 17 Activity: The Section participated in the York County School of Technology's Open Members of the York-Centralplanning committee pose at the December 21 meeting. House Career Night program.

DECEMBER 17 Activity: The York-Central Pennsylvania Section held its Image of Welding meeting at Hoss's Steak House.

DISTRICT 4 Director: Ted Alberts Phone: (540) 674-3600, ext. 4314

Winners in the Southwest Virginia June golf outing were (from left) Coy Stennette, Leon Bryant, Matt Pisenti, Chair Bill Rhodes, and Kyle Deal.

I[.I,11 FEBRUARY 2004 I I South Carolina Section Chair Gale Mole is shown with speaker Tim Dangerfield at the November 20 program. District 4 Director Ted Alberts (back row, far right) headed the A WS Richmond Section reactivation committee in November.

Pittsburgh Section Chair Carl Ott presents Gabriel Centofanti an appreciation gift for conducting the Section's tour of H.B.C. Barge Co. on November 11.

Dayton Section members participated in a forging, blacksmithing, and forge weMing SOUTH CAROLINA demonstration at the County Fairgrounds in Troy, Ohio, November 11. NOVEMBER 20 Activity: The Section toured American NOVEMBER 13 Pipe, Inc., in Hanahan, S.C. Tim Dan- SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA gerfield, operations manager, con- Jtm'E 20 Speaker: Dick Holdren Affiliation: Edison Welding Institute ducted the tour. Activities: The Section held its golf out- Topic: Enhanced welding productivity ing at Countryside Golf Course in through technology Roanoke, Va. Also in June, the Section Activity: Gary Roy and Jon Cookson re- participated with John W Hancock, Jr., DISTRICT 6 ceived the Private Sector Educators Inc., in the American Cancer Society's Director: Neal A. Chapman Award. John Gomez and Steve Harris Relay for Life program. Phone: (315) 349-6960 received the District Meritorious Award from District 4 Director Ted Alberts.

RICHMOND NOVEMBER DISTRICT 7 Director: Robert d. Tabernlk Activity: The Section held its reorgani- Phone: (614) 488-7913 zation meeting headed by District 4 DISTRICT 5 Director Ted Alberts. Elected to offices Director: Wayne J. Engeren were Brett Clarke, chairman; John Phone: (404) 501-9185 PITTSBURGH Dillard, vice chair; Lisa Campbell, sec- NOVEMBER 11 retary; Marcus Swailes, treasurer; and Activity: The Section toured H.B.C. George Reynolds, educational chair. NORTH CENTRAL Barge Co., in Brownsville, Pa. Gabriel FLORIDA E. Centofanti, president, conducted the OCTOBER 14 tour, and explained the fabrication of TIDEWATER Speaker: Bill Myers, senior welding en- various types of barges, the welding OCTOBER 9 gineer, AWS Past President 2001 processes used, and how the finished Activity: The Section held its annual Affiliation: Dresser-Rand Turbo Prod- barges were maneuvered into the river. golf tournament at Cypress Creek Golf ucts Div. (ret.) Course in Smithfield, Va. Eighty players Topic: AWS A5.1, Specification for Car- participated. Ron Davis once again bon Steel Electrodes for Shielded DAYTON masterminded the event for the Metal Arc Welding NOVEMBER 11 Section. Activity: The meeting was held at Speakers: Steve Roth and Al Minneman Holox Restaurant in Ocala, Fla.

WELDING JOURNAL !,11 District 9 Director John Bruskotter and Shown at the New Orleans Section program November 19 are (from left) District 9 Di- wife, Donna, are shown at the New Or- rector John Bruskotter, speaker Ryan Baker, Shelton Ritter, George Fairbanks, Chair leans Section holiday party December 18. David Foster, Joe Golemi, O. J. Templet, and Mike Skiles.

Affiliation: The Southern Ohio Forge and Anvil Assn. (SOFA) Topic: Forging, blacksmithing, and forge welding Activity: The SOFA staff demonstrated how to make fancy twists, leaf making, and texturing. Afterward, the Section members had a hands-on opportunity to try forge welding techniques.

Darren Haas (center) presents the ASQC Chair Kelly Hered (left) chats with Pascagoula Section speaker awards to DISTRICT 8 speaker Jackie Morris at the Mobile Sec- Ken Inabinette (left) and James Ivy at the Director: Wallace E. Honey tion program November 20. November 20 program. Phone: (256) 332-3366 Affiliation: Bender Shipbuilding and Repair Co., Inc. GREATER HUNTSVILLE Topic: Details on the AWS Certified OCTOBER 20 Welding Supervisor (CWS) program Activity: The Section hosted a student Activity: This joint meeting with mem- welding contest led by Larry Smith, bers of the local chapter of American welding instructor, Blount County Area Society for Quality Control was held at Vocational Technical Center. Sixty-one Bay Beach Inn in Gulf Breeze, Fla. people participated in the event. Shown at the Baton Rouge Section program November 20 are (from left) Terry Babin, Dave Poydock, John Bruskotter, PASCAGOULA Davis Raybum, Mark Kevin, and George NOVEMBER 20 DISTRICT 9 Fairbanks. Activity: The Section hosted a Students Director: John Bruskotter Night program at Mississippi Gulf Coast Phone: (504) 367-0603 Topic: Oxyacetylene gas safety and the Community College. Speakers included James Ivy, training manager, Northrup BATON ROUGE state of the welding industry Activity: The program was held at Grumman Ship Systems; and Ken In- NOVEMBER 20 Boomtown Casino in Harvey, La. abinett, QC vice president, Signal In- Activity: Barry Landry, and Glenn In- ternational. They discussed welding job grassia led a tour of the AKA Volks Con- opportunities. struction Co. fabrication shop to learn DECEMBER 18 the procedures used to manufacture Activity: The New Orleans Section pressure vessels. Featured were the var- joined with the local chapter of Amer- DISTRICT 10 ious types of welding involved to meet the ASME Code requirements. ican Society for Nondestructive Test- Director: Victor Y. Matthews ing to cohost a Christmas dinner for 91 Phone: (216) 383-2638 attendees at Boomtown Casino in Har- vey, La. NEW ORLEANS NORTHWESTERN NOVEMBER 19 PENNSYLVANIA Speaker: Ryan Baker, district manager OCTOBER 14 Affiliation: Harris Calorific, Daphne, MOBILE Speaker: Damian Kotecki, AWS Na- NOVEMBER 20 Ala. tional Vice President, and technical di- Speaker: Jaekie Morris, QA manager rector, stainless steel

I[.'1,1 FEBRUARY 2004 I gl

Damian Kotecki (left) is welcomed to the Speaker Brad Shaw (right) accepts a Milwaukee Chair John Kozenieki (left) Northwestern Pennsylavania Section pro- speaker gift from Northwestern Pennsyl- is shown with speaker Marry Johnson No- gram by Educational Chair Steve DeHart. vania Chair Chet Wesley November 11. vember 13.

Affiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co. Topic: Fundamentals of welding austenitic stainless steels Activity: This Northwestern Pennsiva- nia program was held at Tri State Weld- ing Lab for 58 attendees.

NOVEMBER 11 Speaker: Brad Shaw, senior welding engineer Topic: Steel and welding issues related to high-speed, 300-mph rail transportation systems Shown at the Milwaukee Chrismms party are (from left) District 12 Director Michael Activity: This Northwestern Pennsylva- D. Kersey, Bob Schuster, Chair John Kozeniecki, Jay Wilson, and Gerald Blaski. nia Section program was held at Tri State Welding Lab for 59 attendees. NOVEMBER 13 Activity: The Milwaukee Section held its annual Christmas party at Sprecher DISTRICT 1 1 Brewery in Milwaukee, Wis. The event Director: Eftihios Siradakla included a tour of the Rathskellar Mu- Phone: (989) 894-4101 seum to see displays of artifacts from historic Milwaukee-area breweries. DETROIT DECEMBER 4 Activity: The Section held its holiday DISTRICT 13 dinner. The proceeds from the Detroit Director: J. L. Hunter Red Wings ticket auction were donated Phone: (309) 888-8956 to the Salvation Army. The Lexington Section hosted an aluminum welding seminar. DISTRICT 12 DISTRICT 14 Director: Michael D. Kersey Director=. Tully C. Parker Phone: (262) 650-9364 Phone: (618) 667-7744

MILWAUKEE LEXINGTON NOVEMBER 13 NOVEMBER 20 Speaker: Malty Johnson, wildlife Speakers: Edward Varekojis, and Lou biologist Vitucci Affiliation: Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Topic: Welding aluminum with inverter Resources technology Topic: Deer hunting and the impact of Activity: The meeting, attended by 60 Indianapolis Past Chair Bennie Flynn chronic wasting disease for the season people, was held at Central Kentucky (left) is shown with presenters Fern Activity: Thirty-five people attended the Vocational Technical School. Deckard and Mike Anderson at the No- program. vember 10 school welding program.

WELDING JOURNAL W,IcW Arrowhead Section Chair Loren Kantola (right) is shown with tour guides John Penaz and Scott Udenberg during the Sec- The Northern Plains Section members are shown during their tour of Fargo Tank and tion's tour of Sercoloaders November 20. Steel facilities in December.

INDIANAPOLIS KANSAS NOVEMBER 13 Activity: The Section toured the Trinity NOVEMBER 10 SEPTEMBER 29 Activity: This student night program, Activity: The Section held its meeting Industries facilities in Oklahoma City, held at Warren Central High School, at Whiskey Creek Restaurant in Wi- to study the production welding proce- featured welding topics related to auto chita, Kans. The topic for discussion was dures used for the manufacture of re- racing. Instructor Mike Anderson the AWS DI.1, Structural Welding Code frigerated railroad cars. Ninety people hosted the event. -- Steel. participated in the event.

OCTOBER 28 HOUSTON Activity: The Kansas Section members NOVEMBER 19 DISTRICT 15 toured the Big Dog Motorcycle manu- Activity: The Section hosted its Student Director: J. D. Heikkinen facturing facility in Wichita, Kans. Mr. Night and awards presentation program Phone: (218) 741-9693 Shaw discussed the need for precision at Brady Landing Restaurant. In atten- welding of the various parts. dance were members of the Texas A&M ARROWHEAD Student Chapter. Honored were Chau NOVEMBER 20 Hoang, Private Sector Instructor Activity: The Section toured the Ser- Award; John Husfeld, Section Educa- coloaders facility in Two Harbors, DISTRICT 17 tor Award; Ed Malmgren, Dennis Eck, Minn., to study the manufacturing tech- and Larry Smith, Section Meritorious Director: Oren P. Reich Awards; Randy Sipes, District Merito- niques used to build various industrial Phone: (254) 867-2203 loading and lifting equipment. Scott rious Award; John Pearson, Section- Udenherg, plant superintendent, con- level Dalton E. Hamilton Memorial ducted the tour. CENTRAL TEXAS CWI of the Year Award; and Ron Theiss, District-level Dalton E. Hamil- DECEMBER 9 ton CWI of the Year Award. Special Speaker: Dave Colwell, Sr. tech rep. District Director awards were presented Affiliation: J. W. Harris Co., Inc. NORTHERN PLAINS to Dan Jones, Kim Smith, Asif Latif, Subject: Filler metals DECEMBER and Dave Smith; and Special Houston Activity: This meeting, fully sponsored Activity: The Section toured the Fargo Section Meritorious Awards were be- by Dupuy Oxygen and Supply Co., was Tank and Steel facilities in Fargo, stowed upon Ron Theiss, and Daryle held at Texas State Technical College N.Dak. The tour guides included Jim Morgan. Rudland, shop superintendent, and with the Section's Student Chapter in Bruce Palmer, structural lead man. attendance. EAST TEXAS NOVEMBER 20 OKLAHOMA CITY Activity: The Section toured the Le- DISTRICT 16 OCTOBER 16 Tourneau, Inc., factory in Longview, Director: C. F. Burg Speaker: Ron Walker, district sales Tex., to study the construction of large Phone: (515) 294-5428 manager. front-end loaders and other earth- Affiliation: Hobart Brothers moving equipment. MID PLAINS Topic: Metal core welding DECEMBER 3 Activity: This meeting was held at Activity: The Section held its meeting Boardman, Inc., in Oklahoma City. Fol- at the North Platte High School to lowing the talk and a slide presentation, demonstrate the proper use of small the members had a hands-on demon- household-type welding machines. stration of the advantages of using metal DISTRICT 18 Everyone had an opportunity to make core filler metals compared with basic Director: John Mendoza welds using the equipment. GMAW consumables. Phone: (210) 860-2592

E~ m FEBRUARY 2004 I First place honors went to Brian Visher; DISTRICT 19 second place was taken by Josh Meyers. Director: Phil Zammit More than 40 participated in the event. Phone: (509) 468-2310 ext. 120 OCTOBER 30 Speaker: James Vela, CWI SPOKANE Topic: Prequalified WPSs DECEMBER 17 Activity: Brad Bosworth received the Activity: The Section met at the Fresno Section CWI of the Year Award. Spokane Skills Center where two shifts of students study welding using the AWS S.E.N.S.E., Entry Level Welder, program of instruction. Andrew Snyder, SACRAMENTO VALLEY welding instructor, conducted the tour. NOVEMBER 19 Activity: The Section toured the Gayle Manufacturing facility in Woodland, John More (fight) accepts his Silver Mem- Calif., to study its innovative procedures bership Award from Kern Section Chair DISTRICT 20 for fabricating structural steel products. Brent Welsh November 20. Director: Jesse A. Grantham Phone: (303) 451-6759

DISTRICT 21 Director: Les Bennett Nominations Sought Phone: (805) 929-2356 for National Offices KERN AWS members who wish to nominate candidates for President, Vice Presi- SEPTEMBER 18 dent, and Director-at-Large on the AWS Board of Directors for the term start- Activity: The Section toured Valley industrial X-Ray & Inspection Services, ing June 1, 2005, may either: Inc., in Bakersfield, Calif. Jack Wright 1) Send their nominations before February 15, 2004, to Ernest D. Levert, demonstrated ultrasonic shearwave ex- National Nominating Committee Chairman, American Welding Society, 550 amination techniques. The members ex- NW LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126. perienced hands-on demonstrations of or various nondestructive examination 2) Present the nomination in person at the open session of the National Nom- procedures, including magnetic parti- inating Committee Meeting scheduled for 10:00 to 11:00 A.M., Tuesday, April cle, liquid penetrant, ground-penetrat- 6, 2004, at McCormick Place, Chicago, Illinois, during the AWS 2004 Welding ing radar, and magna flux leakage. Show. Nominations must be accompanied by biogaphical material on each candi- OCTOBER 16 date, including a written statement by the candidate as to willingness and ability Activity: Praxair hosted the Kern Sec- to serve if nominated and elected, and a 5 X 7-in. black and white or color pho- tion to a barbeque dinner and a presen- tograph. tation by Lincoln Electric Co. representatives on changes to FEMA structurhl steel fabrication requirements.

NOVEMBER 20 Activity: The Kern Section held its meeting at Flowserve Hot-Tap and Line Stopping. John More was presented the AWS Silver Membership Award for his Notice of Annual Meeting 25 years of service to the Society. American Welding Society The Annual Meeting of the members of the American Welding Society will DISTRICT 22 be held on Monday, April 5, 2004, beginning at 9:00 A.M. at McCormick Place, Director: Kent S. Baucher Chicago, Illinois. Phone: (559) 276-9311 The regular business of the Society will be conducted, including election of officers and nine members of the Board of Directors. Any business properly FRESNO brought before the membership will be considered. SEPTEMBER 26 Activity: The Section held its annual trap shoot at Fresno Trap & Skeet Club.

I WELDING JOURNAL E~J 2003-2004 Member-Get-A-Member Campaign

Listed below are the people participating in the 2003-2004 Member-Get-A-Member Campaign. For campaign rules and a prize list, please seepage 53 of this Welding Journal If you have any questions regarding your member proposer points, please call the Membership Department at (800) 443-9353 ext. 480.

Winner~ Circle President's Honor Roll J. Daugherty, Louisville -- 16 (A WS Members sponsoring 20 or more (14 WS members sponsoring 1-5 new In- D. Hatfield, Tulsa -- 16 new Individual Members, per year, since dividual Members between June 1, 2003, A. Reis, Pittsburgh -- 16 June 1, 1999.) and May 31, 2004. T. Baldwin, Arrowhead- 15 Only those sponsoring 2 or more A WS R. Norris, Maine -- 15 J. Compton, San Fernando Valley**** Individual Members are listed.) D. Roskiewich, Philadelphia -- 15 E. H. Ezell, Mobile** M. Anderson, Indiana -- 14 S. McGill, Northeast Tennessee* D. St.-Laurent, Northern Alberta -- 5 J. Hepburn, Johnstown-Altoona -- 13 J. Merzthal, Peru** B. Suckow, Northern Plains -- 5 L. Davis, New Orleans -- 13 B. A. Mikeska, Houston* C. Wesley, Northwestern Pa. -- 5 G. Euliano, NWPennsylvania -- 13 R. L. Peaslee, Detroit* C. Dynes, Kern -- 4 W Harris, Pascagoula -- 13 W. L. Shreve, Fox Valley* J. Smith, Columbus -- 4 K. Ellis, Central Pennsylvania -- 12 G. Taylor, Pascagoula** S. Abarca, Illinois Valley -- 3 A. Badeaux, Washington, D.C. -- 12 T. Weaver, Johnstown/Altoona* K. Campbell, L~4./Inland Empire -- 3 R. Tupta, Jr., Milwaukee- 11 G. Woomer, Johnstown/Altoona* C. Chilton, Ozark -- 3 P. Walker, Ozark -- 11 R. Wray, Nebraska* B. Franklin, Mobile -- 3 R. Williams, Ozark -- 11 J. Greer, Chicago -- 3 J. Boyer, Lancaster -- 10 *Denotes the number of times an Indi- T. Nichols, West Tennessee -- 3 M. Koehler, Milwaukee -- 10 vidual Member has achieved Winner's J. Cantlin, Southern Colorado -- 2 T. Strickland, Arizona -- 10 Circle status. Status will be awarded at S. Colton, Arizona -- 2 A. Vidick, Wyoming- 10 the close of each membership campaign A. DeMarco, New Orleans -- 2 D. Weeks, Southwest Virginia -- 10 year. E. Duplantis, San Antonio -- 2 G. Gammill, Northeast Mississippi -- 9 S. Henson, Spokane -- 2 J. Mendoza, San Antonio -- 8 R. Johnson, Detroit -- 2 J. Pelster, Southwest Nebraska -- 8 President~ Guild P. Krishnasamy, India -- 2 J. Smith, Jr., Mobile -- 8 (.4 WS Members sponsoring 20 or more G. Mulee, Rochester -- 2 J. Compton, San Femando Va//ey- 7 new Individual Members between June J. O'Neal, Ozark -- 2 R. Gallagher, Jr., Lehigh Valley -- 7 1, 2003, and May 31, 2004.) R. Painter, Holston Valley -- 2 W Galvery,Jr, LongBeach/OmngeCnty-- 6 S. Schrecengost, Pittsburgh -- 2 C. Kipp, Utah -- 6 T. Shirk, Tidewater -- 2 M. Tyron, Utah -- 6 President's Round Table R. Warner, Utah -- 2 D. Vranich, North Florida -- 6 (A WS Members sponsoring 11-19 new D. Wright, Kansas City -- 2 J. Carney, Western Michigan -- 5 Individual Members between June 1, R. Wright, Southern Colorado -- 2 T Kienbaum, Colorado -- 5 2003, and May 31, 2004.) A. Mattox, Lexington -- 5 W Miller, New Jersey -- 5 R. Purvis, Sacramento -- 14 Student Sponsors S. Williams, Central Arkansas -- 5 P. Evans, Chicago- 12 (A WS members sponsoring 3 or more R. Douglas-Wells, Atlanta -- 4 T. Hart, Mobile -- 12 new AWS Student Members between E Henry, LM./Inland Empire -- 4 June 1, 2003, and May 31, 2004.) J. Olivarez, Jr., Puget Sound -- 4 R. Richwine, Indiana -- 4 President~ Club R. Olson, Sioux/and -- 36 D. Smith, Niagara Frontier -- 4 (A WS members sponsoring 6--10 new In- M. Pointer, Sierra Nevada -- 27 W Wilson, New Orleans -- 4 dividual Members C. Donnell, Northwest Ohio -- 25 D. Zabel, Southeast Nebraska -- 4 between June 1, 2003, and May 31, S. Sivinski, Maine -- 24 T. Bur, Northern Michigan -- 3 2004.) M. Arand, Louisville -- 23 J. Ciaramitaro, North Central Florida -- 3 C. Overfelt, Southwest Virginia -- 23 J. Crosby, Atlanta -- 3 J. Powell, Triangle -- 9 M. Wilkes, Mahoning Valley -- 23 R. Grays, Kern -- 3 W. Drake, Jr., Ozark -- 8 D. Combs, Santa Clara Valley -- 21 R. Huston, Olympic -- 3 G. Taylor, Pascagoula -- 7 D. Kettler, Williamette Valley -- 21 J. Livesay, Nashville --3 J. Compton, San Fernando Valley -- 6 W Kielhorn, East Texas -- 21 J. Morash, Boston -- 3 C. Daily, Puget Sound -- 6 E Juckem, Madison-Beloit -- 20 A. Ochoa, San Francisco -- 3 P. Walker, Ozark -- 6 D. Scott, Peoria -- 19 H. Rivera, South Florida -- 3 E Wernet, Lehigh Valley -- 19 T. Shirk, Tidewater -- 3 t B. Chesney, Green & White Mountains -- 17

ll.'1:! FEBRUARY 2004 Technical Nominations For AWS Committee Meetings

District Directors All AWS technical committee meetings are open to the public. Persons wish- The term of office for District Directors in the following Districts will terminate ing to attend a meeting should contact the on May 31, 2005. As District Nominating Committees will be appointed this spring, staff secretary of the committee as listed it is time to be thinking of position nominations. For further information, use your below at AWS, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., current District Director's contact information given below. Miami, FL 33126; telephone: (800) 443- 9353 or, outside the United States, (305) District 3 District 15 443-9353. Alan J. Badeaux, Jr., Instructor * Jack D. Heikkinen, President Charles County Career & Tech Center Spartan Sauna Heaters, Inc. February 4-5, International Standards 7775 Marshall Corner Rd. 7484 Malta Rd. Activities Committee. Miami, Fla. Pomfret, MD 20675 Eveleth, MN 55734 General meeting. Staff contact: A. R. Telephone: (301) 934-9061 (218) 741-8433 Davis, ext. 466. FAX: (301) 934-0165 e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] February 5-6, Technical Activities Committee. Miami, Fla. General meet- District 18 District 6 ing. Staff contact: A. R. Davis, ext. 466. John Mendoza Neal A. Chapman, Welding Engineer City Public Service Entergy Nuclear Northeast February 11, D16 Committee on 15491 McIntyre Rd. 3319 Kashmuir Robotic and Automatic Welding. Sterling, NY 13156 San Antonio, TX 78223-1612 Orlando, Fla. Standards preparation Telephone: (315) 349-6960 Telephone: (210) 532-9098 and general meeting. Staff contact: P. FAX: (315) 349-6625 e-mail: mendoza [email protected] Howe, ext. 309. e-mail: [email protected] February 26-27, C3 Committee on District 21 Brazing and Soldering. Miami, Fla. District 9 Les J. Bennett Standards preparation and general * John C. Bruskotter Associate Professor meeting. Staff contact: C. Jenney, ext. Dynamic Industries, Inc. Allan Hancock College 304. 2804 Peters Rd. (70058) 1020 Fairway Vista Dr. P.O. Box 44 Santa Maria, CA 93455 February 26-27, B2F Subcommittee on Harvey, LA 70059 (805) 348-1838 Plastic Welding Qualification, Miami, Telephone: (504) 363-5900 e-mail: [email protected] Fla. Standards preparation meeting. FAX: (504) 363-5920 Staff contact: A. R. Davis, ext. 466. e-mail: [email protected] March 14-19, D1 Committee on Structural Welding. Atlanta, Ga. District 12 Standards preparation meeting. Staff * Michael D. Kersey, Technical Sales contact: J. L. Gayler, ext. 472. Representative The Lincoln Electric Company March 29, C2 Committee on Thermal W223 N798 Saratoga Drive #H Spraying. New Orleans, La. General Waukesha, WI 53186 meeting. Staff contact: A. R. Davis, ext. Telephone: (262) 650-9364 * Denotes current District Director is 466. FAX: (262) 650-9370 not eligible for reelection to another e-mail: [email protected] three-year term. March 29, G1A Subcommittee on Hot Gas Welding and Extrusion Welding. New Orleans, La. General meeting. Staff contact: A. R. Davis, ext. 466.

Standards Notices March 30, A5K Subcommittee on Standard for Public Review Titanium and Zirconium Filler Metals. New Orleans, La. General meeting. A WS was approved as an accredited standards-preparing organization by the Ameri- Staff contact: A. R. Davis, ext. 466. can National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1979. A WS rules, as approved by ANSI, require that all standards be open to public reviewfor comment during the approval process. March 30, G2D Subcommittee on This column also advises of ANSI approval of documents. The following standards are Reactive Alloys. New Orleans, La. submitted for public review.A draft copy may be obtained by contacting Rosalinda O'Neill General meeting. Staff contact: A. R. at A WS, Technical Services Business Unit, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, F133126; tele- Davis, ext. 466. t phone (800/305) 443-9353 ext. 451, e-mail: [email protected].

D16.1 M/D16.1:200X, Specification for Robotic Arc Welding Safety. New standard. $7. [ANSI public review expires February 10, 2004.]

WELDING JOURNAL E,1,~i GUIDE TO AWS SERVICES 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126 Phone (800) 443-9353; (888) WELDING FAX (305) 443-7559; Internet: www.aws.org Phone extensions appear in parentheses. E-mail addresses are available on the AWS web site.

AWS PRESIDENT PUBLICATION SERVICES CERTIFICATION OPERATIONS Thomas M. Mustaleski Department Information ...... (275) Managing Director BWXT Y-12 LLC Director Wendy S. Reeve ...... (215) P.O. Box 2009 Andrew Cullison ...... (249) Oak Ridge, TN 37831-8096 Director WELDING JOURNAL Terry Perez ...... (470) Publisher ADMINISTRATION Jeff Weber ...... (246) Information and application materials on certi- Executive Director fying welders, welding inspectors, and educators. Editor/Editorial Director ...... (273) Ray W. Shook ...... (210) Andrew Cullison ...... (249) Deputy Executive Directors National Sales Director INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS Jeffrey R. Hufsey ...... (264) Rob Saltzstein ...... (243) DEVELOPMENT John J. McLaughlin ...... (235) Director WELDING HANDBOOK Walter Herrera ...... (475) Chief Financial Officer Welding Handbook Editor Frank R. Tarafa ...... (252) Annette O'Brien ...... (303) AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, AND COUNSELORS Corporate Director of Quality Publishes AWS's monthly magazine, the Weld- Managing Director ing Journal, which provides information on the Wendy S. Reeve ...... (215) Management Systems state of the welding industry, its technology, and Linda K. Henderson ...... (298) Society activities.Publishes Inspection Trends, Coordinates AWS awards and AWS Fellow the Welding Handbook, and books on general and Counselor nominees. Executive Assistant for welding suSjects. Board Services and IIW TECHNICAL SERVICES Gricelda Manalich ...... (294) MARKETING Department Information ...... (340) Corporate Director Bob Bishopric ...... (213) Andrew R. Davis ...... (466) HUMAN RESOURCES Director Technical Operations and Interna- Director Plans and coordinates marketing of AWS prod- tional Standards Development, Welding in Ma- Luisa Hernandez ...... (266) ucts and services. rine Construction, Inspection, Mechanical Test- ing of Welds MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS DATABASE ADMINISTRATION Senior Manager Stephen P. Hedrick ...... (305) Corporate Director George Leposky ...... (416) Safety and Health Manager, Metric Practices, Jim Lankford ...... (214) Friction Welding Manager Amy Nathan ...... (308) Engineers INTERNATIONAL John L. Gayler ...... (472) INSTITUTE OF WIELDING MARKET RESEARCH Structural Welding, Personnel and Facilities Information ...... (294) AND DEVELOPMENT Qualification Corporate Director Provides liaison activities involving other pro- Debrah C. Weir ...... (482) Rakesh Gupta ...... (301) fessional societies and standards organizations, Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International nationally and internationally. Investigates and/or proposes new products Filler Metals, Instrumentation for Welding, Sheet and services. Researches effectiveness of Metal Welding existing programs. GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES Harold P. Ellison ...... (299) Hugh K. Webster Resistance Welding, High-Energy Beam Weld- MEMBER SERVICES ing and Cutting, Oxyfuel Gas Welding & Cut- Webster, Chamberlain & Bean Department Information ...... (480) Washington, D.C. ting, Automotive Welding, Aircraft and Aero- space (202) 466-2976 Associate Executive Director FAX (202) 835-0243 Cassie R. Burrell ...... (253) Peter Howe ...... (309) Arc Welding & Cutting, Piping & Tubing, Identifies sources of funding for welding ed- Director Machinery and Equipment, Robotics and ucation and research and development. Mon- Rhenda A. Mayo ...... (260) Automatic Welding, Food Processing Equip- itors legislative and regulatory issues impor- ment tant to the industry. Serves as a liaison between Section members and AWS headquarters. Informs members about Cynthia Jenney ...... (304) AWS benefits and other activities of interest. Definitions & Symbols, Brazing & Soldering, Filler WELDING EQUIPMENT Metals for Brazing and Braze Welding, Technical MANUFACTURERS COMMITTEE EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT Editing Mary Ellen Mills ...... (444) DEVELOPMENT Director Technical Publications Christopher B. Pollock ...... (219) Senior Manager WELDING INDUSTRY NETWORK (WIN) Rosalinda O'Neill ...... (451) Mary Ellen Mills ...... (444) Information on education products, projects, and programs. Responsible for the S.E.N.S.E. AWS publishes more than 160 volumes of program for welding education, and dissemina- material, including standards that are used CONVENTION & EXPOSITIONS tion of training andeducation information on throughout the industry. Exhibiting Information ...... (242, 295) the Web. With regard to technical inquiries, oral opinions Managing Director of Convention Sales CONFERENCES & SEMINARS on AWS standards may be rendered. However, Jeff Weber ...... (246) Director such opinions represent only the personal opin- Giselle I. Hufsey ...... (278) ions of the particular individuals givmg them. These Director of Convention & Expositions individuals do not speak on behalf of AWS, nor do John Ospina ...... (462) Responsible for national and local confer- these oral opinions constitute official or unofficial ences/exhibitions and seminars on industry opinions or interpretations of AWS. In addition, topics ranging from the basics to the leading oral opinions are informal and should not be used Organizes the week-long annual AWS Interna- edge of technology. Organizes CWI, SCWI, tional Welding and Fabricating Exposition and as a substitute for an official interpretation. and other seminars designed for preparation for Convention. Regulates space assignments, reg- certification. istration materials, and other Expo activities. WEB SITE ADMINISTRATION Director Keith Thompson ...... (414) mrJ[mm FEBRUARY 2004 TELEWELD Nominees for FAX: (305) 443-5951 PUBLICATION SALES & ORDERS National Office Global Engineering Documents (800) 854-7179 or (303) 397-7956 Only Sustaining Members, Members, Honorary Members, Life Members, or Re- tired Members who have been members for a period of at least three years shall be REPRINTS eligible for election as a Director or National Officer. To order quality custom reprints, contact It is the duty of the National Nominating Committee to nominate candidates for na- Claudia Stachowiak at FosteReprints at tional office. The committee shall hold an open meeting, preferably at the Annual Meet- (866) 879-9144 ext. 121 ing, at which members may appear to present and discuss the eligibility of all candidates. To be considered a candidate for positions of President, Vice President, Treasurer, or Director-at-Large, the following qualifications and conditions apply: President: To be eligible to hold the office of President, an individual must have served as a Vice President for at least one year. It is the intent of the American Welding Vice President: To be eligible to hold the office of Vice President, an individual Society to build the Society to the highest qual- must have served at least one year as a Director, other than Executive Director and ity standards possible. We welcome any sug- Secretary. gestions you may have. Please contact any of the staff listed on Treasurer: To be eligible to hold the office of Treasurer, an individual must be a the previous page or A WS President Thomas member of the Society, other than a Student Member, must be frequently available M. Mustaleski, BWXT Y-12 LLC, P.O. Box to the National Office, and should be of executive status in business or industry with 2009, Oak Ridge, TN 37831-8096. experience in financial affairs. Director-at-Large: To be eligible for election as a Director-at-Large, an individual shall previously have held office as Chairman of a Section; as Chairman or Vice Chairman of a standing, technical or special committee of the Society; or as District Director. AWS MISSION STATEMENT Interested parties are to send a letter stating which particular office they are seeking, including a statement of qualifications, their willingness and ability to serve if The mission of the American Welding Society is to provide quality products and nominated and elected, and 20 copies of their biographical sketch. services to its members and the industry This material should be sent to Ernest D. Levert, Chairman, National Nominat- that will advance the science, technology, ing Committee, American Welding Society, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126. and application of materials joining The next meeting of the National Nominating Committee is currently scheduled throughout the world. for April 2004. The term of office for candidates nominated at this meeting will com- mence June 1, 2005. • AWS FOUNDATION, INC. 550 NW LeJeune Rd. Miami, FL 33126 Honorary-Meritorious Awards (305) 445-6628 The Honorary-Meritorious Awards Committee has the duty to make recommendations (800) 443-9353, ext. 293 Or e-mail: [email protected] regarding nominees presented for Honorary Membership, National Meritorious Certificate, General Information William Irrgang Memorial, and the George E. Willis Awards. These awards are presented in (800) 443-9353, ext. 689 conjunction with the AWS Exposition and Convention held each spring. The descriptions of these awards follow, and the submission deadline for consideration is July 1 prior to the year of Chairman, Board of Trustees presentation. All candidate material should be sent to the attention of John J. McLaughlin, Ronald C. Pierce Secretary, Honorary-Meritorious Awards Committee, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126. Executive Director National Meritorious Certificate International Meritorious Certifi- Ray W. Shook Award: This award is given in recognition cate Award: This award is given in recog- of the candidate's counsel, loyalty, and de- nition of the candidate's significant contri- Director of Development votion to the affairs of the Society, assis- butions to the worldwide welding industry. Robert B. Witherell tance in promoting cordial relations with This award should reflect "Service to the The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit industry and other organizations, and for International Welding Community" in the corporation established to provide support for the contribution of time and effort on be- broadest terms. The awardee is not re- educational and scientificendeavors of the half of the Society. quired to be a member of the American American Welding Society. Information on Welding Society. Multiple awards can be gift-givingprograms is available William Irrgang Memorial Award: given per year as the situation dictates. The upon request. This award is administered by the American award consists of a certificate to be pre- Welding Society and sponsored by The Lin- sented at the award's luncheon or at an- coln Electric Co. to honor the late William other time as appropriate in conjunction Irrgang. It is awarded each year to the indi- with the AWS President's travel itinerary, vidual who has done the most to enhance the and, if appropriate, a one-year membership American Welding Society's goal of advanc- to AWS. ing the science and technology of welding over the past five-year period. Honorary Membership Award: An George E. Willis Award: This award is Honorary Member shall be a person of ac- administered by the American Welding So- knowledged eminence in the welding pro- ciety and sponsored by The Lincoln Elec- fession, or who is accredited with excep- tric Co. to honor George E. Willis. It is tional accomplishments in the development awarded each year to an individual for proof the welding art, upon whom the Ameri- moting the advancement of welding inter- can Welding Society sees fit to confer an nationally by fostering cooperative partici- honorary distinction. An Honorary Mem- pation in areas such as technology trans- ber shall have full rights of membership. • fer, standards rationalization, and promotion of industrial goodwill.

WELDING JOURNAL m'~Im VEI4 LITERATURE ] FOR MORE INFORMATION, CIRCLENUMBER ON READER INFORMATIONCARD.

2004 Catalog Presents stitute of Steel Construction (AISC). The Standard for Avoiding guides are available for purchase or down- Miller's Full Line load from www.aisc.orgor by calling AISC Refinery Piping Cracks at (800) 644-2400. Published NACE Standard RP0403-2003, Avoid- Brochure Features 3-D ing Caustic Stress Corrosion of Carbon Steel Refinery Equipment and Piping, has been Laser Beam Cutting released. This standard provides guidance to those designing, fabricating, and/or YRUMPf 3D Laser Cutting Center maintaining carbon steel equipment and piping that are exposed to caustic environments. The publication includes the "Caustic Soda Service Chart." The price is $33 list, $25 for NACE members. It can be purchased at www.nace.org or (281) 228-6223.

Brochure Describes Storage Boxes for Pickup Trucks

The company's 84-page, full-color 2004 catalog includes its full line of weld- ]Difflelt~ondl Palls ing and plasma arc cutting products with specifications and suggested accessories. A glossary of welding terminology is included. ii Miller Electric Mfg. Co. 114 P.O. Box 100, Lithonia, GA 30058 A full-color, four-page brochure for the TLC CUT 5 describes the five-axis progammed laser beam cutting center. Design Guides Cover Steel The three-dimensional cutting system is Construction Topics available with CO 2 lasers from 2000 to 3200 Watts. A series of guides on steel construction topics for architects and engineers Trumpf Inc. 115 has been published by the American In- 47711 Clipper St., Plymouth, MI 48170

A six-page color brochure features the COR-MET Rollerbox TM line of utility storage boxes for pickup trucks. The diamond plate alu- SPECIALTY CORED WIRE minum units are mounted on rails via the AND COATED ELECTRODES truck's stake pockets, allowing them to slide from cab to tailgate and back as (810) 227-3251 FAX: (810) 227-9266 needed. www.cor-met.com Slide Systems 116 125 Rasbach St., Canastota, NY 13032

Textbook Introduces Welding, European-Style

The 200-page paperback textbook, Circle No. 19 on Reader Info-Card alr#,ia FEBRUARY 2004 Welding Processes Handbook by Klas NEWPRODUCTS COMING EVENTS Weman, introduces the student or novice welder to the major welding processes. The book covers requirements referred to -- continued from page 23 -- continued from page 50 in European standards, and can be used as a textbook for the combined courses of bevel and face, or bevel and bore, the pipe. Shielded Metal Arc Welding of 2-In. Pipe the European Federation of Welding, Pipes from 1.575-in. I.D. to 8.625-in. O.D. in the 6G Position -- Uphill. Hobart Joining and Cutting and the International can be handled. Institute of Welding Technology, Troy, Institute of Welding. Price is $70 (avail- Ohio. This course is designed to develop able online from www.woodhead-publish- ESCO Tool 111 welding skills necessary to produce quali- ing.com). P.O. Box 530, Medfield, MA 02052 ty multipass welds on 2-in.-diameter, schedule 160 mild steel pipe (0.436-in. Carbide Burrs Available in wall thickness) in the 6G position using E6010 and E7018 electrodes. For further Specialized Shapes information, contact: Hobart Institute of NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY Welding Technology, 400 Trade Square East, Troy, OH 45373, (800) 332-9448, FAX: (937) 332-5200; www.welding.org. -- continued from page 12 2004 Motor Sports Welding School. ager, directs the office's operations. Classes are scheduled at Lincoln Electric Technical sales staff will provide sales, headquarters in Cleveland, Ohio. For service, and support for all MKS prod- more information and a complete sched- ucts in China. ule, contact: Lincoln Electric Motor Sports Welding School, 22801 St. Clair Ave., Cleveland, OH 44117, (216) 383- • American Torch Tip Co., Bradenton, 2461, FAX: (216) 383-8088, e-mail: Fla., recently invested $1 million in new [email protected]; www.lin- equipment. The state-of-the-art CNC colnelectric.com. machines will be used to produce some The company's carbide burrs are proof the more than 16,000 plasma, laser, duced in a wide variety of shapes and sizes Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors GMAW, GTAW, thermal spray, oxy- for weld preparation, metal removal, de- Training Courses and Seminars. Courses fuel, and multiuse replacement parts burring, creating radii, etc. They are avail- and seminars cover such topics as ASME the company sells for use on torches, able in standard, double, nonferrous, and Code Sections I, IV, V, VIII (Division 1), guns, and machines for welding, cut- heavy-duty cuts, with ~-in. and ¼-in. IX, and B31.1; Writing Welding ting, and metal treating. shanks. Procedures; Repairing Pressure Relief Rex-Cut Products, Inc. 112 Valves; Understanding How Boilers and Pressure Vessels Are Constructed and Wall Colmonoy, Madison Heights, P.O. Box 2109, Fall River, MA 02722 Inspected; and more. To obtain a 2004 Mich., is celebrating its 65th year of schedule of training courses and seminars business. The company was founded in Helmet Features 30% conducted by the National Board of 1938 under the trade name Col- Larger Window, More Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors at monoy® by metallurgists Norman its Training and Conference Center in Cole and Walter Edmonds. Soon after, Sensors Columbus, Ohio, contact: Richard A. E Wall, owner of a large industrial McGuire, Manager of Training, (614) gas company, purchased the firm, 888-8320, e-mail: rmcguire@national- named it Wall Colmonoy Corp., and board.org; www.nationalboard.org. moved the operation from California to Detroit. Today Wall Colmonoy manufactures nickel-based hard-surfacing Welding Skills Training Courses. Courses alloys and brazing filler metals, and op- include weldability of ferrous and nonfer- erates five contract processing facili- rous metals, arc welding inspection and ties across the United States and Eu- quality control, preparation for recertifi- rope. cation of CWIs, and others. For a complete 2004 schedule, contact: Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, 400 Big Window Elite TM autodarkening • The U.S. Navy recently awarded Trade Square E., Troy, OH 45373, (800) welding helmets have a 30% larger win- Northrop Grumman's Ship Systems 332-9448 or, outside the U.S., (937) 332- dow than standard helmets. The helmets sector a $419 million contract to build 5000, FAX: (937) 332-5200; www.weld- feature four independent arc sensors for an Arleigh Burke class Aegis-guided ing. org. good response to low-amperage and out- missile destroyer. The destroyer is the of-position welding. Their twin replace- third of a four-ship multiyear procure- Structural Welding: Design and able, solar-assisted lithium batteries run ment contract awarded to Ship Sys- Specification Seminars. Conducted by for 3000 hours. tems in September 2002. The contract the Steel Structures Technology Center includes an opportunity for a fifth ship, (SSTC). For 2004 schedule and locations, for a total potential contract value of Miller Electric Mfg. Co. 113 contact: SSTC, (248) 344-2910, FAX: more than $2 billion. P.O. Box 100, Lithonia, GA 30058 (248) 344-2911; www.steelstructures.com.

WELDING JOURNAL Br~! RED HOTtProducts Alpha Automatic Introducing CenterLine® Resistance Welding Product MIG Guns Guide - Version 7.0 from ABICOR Binzel introduces the newest CenterLine (Windsor) Limited member to their line of quality MIG- "CenterLines Resistance Welding Product Gun products - the ALPHA Automatic Guide m Version 7.0" outlines our full MIG-Guns. The new "AUT" guns fea- range of cold formed electrodes, patent- ture the modular swanneck assem- ed weld nut electrodes and consumables. blies for fast replacement and inter- CenterLine provides cost effective solu- changeability, incurring less downtime tions for virtually every resistance weld- as the result of collision damage or ing requirement. This product guide is necessary parts replacement. available at www.cntrline.com; by e-mail Popular universal rear connector kits at [email protected]; or by calling us toll- available. free at 800-249-6886. Centerline Windsor Limited ABICOR BINZEL Corp. 595 Morton Drive 650 Research Dr., Ste 110 Windsor, ONT Fredrick, MD 21703-8619 Circle No. 124 Canada, N9J 3T9 Circle No. 120 (800} 542-4867 (800) 249-6886 FAX: (301) 846-4497 FAX: (519) 734-0016

Circle No. 125 Capacitor Discharge Welders m mmmmlm mmmm

Aelectronic Bonding Inc. Celebrating 20 ~. ~,e cacrege# ~); j~mor~ years, makes capacitor discharge welders utilizing resistance, pulse arc ~ a C~ ot ~ea~e~ ce~ge~ wevrece. and fusion technologies. These inexpen- ~vPnvater ~ comp~e6 U~ew~ om~ sive welders are used in the jewelry, li IIJIl~ Wmil~[M~. dental, medical, auto and electronics Y~, Lal~~:Me hew l~ you wam fo ~o ~npo~ ~reer industries. Applications from butt-weld- , )~g . a~mg qu~d~ you ~r a tz~-a~m~t~ oe~me ing wires, thermocouple leads, stud, I~ f WI m~Orf. optical frames, jewelry repairs, cathode lhete ;~rea~e. ~emic ~ ~etso~, ~. de-burring of similar and dissimilar met- Circle No. 121 als, tack weld positioning amongst F/~m d/~e m many. ABI 888-494-2663. Visit our website at www.abiusa.net. Aelectronic Bonding Inc. COU~GE OF OCEANEERING 1655 Elmwood Ave., Bldg #7 Cranston, RI 02910 (~) ~m (401) 461-4140 m FAX: (401) 461-5250 i~,iL~m ot mnl N~ ~.'~er~vS~,~

~..,~UlMP ~, _ ..- General-Purpose Cored Welding Wire Guide TIG Filter with Sensitivity This brochure shows Cor-Met's wide offerings of sizes and alloys in Cored and Grind Mode SPECIALS(CORED W~RES COATEDELECTRODES Welding Wires, Stick Electrodes and TiG SOLIO WIRE M~G AND TtG ArcOne's NEW Super Singles 240 auto- wires (both spools and cut lengths). It darkening filter is the first 2x4 filter specifically designed for Tig welding includes descriptive, classification and with features such as sensitivity and delay only available in more costly physical data on low alloy steels, cobalt- products. An additional grinding mode negates the need for a more cost- base and nickel-base alloys, tool and ly flip front helmet. The Super Singles comes with a dark state of 10.5 stainless steels, and hard-facing alloys. and a light state of 2.5, is completely Solar powered so there are never Alloys are available for resistance to any batteries to change, water and dust resistant, and up to shade 16 high temperatures, erosion and corro- UV/1R protection. Available in the Vision and Hawk helmet. sion; cored wires, electrodes and TIG and MIG solid alloy steels; cast iron and stainless steel. Cor-Met inc. 12500 E. Grand River Brighton, MI 48116 (800) 848-2719 Circle No. 126 FAX: (810) 227-9266

Circle No. 122 mmm =~,mm I*,,"" ~J~" Website: www.cor-met.com

Atlas Model 500 ,~ ~,~ .... weld WeldOffice® Software • .~ ~-~ ~ ~ Welding Positioner ~ _.the industry standard., Automatic creation and manage- The Atlas Welding ...... ment of welding procedures, welder Positioner is designed for qualifications and NDE reports. ASME IX, AWS D1.1 and EN code strength and stability in han- ASME I1 - dling and welding loads of validation supported by knowledge- up to 500 pounds when able welding engineers and code Circle No. 123 properly balanced in the committee members. Complete horizontal position. • 1/4 EN 2871288~:3~ ~. :; solutions for QA/QC management hp DC motor • 400 amp welding ground circuit ° Dynamic Braking rap- of plants, fabrication shops and idly stops table rotation • Full speed advanced for stitch welding • 14" x construction projects. 5/8" thick rotary table • On/off foot switch • Front panel speed and rotation controls C-spec Industry standard QAJQC software for P.O. Box 27604 Atlas Welding Accessories automatic creation and management of Concord, CA 94527 Troy, MI 48099 ~/elding Procedures and Welder Qualifications. 18X88) 673-9777 toll free (800) 962-9353 :(925) 930-8223 FAX: (248) 588-3720 www.weld .corn E-Maih [email protected] Website: www.cspec.com 74 Emaih [email protected] • www.atlasweld.com Circle No. 127 nED Tri-Mix TM Tungsten New & Improved Stainless Diamond Ground Products, Inc., offers Tri- Cored Wire MixTM tungsten. This premium quality tungsten material is non-radioactive and offers ESAB's newly reformulated Shield-Bright superior performance in TIG and plasma J~ X-tra, flat & horizontal stainless cored welding applications. It is blended with wire has been re-engineered to provide three rare earth elements that scientifically the latest developments in slag system balance the migration and evaporation technology. The product's arc charac- rates to extend service life with increased teristics have been enhanced to include number of arc starts and fewer misfires. Its better feed ability, improved arc direc- lower work function requires less energy to tion, and more acceptable bead appear- start and also runs cooler. Free samples ance. These modifications add up to available on request. improve the overall performance char- Circle No. 132 Diamond Ground Products, Inc. acteristics designed to meet or exceed 2550 Azurite Circle competitive products worldwide. Newbury Park, CA 91320 ESAB Welding & (805) 498-3837 Cutting Products FAX: (805) 498-9347 Florence, SC 29501-0545 E-maih [email protected] (800) ESAB-123 Circle No. 128 Website: www.diamondground.com Website: www.esabna.comB

Divers Academy international Offers Aristo Systems Combine A Career That Will Take You Places. "Intelligence" and Power Take your topside welding skills underwater and go places. Outstanding career opportunities await gradu- Ideal for a wide range of industrial ates of Divers Academy International, known world wide welding needs, including shipbuilding, for training commercial divers and underwater welders mobile machinery, offshore construc- to work on some of the worlds largest bridges, nuclear tion, automotive, power generation, power plants and oilrigs. Our state of the art commer- civil construction and more. Modular cial diving program includes, underwater welding, non- in nature, Aristo Systems can be destructive testing, HAZWOPER and remotely operated "built" with ideal components to meet vehicle training. Divers Academy International is feder- demands of your operation - and - ally accredited and offers financial assistance if quali- they are upgradable. Choose from fied, a student housing program and a career place- AristoMig, AristoTig or AristoArc in ment program. Our admissions coordinators are avail- the 400 or 500 series. Circle No. able to personally assist you. 129 Divers Academy International ESAB Welding & 2500 Broadway Cutting Products Camden, NJ 08104 Florence, $C 29501-0545 (800) 238-DIVE (800) ESAB-123 FAX: (856) 541-4355 Website: www.esabna.com E-mail: [email protected] Circle No. 133

Plasma Power Packed EZ ARC Welding Systems GENTEC offers affordable solutions From the plasma leaders, ESAB's to work station design. The EZ ARC PowerCut Plasmarc cutting packages product line includes complete feature the revolutionary PT-32EH welding workstations that accom- torch for higher production rates with modate a wide variety of part con- lower costs. These lightweight figurations. Components are machines have super-sturdy compos- attached to base rail system fixture ite cases for roughest use. Models parts for optimum results on a repetitive basis. Automation may be include: PowerCut 875 (cuts 7/8", achieved using optional Sequencer. severs 1-1/4"); PowerCut 1250 (cuts The product line also includes 1-1/4", severs 1-1/2"), PowerCut Welding Positioners and Turning 1500 (cuts 1-1/2", severs 1-3/4"). Rolls. ESAB Welding & Genstar Technologies Co. Cutting Products 4525 Edison Ave. Florence, SC 29501 Chino, CA 91710 Circle No. 130 (800) ESAB-123 (909) 606-2726 Website: www.esabna.com Circle No. 134 E-Mail: [email protected] Website: www.genstartech.com OXWELD Gas Products Plate Bevelers Have Lifetime Warranty The Bevel-Mill plate bevelers produce Buy an OXWELD gas torch or regu- fast, clean bevels for weld preparation. lator, and you'll be making a lifetime The machines use a milling type cutter investment. All OXWELD gas regula- with inexpensive standard carbide tors, welding and cutting torches inserts. Depth of cut adjustable up to and cutting attachments, as well as 13/16". Variable angle from 15 to 45 complete welding and cutting outfits degrees. Lightweight and portable with such as the TradeMaster, are cov- new added power. Several models to ered by a lifetime warranty. Plus, choose from including floor models and OXWELD gas equipment leads the bench models for ultra precision bevels. industry in quality and safety, with many unique built-in safety features. Heck Industries, Inc. P.O. Box 425 ESAB Welding & Circle No. 135 Hartland, MI 48353 Circle No. 131 Cutting Products (810} 632-5400 Florence, SC 29501-0545 FAX: (810} 632-6640 (800) ESAB-123 Website: www.heckind.net Website: www.esabna.com 75 nB "01rl,r o.,. Custom Made Stringers For Spiral Staircases: Power MIG TM 300 -- Rolled/Formed/Fabricated The Power MIG 300-a single phase, multi- To Your Specifications process, synergic wire feeder welding pack- Hodgson Custom Rolling Inc. is one of North age for the professional welder. This ready-to- weld package is unbeatable when it comes to "rr\ - , America's largest plate rolling, forming, section rolling and fabricating companies, servic- superior multi-process welding. The synergic ing numerous industries including the energy design, traditionally only available in more sectors of hydro, petro chemical, atomic, gas, expensive welders, gives you ultimate control oil, wind, etc. in addition to those in heavy man- over the arc by automatically aligning wire feed ufacturing, steel pulp & paper, mining, marine speed and voltage. It also offers top quality forestry, etc. Hodgson has the expertise to aluminum welds with push-pull wire feed capa- roll curved structural sections into a wide bility, not usually available in competitive models. True MIG pulsing and Pulse-on-PulseTM Circle No. 136 range of shapes and sizes (angle, wide flange Circle No. 140 beam, channel, bar, tee section, pipe, tubing, capabilities ensure that superior feeding is rail, etc.), specializing in custom made Spiral Staircase Stringers. matched by high quality arc performance. HODGSON CUSTOM ROLLING INC. The Lincoln Electric Company 5580 Kalar Road, Niagara Falls, ON 22801 St. Clair Ave. CANADA L2H 3L1 Cleveland, Ohio 44117 (800) 263-2547 FAX: (905) 356-6025 (216) 481-8100 E-Maih [email protected] Website: www.lincolnelectric.com

Pro-Cut 55 New Oxy-Acetylene -- Hose The Pro-Cut 55 plasma cutter Reels Industrial Design, packs the highest cutting perform- Priced To Sell! ance in the industry into a portable, 55 lb. unit. 60 amps of power allow New OxyAcetylene Hose Reels from cutting up to 3/4" while the PCT 80 Rapid Reel make hose handling easy. torch and VORTECHTM technology With all-steel construction, powder-coat consumables provide speed and paint, and top-grade components, you capacity. The unit's power source won't find a higher quality hose reel on Circle No. 137 incorporates "dual winding technol- the market today. Mounting options avail- ogy" which makes the Pro-Cut 55 able for trucks, flatbeds, walls, carts, the easiest to use in the industry. Arc transfer is faster and dross lev- and more. 50' to 300' hose capacity. els at the start are lower, and gouging performance is unparalleled for Circle No. 141 Priced from $120 to $345 MSRP. a unit this size. Patented full-flow cooling delivers the longest consum- Contact Rapid Reel for more information. able life in the industry. Reel Quick, Inc. The Lincoln Electric Company P.O. Box 22640 22801 St. Clair Ave. Lincoln, NE 68542-2640 Cleveland, Ohio 44117 800-523-4321 (216) 481-8100 FAX: 800-548-3203 Website: www.lincolnelectric.com Website: www.RapidReel.com Invertec® V205-T AC/DC Ready Welder II - Worlds Best Get precise TIG welding wherever you Selling Spool Gun! need it with the Invertec V205-T AC/DC TIG Welder. This rugged unit is light- An incredibly powerful MIG welder offering weight (just 33 Ibs.) and portable, making solid performance, quality built and totally it ideal for shop or field. Full-featured TIG portable. Using batteries the RWll can sin- controls give you command of AC or DC gle pass 1/2" steel, aluminum or stainless output on a wide variety of material types metals. When connected to a welding and thicknesses. It stick welds, too. machine, the RWll is the best balanced Lincoln's advanced inverter technology optimizes arc performance, while and most versatile spool gun-period. Ideal adjustable AC frequency lets you focus Circle No. 142 welding solution for maintenance, repair, the arc for critical applications. The industrial, recreational, agricultural and Circle No. 138 115/230V auto-reconnect and line volt- construction...weld virtually anywhere! age compensation add flexibility. Ready Welder Corporation The Lincoln Electric Company 1891 N. Gaffey Street #A 22801 St. Clair Ave. San Pedro, CA 90731 Cleveland, OH 44117 (800} 935-3644 (216) 481-8100 FAX: (310) 832-9958 Website: www.lincolnelectric.com Website: www.readywelder.com Precision TIG T" 275 Welding Electrodes Catalog This is the one you have been waiting for-The Precision TIG 275 is the mainstay in the next Select-Arc, Inc. has issued a new generation of the Square Wave family of 40-page catalog which describes machines. Patent-pending Micro-StartTM the company's complete line of Technology provides unrivaled and revolution- tubular welding electrode products. ary arc performance ideal for critical AC or DC Welding applications, characteris- welding in fabrication, aerospace, production, tics, classifications, diameters, motorsports, and vocational applications. positions, shielding gases, typical Available in both machine-only models or in a mechanical properties and typical convenient Ready-To-Weld Package, the deposit compositions are provided Precision TIG 275 combines both outstanding for each electrode product. value-added features, with precision arc per- Circle No. 139 formance to meet all of your welding needs. Select-Arc, Inc. P. O. Box 259 The Lincoln Electric Company Fort Loramie, OH 45845-0259 22801 St. Clair Ave. (800) 341-5215 Cleveland, Ohio 44117 FAX: (937) 295-5217 (216) 481-8100 Website: www.select-arc.com 76 Website: www.lincolnelectric.com Circle No. 143 RED HOT,,,.odu. Improved Plasma Cutting Trailing Shield Kit Contaminants in your compressed air system The Weld Hugger Trailing Shield kit -- dust, scale, condensed moisture and oil is an inert cover gas system mist -- seriously affect the quality of your designed to uniformly flow cover plasma cuts. Installation of a Motor Guard Sub- gas over and behind the weld pool Micronic Air Filter on your plasma machine will to reduce part oxidation and discol- effectively remove these contaminants; elimi- orization. The kit's all stainless steel nating arc-sputter and producing cleaner, faster, smoother cuts. Motor Guard Filters vir- nozzles and manifold tube can be tually pay for themselves by reducing wear bent to conform to the geometry of and prolonging the life of expensive tips and many parts. The complete kit price electrodes. Ask your welding equipment sup- is $249.95. To order, call toll-free or plier for a Motor Guard Filter today. visit our website. Circle No. 144 MotorGuard Corporation Weld Hugger LLC 580 Carnegie Street Circle No. 148 7201 West Oakland St. Manteca, CA 95337 Chandler, AZ 85226-2434 (800) 227-2822 (877) 935-3447 FAX: (800) 237-7581 FAX: (480) 940-9366 Website: www.motorguard.com Website: www.weldhugger.com

Thermal Arc®, Launches New Portable Inverter Fixturing Kits for Welding Thermal Arc, is fielding a new team of inverter arc Offer Many Solutions ~'~...... welding power supplies geared especially for 11"~'~'~ ~: portable STICK (SMAW), TIG (GTAW) and MULTI- The Demmeler modular fixturing ~:, PROCESSconstruction and maintenance welding system for welding comes with a == duties. A new, simplified, push button control full range of components to fixture ..~ panel with digital meter is standard on all models. virtually any part. Angles, spacer Circle No. 145 The control panel is weather protected to stand up blocks, clamps, positioning and to on-site rigors associated with construction and clamping bolts and a complete fam- maintenance environments. Machine setup is simple with easy to follow ily of universal stops can be assam- graphics that lead operators through the controls to make fast, accurate Circle No. 149 bled into a ready-to-use welding fix- selections. The new case design allows units to be stacked for conven- ture in a matter of hours. The five- ience and space saving. All units include a Voltage Reduction Device (VRD) that reduces OCV when the power supply is not in use, eliminating sided table has surfaces that are flat and square O.O004"/ft and bores the chance of accidental electric shock. that are located +/-0.001". More than 30 different kits are offered. Thermal Arc, A Thermadyne Company Bluco Corporation 16052 Swingley Ridge Rd, Suite 300 509 Weston Ridge Dr. St. Louis, MO 63017 Naperville, IL 60563 (636) 728-3000 (800) 535-0135 Website: www.thermalarc.com Website: www.bluco.com

New CUTMASTER' 1 Series Technical Books • , ,, Plasma Cutting Systems Thermal Dynamics, has introduced a new American Technical Publishers is _.~ ~.- ..=,~ family of CUTMASTER' 1Series air plasma America's only employee-owned • ~-'/~ ~ ~ ~ cutting systems, featuring the company's career and technical book pub- e' , ~; revolutionary 1Torch' plasma torch and lisher. Catalog covers books for "- patent pending ATC' (Advanced Torch the metals, electrical and build- Connector) quick disconnect. All 1Series ing trades, written by and for Circle No. 146 machines take advantage of the 1Torch trades people. start (non-HF) capability that eliminates electronic interference. Each system is suitable for cutting materials American Technical including aluminum, stainless steel, and mild steel in applications rang- Publishers, Inc. ing from construction to fabrication to manufacturing. 1155 W. 175th Street Thermal Dynamics Homewood, IL 60430 A Thermadyne Company (800) 323-3471 16052 Swingley Ridge Road, Suite 300 FAX: (708) 957-1101 St. Louis, MO 63017 Website: www.go2atp.com (636} 728-3000 Website: www.thermal-dynamics.com Circle No. 150

New 4ff Table Blaster Incorporates All the Industry's Triangle Engineering, Inc. Best Features Viking Blast & Wash Systems announces P.O. Box 1205,WestHanover, HA 02339-7205 the release of its newest evolution of the 4- (781)878-1500 Fax (781)878-2547 ft airless table blaster, the 48I. The 48T incorporates a wrap-around door feature, SERVICESFOR THE WELDING INDUSTRY and an angle-mounted wheel. Cast www.trieng.com chrome/moly plates protect the cabinet from direct impingement while manganese Nexl Business Day Shipping alloy protects the rest of the cabinet. Viking employs more than 25% more standard cleaning capability than competitor models using a 20HP direct drive blast wheel ver- sus competitors' 15HP or less. Circle No. 151 Viking Blast & Wash Systems 3810 N. Toben Wichita, KS 67226 Single - Double (800) 835-1096 Circle No. 147 Compound Bevels Website: www.vikingcorporation.com 77 ¢LASSIFIED$

MFG REPS and SALES REPS

Large manufacturer of industrial gas apparatus and industrial flow control equipment seeks experienced reps calling on welding supply industry. Large protected terri- tories and great commission rates. Forward resume or line card to Fax: 909-612-1927

...... CERTIFICATION~TRAINING BUSINESS FOR SALE

Begin 2004 With REALTraining From The AWS Certification Real Educational Services, Inc. Committee CWI PREPARATORY BUSINESS FOR SALE Guarantee - Pass or Repeat FREE! Is seeking the donation of sets of Shop and Erection drawings of high- Established 1983. Make small stored SAT-FRI COURSE(7 DAYS/ rise buildingsgreater than ten stories energy welding equipment. Pulse arc, EXTRAINSTR~ TO GETAHEAD START with Moment Connections including spot resistance and fusion percussion Pascagoula, MS Mar. 13-19 Jun. 12-18 Ordinary Moment Resistant Frame mini stud welder. International mar- Houston, TX Feb. 21-27 May 1-7 (OMRF) and Special Moment kets through distributors, reps and Houma, LA Apr. 10-16 Resistant Frame (SMRF) for use in direct sales. Miniature tech joining of MON-FR[ COURSE (5 DAYS) AWS training and certification activi- similar and dissimilar metals for med- GET READY - FAST-PACEDCOURSE! ties. Drawings should be in CAD for- ical, dental, optical, jewelry, crafts, mat for reproduction purposes. appliance, auto, aircraft, and electron- Pascagoula, MS Mar. 15-19 Jun. 14-18 Written permission for unrestricted ics industries. Very strong gross profit Houston, TX Feb. 23-27 May 3-7 reproduction, alteration, and reuse as @84%, before tax earnings @26% Houma, LA Apr. 12-16 training and testing material is and after tax profits of 15%. Strictly 2 WEEK COURSE (10 DAYS) requested from the owner and others confidential, please write: MORE HANDS-ON/ holding intellectual rights. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS Pascagoula, MS Mar. 8-19 Jun. 7-18 For further information, contact: Business 4 Sale Houma, LA Apr. 5-16 Joseph P. Kane PO Box 893 (Test follows on Saturday at same facility) 631-265-3422 (office) E. Greenwich, RI 02818 516-658-7571 (cell) CONTINUE YOUR EDUCATION WITH: joseph.kane11 @verizon.net APPLICATIONS OF VISUAL WELDING INSPECTION Pascagoula, MS Apr. 26-30 FILM INTERPRETATIONAND DON'T FORGET WELDING PROCEDURES Houston, TX Mar. 29-Apr. 2 The March 2004 issue of Welding Journal highlights Get 40 hours of useful training MT/PT LEVEL I & II the AWS Welding Show. This issue has the largest Pasl~i~goula,J~S Feb. 16-19 Houma, LA Mar. 1-4 readership of the year. Call now to reserve your I,JT LEVEL I advertising space. Pascagoula, MS Mar. 22-26 For our entire class schedule, call or e-mail 1-800-489-2890 Rob Saltzstein 800-443-9353, ext 243 or [email protected] Lea Garrigan 800-443-9353, ext 220

D4;! FEBRUARY 2004 I We buy and sell WELDING RODS & WIRE **ALL TYPES ** ALL SIZES *" IWELDI At[. QUANTITIES 4790 River Road Cincinnati, Ohio 45233 1-513-941-4411 1-513-467-3585 Fa~ WWW.weldplus,com ttl Excess Welding Alloys, Inc. Koike-Aronson 350 Ton "TITAN" A division of Weld Wire Company Inc. GE-7000 Geared Elevated 800-523-1266 FAX 610-265-7806 Positioner. Maximum Capacity. www.weldwire.net 700,000 Ibs. @ 12" C.G. Excellent ConditionH

BREATHE EASIER Call for more details Comply with EPA, reduce exhaust, 800-288-9414 ask for Jack Schroeder recirculate filtered air, improve e-maih [email protected] your shop and office air 75 to 90%. U.S. Air Filtration Systems, since 1976. Call toll free 800-280-4546 for information. PLACE YOUR robots4welding CLASSIFIED AD .¢:om We Buy & Sell Surplus HERE! Toll free: 1-800-762.6862 Welding Rod & Wire Contact Frank Wilson, All types, sizes & Quantities Advertising Production ATTENTION! Coordinator Welding Equipment Sales Personnel. We pay you for finding us good used welding systems, seamers, positioners, Call us first/ 800-443-9353, ext. 465 manipulators, turning rolls, etc. We will buy your customers' trade-ins. 800-523-2791 fwilson @aws.org WELD PLUS, INC. PA: 610-825-1250 1-800-288-9414 FAX: 610-825-1553

FOR SALE - FOR RENT Welding Positioners Headstock Tailstock Tank Turning Rolls Manipulators, Subarc I ';, 11-877.4usedrobots Welding Machines Used Equipment 800-218-9620 www.red-d-arc.com An Excellent Selection of Used Welding 713-943-8032 end Positioning Equipment for Sale www.mitrowskiwelding.com 1-800-245-3660 sales @mitrowskiwelding.com ~Service Centers Across North Amerlcaj

WELDING JOURNAL 79 We are an International manufacturer of high quality and Innovative welding products. Due to growth demands, an opportunity exists on our Sales Team for an exceptional sales professional to join as a REGIONAL BUSINESSMANAGER This representative will be based in the PA, NJ area and required to manage and profitably grow our distribution throughout the NY, NJ, PA, MD and VA markets. The successful candidate will possess the following qualifications; EB WELDER REPAIRS • A college education or equivalent professional work experience • Excellent oral, written and presentation skills. Sciaky, Ham. Std, Wentgate • Experience managing and selling through distribution channels • Consultative selling skills to various end users segments Laybold. • Computer skills and knowledge of Microsoft applications High Volt Cable Rebuilds. • Broad welding applications and equipment knowledge and skills, Obsolete board repair. MIG gun sales experience an asset. Vacuum & Electronics Troubleshoot- • Ability to work in a cohesive team environment • Time management skills and ability to travel ing Specialist. The Rewards... The successful candidate will join a motivated, focused sales 1-800-574-8375 team. The position offers a salary, benefits and commission package that have great potential for personal financial growth. ebfix.com If you have the initiative, drive and desire to be a pert of our team in a progressive growth environment, please forward your resume and salary expectations in confidence to Human Resources by February 14, 2004: .,~ 2570 North Talbot Road Windsor, Ontario NOR 1LO Fax: 1-800-065-0400 [email protected] Pleaee reference job number 01/04 we thankall applicantsin advance,and advisethat onlythose candidates under consideration will be contacted.No telephoneinquiries or agenciesplease.

4DVERTISE~ INDEX

Abicor Binzel ...... www.binzel-abicor.com .... IBC, 74 ESAB Welding and Cutting Prod. www.esabna.com ...... 14, 15, 75 Aelectronic Bonding, Inc ...... www.abiusa.net ...... 22, 74 Genstar Technologies Co., Inc ...... www.genstartech.com ...... 21, 75 AlcoTec Wire Corp ...... www.alcotec.com ...... OBC Heck Industries, lnc ...... www.heckind.net ...... 44, 75 American Technical Publ., Inc ...... www.go2atp.com ...... 22, 77 Hodgson Custom Rolling, Inc ...... www.hodgsoncustomroiling.com 1, 76 ArcOne ...... www.arclweldsafe.com ...... 11, 74 Lincoln Electric Company ...... www.lincoinelectric.com...... 5, 76 Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc ..... www.atlasweld.com ...... 43, 74 Motor Guard Corporation ...... www.motorguard.com ...... 77 AWS Certification Dept ...... www.aws.org ...... 41 Rapid Reel Hose Reels ...... www.RapidReel.com ...... 49, 76 AWS Conference Dept ...... www.aws.org ...... 19, 51 Ready Welder ...... www.readywelder.com...... 48, 76 AWS Convention Sales ...... www.aws.org ...... 2 Select Arc, Inc ...... www.select-arc.com ...... IFC, 76 AWS Education Dept ...... www.aws.org ...... 45 TecTorch Company, Inc ...... www.tectorch.com ...... 23 AWS Foundation Dept ...... www.aws.org ...... 31, 53 Thermal Arc/Thermadyne ...... www.thermalarc.com ...... 9, 77 AWS Marketing Dept ...... www.aws.org ...... 13 Thermal Dynamics/Thermadyne ..www.thermai-dynamics.com 7, 77 AWS Membership Services ...... www.aws.org ...... 12, 18, 20 Triangle Engineering, Inc ...... www.trieng.com ...... 44, 77 AWS Technical Services...... www.aws.org ...... 39 Viking Blast & Wash Systems ...... www.vikingcorporation.com .... 77 Bluco Corporation ...... www.bluco.com ...... 77 Weld Hugger, L.L.C ...... www.weldhugger.com ...... 22, 77 Centerline Limited ...... www.cntrline.com ...... RI, 74 College of Oceaneering ...... www.coo.edu ...... 27, 74 IFC = Inside Front Cover Cor-Met ...... www.cor-met.com ...... 10, 72, 74 IBC = Inside Back Cover C-Spec ...... www.weldoffice.com ...... 48, 74 OBC = Outside Back Cover Diamond Ground Products, Inc...www.diamondground.com ..50, 75 RI = Reader Information Card Divers Academy International ...... www.diversacademy.com .... 49, 75

I:[*I FEBRUARY 2004 WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, FEBRUARY 2004 <• Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council An Investigation of Ductility-Dip Cracking in Nickel-Based Weld Metals- Part III The characteristics of we/d-meta/ grain boundaries associated with e/evated-temperature fracture are investigated

M. G. COLLINS, A. J. RAMIREZ, AND J. C. LIPPOLD

ABSTRACT. In Part I of this investigation fective solidus temperature and separa- bined the results of the first two parts with of ductility-dip cracking (DDC) in nickel- tion of grain boundaries has been re- the advanced characterization results to based filler materials, the strain-to-frac- ported to be characteristic of materials provide insight into the mechanism of ture (STF) test (Ref. 1) was used to quan- susceptible to DDC (Refs. 2, 3). A number DDC. The mechanistic aspects of DDC tify the DDC susceptibility of two of factors have been reported to con- discussed here are thought to apply not Ni-based filler metals, Filler Metal 52 and tribute to the development of DDC, in- only to the Ni-based Filler Metals 52 and Filler Metal 82. Ductility-dip cracking sus- cluding specific alloy, impurity, and inter- 82, but also more broadly to other ceptibility was related to the nature of the stitial element content, segregation, large austenitic alloys, including the austenitic migrated grain boundaries in these weld grain size, grain boundary precipitation, stainless steels. metal deposits and the effect of grain orientation relative to the applied strain, This investigation has provided further boundary "tortuosity" on the mechanical and high levels of weld restraint. The evidence that the Gleeble strain-to-frac- locking of these boundaries at elevated DDC mechanism is still not well under- ture test is an effective, robust test tech- temperature. Part II of this investigation stood, nor is the individual effect of these nique for evaluating DDC susceptibility in used scanning electron microscopy to ex- factors. Furthermore, preventive methods weld metals. The ability to determine the amine the DDC fracture surfaces in order for avoiding DDC in highly restrained strain-temperature relationships for DDC to relate fracture mode to temperature, weldments have proven elusive. as a function of composition has been in- composition, interstitial content (hydro- Part I of this investigation (Ref. 4) valuable for studying elevated-tempera- gen), and microstructure. Part III of this quantified DDC susceptibility in Filler ture behavior in these alloys. investigation uses optical microscopy, Metals 52 and 82. Additionally, hydrogen high-resolution scanning electron mi- and sulfur additions to the weld metal Experimental Procedures croscopy, and electron backscattered dif- were evaluated with the STF test and fraction (EBSD) techniques to further ex- found to increase weld metal DDC sus- Advanced characterization was con- plore the factors that contribute to DDC ceptibility. Part II of this investigation ducted on STF samples of both Filler in Ni-based weld metals. Based on this (Ref. 5) used optical and scanning elec- Metals 52 and 82. The compositions of analysis and the results from Parts I and lI tron microscopy to study the ductility-dip these filler metals are provided in Table 1. of this investigation, a DDC mechanism is fracture surfaces, identifying the fracture The STF test techniques and test results described that involves the complex inter- mode dependence on temperature and are reported in Part I (Ref. 4). In this play of alloy composition, interstitial and microstructure. These two previous stud- study, grain boundary characteristics of impurity element additions, grain bound- ies provided an initial insight into the fac- DDC were investigated in more detail ary segregation, triple-point grain bound- tors responsible for promoting DDC in than in Part I. ary junctions, grain growth, grain bound- highly restrained weld metals. Part III of Strain-to-fracture samples were sec- ary sliding, precipitation, recrystallization, this investigation uses optical microscopy, tioned and mounted in a conductive phe- boundary orientation relative to the ap- high-resolution scanning electron mi- nolic powder for advanced characteriza- plied strain, and the contribution of grain croscopy, and electron backscattered dif- tion using optical and high-resolution boundary misorientation and accumu- fraction techniques to further expand on scanning electron microscopy, along with lated local strain. Insight is provided to op- the understanding of the DDC phenome- X-ray energy-dispersive spectrometry timize elevated-temperature ductility in non. Part III of the investigation has com- (EDS) and electron backscattered diffrac- order to avoid DDC in Ni-based weld de- tion (EBSD), also known as orientation posits and other austenitic alloys. image microscopy (OIM TM). The samples KEY WORDS were polished and then electrolytically Introduction etched with 10% chromic acid at 2.5 V for Ductility-Dip Cracking 15-20 s. During polishing, an effort was From a mechanistic standpoint, rela- Nickel-Based Filler Metals made to minimize material removal, as tively little is known or understood about Grain Boundary Characteristics many cracks were relatively shallow. The DDC, a solid-state cracking mechanism. Strain polished and etched samples were exam- Ductility-dip cracking occurs below the ef- Elevated-Temperature Ductility ined using a Nikon metallograph, and digital photomicrographs were taken with a M. G. COLLINS, A. J. RAM1REZ, and J. C. LIP- Hitachi CCD camera. Additionally, a POLD are with The Ohio State University, Philips XL-30 field emission gun (FEG) Columbus, Ohio. scanning electron microscope (SEM) was

WELDING JOURNAL ~,1~.~1 WELDING RESEARCH

AcI:V I)+,I I'-- -'I 10phi 200KV ~.~F FMK? A0033

+ ,

,+4

"?.

%, ^~.~. V Del I I b lira ?0 0 kV %t | Mr)? A00,'Lq ...... !i...... ~ . ', ...+. Fig. 1 -- Migrated grain boundary in killer Metal 52 at 986°C am/2.6% Fig. 2 -- Precipitation and microsegregation along solidification sut~,,rain strain. (Arrow indicates small particle along boundary.) boundaries in Filler Metal 52 at 986°C (lowerphoto reveals boundary migration from "pinning points" at solidification subgrain boundary.)

crostructure and the crystallographic infor- Table 1 --Chemical Composition of Filler Materials (wt-%) mation (Ref. 6), making it an excellent tool for fracture analysis (Ref. 7). The samples Element Filler Metal 52 Filler Metal 82 Filler Metal 82 Filler Metal 82 to be used for the EBSD analysis were Heat NX9277 Heat YN6830 Heat YN7355 Heat YB7724 ground and polished using the same proce- C 0.026 0.04 0.04 0.041 dure previously described. However, spe- Mn 0.25 2.86 2.75 2.79 cial precautions were taken to minimize the Fe 8.88 1.18 0.70 0.90 grinding deformation artifacts. After pol- S 0.0037 0.01 0.002 0.001 ishing, the samples were lightly electrolyti- Si 0.17 0.12 0.07 0.06 cally etched with 10% chromic acid at 1.5 to Cu 0.011 0.09 0.07 0.04 2.0 V for 15 s. Electron backscattered dif- Ni 60.12 72.75 72.8 72.98 fraction dedicated software, Channel 5 TM by Al 0.71 N/A N/A 0.05 Ti 0.50 0.37 0.47 0.45 HKL Technology, was used for the auto- Cr 29.09 20.1 20.1 19.98 mated EBSD data acquisition and analysis. Cb + Ta 0.02 2.3 2.6 2.7 The low-angle (1-15 deg) grain boundary Mo 0.05 N/A N/A N/A distribution was determined based on the P 0.0044 0.007 0.01 0.004 EBSD maps. Finally, this low-angle grain Pb 0.0001 0.004 0.002 0.002 boundary information was also used to ob- Co 0.05 0.04 0.01 tain plastic strain distribution maps in the microstructure (Ref. 8).

Results used to analyze the mounted DDC speci- tron backscattered diffraction is a widely mens at higher magnifications. The chem- used technique that collects crystallo- Grain Boundary Characterization -- SEM ical compositions of the precipitates were graphic data from a surface with submicron measured by EDS analysis. resolution. Because this technique uses the In Part I of this investigation, optical The grain boundary character distribu- electron beam on an electron microscope, microscopy was used to characterize DDC tion and local strain distribution were de- most commonly an SEM, a direct relation- behavior of Filler Metal 52 and Filler termined on the SEM using EBSD. Elec- ship can be established between the mi- Metal 82. To develop a better understand-

El=D,.1 FEBRUARY2004 NI Ti / d~ i I , ...... ,- , i i o'.~o ;.. 1.7o 3'.. ~.s, ~.. ,.30 7.2, l.ll 9.00 keV

Fig. 3 -- Second phases precipitated in the Filler Metal 52 weld metal. Fig. 4 -- Energy-dispersive spectrometry spectra of cuboidal second phases observed in the Filler Metal 52 weM metal.

ing of the factors contributing to DDC, the boundaries, and DDC along migrated may form in the solid state on cooling from SEM was used to characterize Filler Metal grain boundaries. The solidification sub- the solidification range or during reheat- 52 and Filler Metal 82 grain boundaries at grain boundaries exhibit both segregation ing in the multipass weld. Further study is much higher magnifications. It is antici- (as revealed by the contrast) and two dif- necessary to clarify the nature of these pated that these results, in combination ferent types of precipitates, shown in Fig. particles. with the metallographic results shown pre- 3. The large precipitates are cuboidal TiN Initially, these precipitates were viously in Part I and the fractography particles, approximately 5 lam in their thought to be MC carbides, Laves phase, analysis presented in Part II of this inves- largest dimension. Figure 4 shows a typi- or a mixture, which precipitate at the end tigation, would further elucidate the fac- cal EDS spectrum for this precipitate, in- of the solidification as a result of eutectic tors contributing to DDC formation. dicating that Ti and N are essentially the reactions (Ref. 9). Depending on the only elements present. The small Cr and chemical composition of the alloy, MC Filler Metal 52 Ni peaks probably reflect the surrounding carbide precipitation or MC carbide plus matrix. The size and location of these Laves phase may form in Ni-based weld Migrated grain boundaries in Filler large precipitates suggest they did not metals, as proposed by DuPont and co- Metal 52 weld deposits exhibit both form as a result of the weld solidification workers (Ref. 9). Figure 6 shows the long/straight and tortuous segments. process. Rather, it appears these particles schematic solidification path for an Nb- Under low strain levels, cracking occurred were transferred into the weld pool from bearing Ni-based alloy, which leads to the primarily along the straight sections of the welding wire. To confirm this, Fig. 5 formation of MC carbides (NbC in this these boundaries. Examination of the shows the microstructure of the Filler case) and possibly Laves phases eutectic weld-metal microstructure using optical Metal 52 wire, where even larger TiN par- constituents during solidification. Com- and scanning electron microscopy re- ticles were observed. The larger size of the positionally, Laves phase can form from vealed interdendritic second phases. In precipitates in the welding wire suggests several elements in the basic form [(Ni, Fe, addition, clear evidence of grain boundary that the nitrides partially dissolved once Co)2(Nb, Ti, Mo)]. Energy-dispersive pinning caused by these interdendritic they were injected into the molten pool. spectrometry analysis of the precipitates precipitates was observed. However, these Since the welds were made using the gas did not indicate any combination of Ni or precipitates were not consistently distrib- tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process Fe and Ti, which could be the most prob- uted throughout the weld-metal mi- with cold wire feed, it is possible for these able if Laves was present. Based on this crostructure. Consequently, the regions particles to survive in the molten pool and cursory analysis, it appears that the pre- free of these precipitates underwent more then become entrapped in the microstruc- dominant particle in the Filler Metal 52 grain boundary migration, resulting in the ture during weld solidification. weld microstructure is a Ti-rich nitride ap- straight boundaries most susceptible to The other precipitates, evident along proximating TiN. DDC. Figure 1 illustrates a long, straight the solidification subgrain boundaries in The detail of the grain boundary in Fig. migrated grain boundary in a Filler Metal Fig. 3, are smaller (less than 1 ~tm in di- 2 shows they have clearly migrated away 52 multipass weld. Both the boundary and ameter), but are also rich in Ti and N. from the solidification subgrain bound- the microstructure clearly lack any imped- Analysis of these particles in the transmis- aries that are free of the TiN precipitates. iments (precipitates or second phases) to sion electron microscope verified that Ductility-dip cracking is predominant "lock" the boundary in place, or to "pin" they are TiN. Because these smaller pre- along these "clean" migrated grain bound- boundary movement, resulting in uninhib- cipitates are slightly elongated and per- aries. The bottom photo in Fig. 2 is a ited boundary migration and the conse- fectly aligned along the solidification sub- higher magnification of the boxed area in quent grain boundary straightening, grain grain boundaries, it is apparent that their the upper photo of Fig. 2, clearly illustrat- growth, and increased susceptibility to formation is directly related with solidifi- ing the lack of precipitation or second DDC. cation segregation. It is hypothesized that phases along the migrated grain bound- Figure 2 clearly reveals solidification these particles are the result of a eutectic ary, whereas the large TiN particles ap- subgrain boundaries, migrated grain reaction at the end of solidification, or pear as single large cuboidal particles, as

WELDING JOURNAL Eil~."] ~,~ 0.7

~0.6 "t

o .~. o.4 o .o.3 o ~ o.2

•~ 0.1

~ o.o f 10 20 30 Liquid Composition, wt% Nb

Fig. 5 -- Second phases precipitated in the Filler Metal 52 weld metal. Fig. 6 -- Schematic solidification path for a Nb-bearing superalloy leading to the formation of MC carbides and possibly Laves phases eutectic constituents (Ref 5).

(Ref. 4). Filler Metal 82 weld deposits con- Table 2 -- Filler Metal 82 Chemical Composition Comparison (wt-%) tain large amounts of MC carbides (FCC Element Ni-Cr-Fe-Nb Filler Metal 82 Differential crystal structure) of the type NbC and/or Weld Deposit 12 Heat YN6830 (+ or-) (Nb,Ti)C, which pin the grain boundaries. Thus, grain growth is inhibited resulting in C 0.031 0.040 +0.009 increased grain boundary area and a sub- Mn 0.20 2.86 +2.66 sequent increase in the strain necessary to Fe 7.04 1.18 -5.86 cause cracking. The interdendritic posi- S 0.007 0.01 +0.003 Si 0.16 0.12 -0.04 tion of these carbides suggest they are the Cu 0.035 0.09 +0.055 result of a eutectic reaction occurring at Ni 73.85 72.75 -1.1 the end of solidification, as schematically A1 0.12 N/A -- shown in Fig. 6. The solidification process Ti 0.26 0.37 +0.11 in this alloy starts as L-~t with the inter- Cr 15.7 20.1 +4.4 dendritic region or liquid becoming en- Nb + Ta 1.58 2.3 +0.72 riched in C and Nb, until the composition Mo N/A N/A -- P N/A 0.007 -- of this liquid achieves the twofold satura- Pb N/A 0.004 -- tion between 7 and NbC. At this point the Co N/A 0.05 -- solidification continues by the simultane- ous formation of ~/and NbC by a eutectic- type reaction as the remnant liquid follows the twofold saturation line shown in Fig. 6. shown in Fig. 3, and discrete small parti- Filler Metal 52 microstructure, some re- If the solidification process ends along this cles (see left portion of bottom photo in gions reveal decreased microsegregation twofold line, the only interdendritic- Fig. 2). Some other elongated phases ap- along the solidification subgrain bound- formed phase would be NbC. However, if pear continuous (see right portion of bot- aries and decreased second phases than solidification continues to the triple eu- tom photo in Fig. 2) along some of the so- do other regions. The "clean" grain tectic point (where % NbC, and Laves lidification subgrain boundaries. The boundaries or the grain boundaries absent phases are in equilibrium) it will form ductility-dip crack follows a migrated of such constituents preferentially migrate Laves phase in addition to 7 and NbC grain boundary path that both transects and crack under sufficient levels of strain. (Ref. 9). In the case of the Filler Metal 82 and directly follows a solidification sub- Under low levels of applied strain, these chemical composition (Table 2), the low grain boundary. "clean" boundaries are most likely the Fe content limits the Laves formation and The grain boundary highlighted and sites of DDC initiation with propagation the results show that in this case the solid- detailed in Fig. 2 migrated from the rela- possible along more tortuous boundary ification ends along the twofold saturation tively "clean" solidification subgrain segments. The tortuous paths appear to line before the triple eutectic point is boundary to its left. Since the precipitates assist in arresting DDC propagation, reached. As a result, only the NbC second were not prevalent along this particular probably due in part to a mechanical phase is formed during solidification of solidification subgrain boundary, the im- "locking" effect. Filler Metal 82. pediment to boundary motion was low In Filler Metal 82, eutectic carbides are enough to allow the boundary to migrate. Filler Metal 82 evenly distributed throughout the mi- Migrated grain boundaries move away crostructure, residing at solidification from the compositional portion of a solid- In comparison to Filler Metal 52, Filler grain and subgrain boundaries. Figure 7 ification grain boundary in the solid state Metal 82 migrated grain boundaries are shows eutectic MC carbides consistently due to simple grain growth or a boundary always tortuous in nature, which con- distributed throughout the Filler Metal 82 straightening mechanism. Throughout the tributes to an increased resistance to DDC microstructure with several of the con-

~,,I~FEBRUARY2004 stituents effectively pinning the grain gions where many cracks boundary from further motion, thereby were present. restricting grain growth. Additionally, Fig. When the measure- 7 illustrates a number of smaller inter- ments were performed in granular and intragranular carbides (see uncracked regions (mea- boxed area in lower photo of Fig. 7). These surements 2, 5, and 6 in smaller precipitates were found to be as- Table 3) or over larger re- sociated with the interdendritic regions gions where the cracked and gathered around the larger carbides. area represented a lower In contrast, the Filler Metal 52 weld de- fraction (measurement 4), posit microstructure appears to be free of the low-Z CSL grain these groups of smaller precipitates when boundary fraction was observed in the SEM. lower, as can be seen when EDS analysis of the large precipitates measurement 3 is com- (Fig. 8) showed Nb and Ti peaks, charac- pared with measurements teristic of an Nb-Ti-rich MC carbide 5 and 6, or when compar- (Nb,Ti)C. The Ni and Cr peaks result ing measurements 3 and 4 ~" from the electron beam interaction with (larger region with lower the matrix due to the small size of the an- cracked area). The only alyzed particle. The particles observed in exception was measure- the boxed area in the lower photo of Fig. ment 2, where the un- 7 were too small to identify in the SEM, cracked region of Filler but have been identified independently as Metal 52 had a relatively (Nb,Ti)C (Ref. 10). high (12.2%) fraction of Figure 9 reveals further definitive evi- low-Z CSL grain bound- dence of grain boundary pinning by the MC aries. This result was prob- eutectic carbides. Again the large eutectic ably due to the poor statis- constituents are (Nb,Ti)C formed at the tics of measurement 2, end of solidification. The smaller precipi- resulting from the large tates (in the boxed area and along the grain grain size. However, this boundary) are most likely (Nb,Ti)C or some sample was tested at high other type of MC-carbide particles. temperature (1160°C) where the higher fraction of low-Y CSL grain bound- Electron Backscattered Diffraction Fig. 7- Tortuous boundary in Filler Metal 82 resuhing from "pin- aries may be explained by ning" by eutectic partich's. (Boxed area in lower photo shows small Electron backscattered diffraction was the observed dynamic re- particles prevalent throughout the Filler Metal 82 weld-metal matrix. used to determine the point-to-point local crystallization. lattice orientation over the sample sur- The GBCD data show face. Based on these data, information re- that the special grain struction, by extrapolation of the grain ori- garding the grain boundary misorienta- boundaries are mainly associated with the entations around the cracks, verified that tion, special orientation relationships such regions that have cracks and not with the the cracked grain boundaries were not as coincident site lattice (CSL) grain uncracked regions. This result appears to Iow-CSL grain boundaries, as expected, boundaries, and accumulated plastic local be contradictory with the accepted higher due to the reported high cracking resis- strain was extracted from several STF cracking resistance of these special grain tance of these grain boundaries. samples in both the cracked and un- boundaries. However, the special grain cracked conditions. boundaries observed around the cracks Strain Distribution Special Grain Boundaries. In general were formed during the dynamic recrys- terms, the grain boundary character dis- tallization process suffered by these highly The EBSD technique also allows the tribution (GBCD) determined using deformed regions around the intergranu- local strain distribution in the microstruc- EBSD showed a small fraction of low-Z lar cracks. It should be noted that the fracture to be estimated, allowing strain maps CSL grain boundaries in the microstruc- tion of special grain boundaries in the mi- to be plotted. The strain maps from STF ture. The highest measured fraction of crostructure was too low to significantly specimens revealed strain concentration ~3-Y'-29 was about 17%, which is not far influence the crack nucleation. at or very near the grain boundaries, espe- away from the expected value for an as- The misorientation between the grains cially at the triple-point junctions. When welded austenitic material. However, this where intergranular cracking occurs was cracked regions were mapped, as shown in fraction is slightly higher than the 9.1% re- measured in the samples subjected to Fig. 10, strain concentration around the ported for as-cast, pure nickel (Ref. 11). EBSD analysis. The results of these mea- cracks was evident. Figure 10 presents the The GBCDs measured on the STF surements are presented in Table 4. The strain map in an STF specimen of Filler samples of Filler Metal 52 and Filler angle between these grains varied be- Metal 52 heated to 986°C and strained Metal 82 (Heat YN6830) are summarized tween 9 and 60 deg, with the average ap- 2.6%. In this map, the thin lines represent in Table 3. The data in this table should be proximately 40 deg. This value is close to the high angle grain boundaries and the analyzed carefully because important dif- the maximum misorientation frequency, black regions are the open cracks from ferences exist among different regions of expected to be about 45 deg, for a theo- which EBSD information is not obtained. the samples. Measurements 2, 5, and 6 retical random set of misorientations. The color pattern represents the strain were conducted on cracked samples but in Therefore, the cracked grain boundaries distribution, with blue representing the regions where cracks were not present. All were random grain boundaries. In addi- lowest and red the highest strains in this the other measurements were taken in re- tion, an EBSD orientation map recon- map. In all the strain maps developed

WELDING JOURNAL lgl~.'t WELDING RESEARCH

Table 3 -- Grain Boundary Character Distribution of STF Samples

Measurement 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Alloy FM-52 FM-52 FM-82 FM-82 FM-82 FM-82 FM-82 FM-82 Temperature (°C) 986 1160 972 972 984 984 1147 1147 Strain (%) 2.6 2.9 7.5 7.5 8.1 8.1 11.3 11.3 Area (mmx mm) 11.4 x 0.3 0.4 x 0.3 0.4 x 0.3 2.11 x 1.8 0.7 x 0.5 0.4 x 0.3 0.4 x 0.3 0.4 x 0.3 Cracks Yes No Yes Yes No No Yes Yes

CSL E,~:~fi'action of the high angle grain boundaries (angle > 15 deg) [%] 2,3 3.9 2.1 5.9 2.9 0.3 0.3 l (1.3 8.7 Z5 2.2 -- -- 1.6 0.1 1.3 0.3 0.4 5`7 -- -- 0.5 0.9 -- 0.7 1.2 -- Z9 2.5 -- 0.2 0.6 -- -- 0.4 0.3 5"11 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.5 .... 5"13 0.1 1.1 0.4 3.4 -- 1.1 -- ZI5 0.3 -- 1.6 0.2 -- 0.5 0.1 1.6 5`17 2.0 -- -- 0.4 -- -- 0.2 0.4 5"19 0.1 3.4 0.6 0.1 -- -- 0.7 0.9 5`21 0.1 6.5 0.3 11.2 -- -- 0.4 0.7 5`23 0. l -- 0.2 0.3 .... 5`25 -- -- 0.8 0.2 -- -- 0.1 0.4 5`27 0.1 -- 0.2 0.7 -- 0.1 0.1 0.4 5"29 -- -- 0.l 0.3 2.8 4.4 2.3 2.5 Total (%) 11.6 12.2 11.5 9.2 6.7 7.3 17.0 16.4

filler metals (Table 2) are strikingly simi- Table 4 -- Grain Boundary Misorientation in STF Samples lar. Note especially the Nb, Cr, and C contents. From his studies of a number of dif- Measurement 1 3 4 7 8 ferently alloyed Ni-Cr-Fe weld deposits, Alloy FM-52 FM-82 FM-82 FM-82 FM-82 Heuschkel (Ref. 12) reported the best re- Heat NX9277 YN6830 YN6830 YN6830 YN6830 sults for those weld deposits containing Temperature (°C) 986 972 972 1147 1147 Nb additions and made with argon shield- Strain(%) 2.6 7.5 7.5 11.3 11.3 ing gas. Additionally, Sadowski (Ref. 13) Area (mm x mm) 0.4 x 0.3 0.4 x 0.3 11.2 x 1.8 0.4 x 0.3 0.4 x 0.3 summarized the effects of Nb on weld- metal hot cracking susceptibility of Misorientation between grains where cracking occurred (degrees) 25%Cr-20%Ni based on reports by sev- Minimum 9 20 21 19 11 Maximum 54 60 52 57 59 eral authors and reported Nb content to Average 40 +_ 10 40 _+ 5 34 _ 3 40 _+ 5 39 _+ 4 be deleterious up to 0.25% while beneficial at 1.38-2.90%. This is precisely the Nb range for both filler metals in Table 2. from STF specimens of Filler Metals 82 observed when comparing Filler Metals 52 Furthermore, based on hot ductility test- and 52, the strain was found to be concen- and 82. Data in the literature support the ing of 25%Cr-20%Ni and 18%Cr-8%Ni, trated at the grain boundaries with essen- observed differences based on the composi- Haddrill and Baker (Ref. 14) reported tially no strain in the grain interiors. The tion of the weld metal. A number of Ni- that Nb-containing weld deposits in- highest strains were associated with the based alloy welds were tested by Heuschkel creased the observed ductility minimum crack tips, where high stress concentra- (Ref. 12) to determine their elevated-tem- significantly compared to weld deposits tions would be expected. perature ductility response. In that study, free of Nb additions. Ni-Cr-Fe-Nb weld deposits achieved the Carbon content has been reported by a Discussion best ductility, with a minimum elongation of number of researchers to have a significant 34% observed. Conversely, Ni-Cr-Fe-Ti and effect on DDC susceptibility (Refs. 2, Based on the results presented here Ni-Cu-Ti type weld deposits exhibited the 14-16). Haddrill and Baker (Ref. 14) ob- and those from Parts I and II of this inves- lowest ductility, with a minimum elongation served less cracking along migrated grain tigation, it is clear that DDC is a complex of 10% reported. The 649°-1093°C low- boundaries as carbon content was in- phenomenon that is influenced by multi- ductility temperature range reported for creased from 0.06 to 0.125 wt-% in re- ple factors, to be reviewed and discussed the Ni-Cr-Fe-Nb weld deposits is similar to heated regions of 25%Cr-20%Ni in the following sections. Reference to the STF results for Filler Metal 82 (Ref. 4), austenitic weld metal. They suggested that Parts I and II of this investigation are sug- which contains Nb and forms a NbC eutec- the reduction in cracking susceptibility gested in order to understand the entire tic constituent. Interestingly, the Ni-Cr-Fe- with the increased interstitial element con- context of this discussion. Ti weld metal contained only 0.47% Nb tent could be related with the morphology while the Ni-Cu-Ti weld deposits contained and distribution of the intergranular car- Alloy Element Effects no Nb additions whatsoever. Table 2 com- bides and with the segregation of solute el- pares the composition of the Ni-Cr-Fe-Nb ements to the dislocations. In support of Based on the results of STF tests pre- weld deposits from Heuschkel (Ref. 12) this, Matsuda et al. (Ref. 15) and Arata et sented in Part I of this investigation, signifi- with that of Filler Metal 82 (Heat YN6830). al. (Ref. 16) reported a much narrower cant differences in DDC susceptibility were Overall, the compositions of the two DTR and an increased minimum strain

~.~,"! FEBRUARY 2004 Nb

Cr : NI ~2"y: :::;::2

l.lO 2 Oi 310 4 i! S OI i II Ln I.n ~,oo ------=-4 5 lira

Fig. 8 -- EDS analysis of large eutectic constituents along the migrated grain Fig. 9- Triple-point migrated grain boundary intersection with eutectic boundaries in Filler Metal 82. grain boundary "pinning" in Filler Metal 82 tested at 1147°C.

(Emin) to cause cracking in fully austenitic state resulting in smaller grains and in- during solidification. Based on thermody- 310S when carbon contents were increasingly tortuous grain boundary paths namic calculations, the eutectic phase creased, with no DTR phenomena ob- that are resistant to cracking. These conformed at the end of solidification was the served whatsoever when carbon contents stituents along the boundary also inhibit isomorph MC carbide, having the same ranged between 0.43 and 0.53%. This im- grain boundary sliding, which has been re- crystal structure as TiN with very similar provement in ductility was attributed to an ported to be most prevalent along "clean" lattice parameters. The gradual change of increase in the formation of eutectic MTC3 grain boundaries (Refs. 18-22). the precipitated phases from TiN to MC carbides that restrict grain growth and has been previously reported during the grain boundary mobility (Refs. 12, 17). Hydrogen Effects solidification of N-bearing Ni-based su- Nickel-based alloys containing Nb can peralloys (Ref. 26). The weight fraction of form both MC carbides and Laves phase Hydrogen was shown to have a pro- the interdendritic phases in Filler Metal eutectic constituents during solidification nounced negative effect on the STF be- 52 was very low (about 0.1% according to (Ref. 9). However, thermodynamic calcula- havior of Filler Metal 82, as discussed in thermodynamic calculations) and its dis- tions showed that for the chemical compo- Part I and II of this investigation (Refs. 4, tribution within the weld metal mi- sitions of Filler Metals 52 and 82, the for- 5). Hydrogen cracking is typically not a crostructure was very inconsistent (Figs. 1 mation of eutectic Laves phase is not concern in fully austenitic structures and 2) resulting in relatively large areas expected. In the case of Filler Metal 52, the based on the high solubility of hydrogen across the weld metal microstructure that calculations showed that the slightly higher and its low diffusivity in the austenitic were absent of boundary "locking" and/or content of Ti, along with the N content, pro- (FCC) matrix. Regardless, atomic hydro- "pinning" constituents. As a result, Filler motes TiN (FCC structure) precipitation in gen is an extremely mobile interstitial Metal 52 exhibited many long, straight, the liquid and its continuous precipitation species and hydrogen cracking may occur "clean" migrated grain boundaries that along the entire solidification range. The in austenitic materials if sufficient hydro- crack under low levels of strain (<2%). chemical composition of this precipitate gen is present (Ref. 23). Part II of this in- In contrast, Filler Metal 82 forms gradually changes from TiN at tempera- vestigation (Ref. 5) contained a discussion abundant MC-carbide eutectic con- tures well above the alloy liquidus to NbC of the two different H-embrittlement stituents of the type (Nb,Ti)C. The calcu- (FCC structure) at the end of the solidifica- mechanisms, hydrogen-enhanced local lated weight fraction of this carbide for tion. Thermo-Calc TM estimates of the simu- plasticity (Ref. 24) and hydrogen-induced Filler Metal 82 was approximately 0.25% lated solidification paths revealed the mass decohesion (Ref. 25), and that may be act- (Ref. 10). The carbides were distributed fraction of TiN+ (Nb,Ti)C at the end of the ing in the DDC temperature range of relatively consistently throughout the solidification to be approximately 0.25% for these filler metal deposits. The high inci- weld metal microstructure (see Figs. 7 and Filler Metal 82 and 0.1% for Filler Metal 52 dence of triple-point cracking along with 9) further inhibiting boundary motion and (Ref. 10). The actual fraction of eutectic the planar slip evident in the fractography grain growth, and thus decreasing crack- constituents was not measured, but a quali- of the STF samples with intentional hy- ing susceptibility. tative analysis shows there is a large differ- drogen additions suggests that both hy- It is apparent that boundary tortuosity ence in the fraction of these interdendritic drogen embrittlement mechanisms may plays an important role in the DDC sus- precipitates, being much smaller and less be operative during DDC of Ni-based al- ceptibility of the weld metal, especially at uniformly distributed in Filler Metal 52. loys. The level of hydrogen necessary to low levels of applied strain. In these filler Based on observations made during reduce ductility in addition to the effect of metals, tortuosity is associated with the this investigation, it is postulated that the grain boundary structure and precipita- (Nb,Ti)C eutectic carbide when higher difference in STF DDC susceptibility be- tion on hydrogen mobility is the subject of levels of carbon and Nb are present in the tween Filler Metal 52 and Filler Metal 82 continuing research. filler material. Increased eutectic con- is explained, in part, by the different constituents in the microstructure reduce tents of Nb and C. These contents are Eutectic Constituent Effects grain growth, increase grain boundary tor- higher for Filler Metal 82, and therefore tuosity, and significantly suppress grain its ability to form MC-type carbides is in- In addition to the large cuboidal TiN boundary sliding resulting in increased re- creased. The interdendritic constituents transferred from the weld wire (Figs. 3 and sistance to DDC initiation and propaga- inhibit grain boundary motion in the solid 5), Filler Metal 52 formed small nitrides tion. Based on the STF results for these

WELDING JOURNAL Iltl.l~l ,,,, ,WELDING RESEARCH .... and interstitial content in one presented in Fig. 10, clearly reveal the boundary ap- strain concentration at triple points. It is proaches a critical level, possible that cracking initiates at these a "drag effect" is im- triple-point grain boundary intersections, posed upon the bound- as these are sites of high stress concentra- ary. The boundary is no tion, thereby lowering the "global" stress longer highly mobile but necessary to initiate cracking. is now highly enriched in impurity and interstitial Dynamic Recrystallization element content. This enrichment may have A combination of accumulated defor- negative implications as mation and thermal energy promotes re- some impurity and inter- crystallization. High local strains at the stitial elements are detri- crack tip lower the amount of thermal en- mental to ductility. Thus, ergy necessary to induce recrystallization. in the event that impurity The strain maps obtained from the cracked and interstitial segrega- samples reveal recrystallization occurring at tion play roles in the the strain-concentrated regions of the mi- DDC mechanism, less crostructure, either in front of the cracks or grain boundary area at the triple-point junctions along the crack Fig. 10 -- Strain distribution map in the STF specimen of Filler Meta152 brought about by in- path. Figure 10 shows two regions of strain heated to 986°C and strained 2. 6%. The thin lines represent the high angle concentration where recrystallization has grain boundaries. The black regions are the open cracks. The colored con- creased grain size will touring shows the strain distribution with blue representing the lowest and lead to higher impurity initiated, one of them in front of the smaller red the highest strains. and interstitial concen- crack and the other where the larger crack trations at the grain changed its propagation direction due to a boundaries, possibly triple point. Additionally, strain concen- filler metals, a strong contributing factor lowering cohesion between grains. Such an trates along grain boundaries that have not to the higher resistance of Filler Metal 82 increase in segregation could further separated. As temperature increases, re- to DDC is the preponderance of tortuous weaken the grain boundaries, encouraging crystallization occurs more easily at these migrated grain boundaries. These tortu- grain boundary sliding under low orders of strained grain boundaries. Based on obser- ous boundaries provide a mechanical strain, subsequently resulting in intergranu- vations during this investigation, it is postu- locking effect as the adjacent crystals at- lar cracking. lated that the combination of applied strain, tempt to slide past each other with applied stress concentration at the grain boundary, strain at elevated temperature. Effect of Triple-Point Junctions high local strains at the crack tip, and ap- The specific effect of different interden- plied thermal energy increases the likeli- dritic particles, i.e., nitrides, carbides, or The presence of triple-point grain hood of dynamic recrystallization. There- other particles, on the variation in cracking boundary intersections in polycrystalline fore, it is possible that the appearance of behavior between Filler Metals 52 and 82 is materials has been shown to influence sev- dynamic recrystallization within the mi- not clear. It is possible that certain particles eral material properties, including ductil- crostructure signals the onset of ductility re- are more effective in reducing DDC relative ity, grain boundary migration, sliding, and covery in the high-temperature region to others based on their size, distribution, or recrystallization (Refs. 11, 27). Watanabe (1050°-1200°C) of the overall DTR. morphology. This effect is also the subject (Ref. 11) used a computer simulation of of ongoing research. intrinsic stress distributions at triple-point Boundary Orientation Relative grain boundary intersections to show that to the Applied Strain Segregation Effects uncompensated stresses exist at these intersections, supporting the hypothesis that It is apparent that grain boundary ori- In Part I of this investigation, the detri- triple-point grain boundary intersections entation to the applied strain is a factor in mental effect of sulfur on DDC was clearly are highly stressed regions conducive to DDC formation. Previous studies by Bow- shown. Although detailed grain boundary crack initiation. ers (Ref. 28) and Kikel and Parker (Ref. analysis was not performed, it is antici- Masubuchi and Martin (Ref. 18) and 29) using the double-spot Varestraint test pated that the segregation of sulfur to the Haddrill and Baker (Refs. 14, 22) describe showed that orientation relative to the ap- migrated grain boundaries was responsi- cracking along triple-point grain bound- plied strain has a significant effect on ble for this degradation. In addition, as de- ary intersections and attribute the cracks DDC susceptibility. In this investigation, scribed previously, the accumulation of to a combination of increased stress con- STF samples were tested in both the as- hydrogen at grain boundaries also appears centration at the intersection and grain welded (multipass weld) and spot-welded to be detrimental. boundary sliding. Masubuchi and Martin condition. The as-welded condition re- Migrated grain boundaries move more (Ref. 18) stated that sliding along grain suits in a more random grain boundary easily through the weld metal microstruc- boundaries might take place at a low stress pattern resulting from epitaxial nucleation ture when fewer eutectic constituents are since the inherent grain boundary flow and columnar grain growth in the multi- present to "lock" and/or "pin" grain bound- stress is very low. Thus, the high stress con- pass weld. When a spot weld is made ary motion. During multipass welding, mul- centration at the intersection initiates in- within the weld metal in the STF sample, tiple thermal cycles promote additional tergranular fracture with propagation of a radial grain boundary pattern is created boundary migration and segregation. Dur- the fracture a function of sliding along the with boundaries ranging from 0 to 90 deg ing migration, impurity and interstitial ele- low flow stress grain boundary. Ductility- relative to the applied strain. For Filler ments can be swept into the boundary as dip cracking appears to either initiate or Metal 52, the as-welded STF behavior they have high diffusivities and high affini- terminate at these intersections. The showed a threshold strain of 2.5%, but ties for grain boundaries. As the impurity strain maps obtained by EBSD, such as the when spot-welded samples were tested the

m~[,-',~'l FEBRUARY 2004 threshold strain for cracking dropped to ation, diffusion, and absorption while high- firmed many previous theories about 1%. There are other metallurgical influ- angle "random" grain boundaries have high DDC and has proven itself as a valuable ences that complicate this simple argu- activity levels in relation to these boundary method to test different conditions and ment, such as the effect of multiple re- characteristics (Ref. 11). Cracking did not produce a variety of cracked samples for heating in the multipass weld on the occur along any of the "special" grain evaluation. Results from this investigation nature of the boundary. However, based boundaries with some boundaries appear- confirm that DDC occurs preferentially on the observation that most DDC is ob- ing to arrest crack propagation. along weld-metal migrated grain bound- served in the spot welds in the angular In support of this observation, Watan- aries. An overwhelming majority of DDC range of 45-90 deg to the applied strain, it abe (Ref. 11 ) reported that "special" grain was observed in the spot weld with cracks can be concluded that the macroscopic boundaries are strong obstacles to crack occurring outside the spot weld in multi- boundary orientation in the weld metal propagation such that intergranular frac- pass weld metal only at relatively high relative to the applied strain is a con- ture will arrest at these boundary types. In strains (>8%). Typically, cracks occurred tributing factor to DDC. almost all cases, DDC was observed along on migrated grain boundaries oriented ap- "random" high-angle grain boundaries. proximately 45-9(/ deg to the applied Fracture Morphology Based on the high activity levels associ- strain. These results agree with previous ated with these boundaries, fracture along reports that grain boundary orientation Part II of this investigation described these boundary types is not surprising. relative to the direction of the applied the fracture behavior associated with Further supporting the fracture resis- strain is a contributing factor to formation DDC in STF samples of Filler Metals 52 tance of low-Z CSL boundaries and low- ofDDC (Refs. 15, 19, 29, 31). and 82 throughout the entire 625°-1200°C angle boundaries, Palumbo and Aust (Ref. The effect of intergranular precipita- DDC temperature range (Ref. 5). Ductil- 27) reported that these boundary types tion on grain boundary sliding remains ity recovery at both extremes of the DTR would not fracture even when lying at opti- controversial. Mathew et al. (Ref. 21) and is marked by ductile intergranular frac- mal angles (45-90 deg) for operation of a Dix and Savage (Ref. 32) postulated that ture. The ductility recovery at elevated grain boundary sliding assisted fracture as grain boundary precipitates form, grain temperature coincides with the onset of mechanism. These angles are precisely the boundary sliding is restricted enabling sig- local recrystallization at the grain bound- angular orientation range to the applied nificant matrix deformation and higher aries. In the intermediate temperature load found to be typical for DDC along ran- ductility. Conversely, Zhang et al. (Ref. regime of the DTR, the intergranular frac- dom high-angle migrated grain boundaries 33), Mintz et al. (Ref. 17), and Arata et al. ture acquires a wavy pattern with crystal- in Filler Metals 52 and 82, further support- (Ref. 16) concluded that increased inter- Iographic steps superimposed. These ing fracture propensity along high-energy, granular precipitation lowers grain steps are clearly evidence of crystalline high-angle migrated grain boundaries. boundary ductility. slip, which is thought to be related with the Grain boundary cracking resistance Materials containing precipitates, eu- hydrogen-induced plasticity. The pres- decreases as the boundary becomes more tectic constituents, and/or second phases ence of precipitates was evident on the "random" (i.e., deviating further away tend to restrict grain boundary motion and fracture surfaces. However, the exact re- from low energy configurations). At the thereby reduce the amount and length of lationship between fracture behavior and same time, the potential for segregation of cracking. Furthermore, formation of eu- grain boundary precipitation is still not solute and impurities to this grain bound- tectic constituents at the end of solidifica- clear and is the subject of an ongoing in- ary is also enhanced (Ref. 11). The higher tion results in tortuous grain boundary vestigation. energy level of the boundary also im- paths that are increasingly resistant to proves its mobility, generating synergy be- both DDC initiation and propagation Grain Boundary Character Distribution tween the potential for segregation of the when compared to straight grain bound- boundary and the "sweeping" effect of im- ary paths free of precipitates. Tortuous It is well known that low CSL grain purities while it moves. This behavior grain boundary paths result in increased boundaries (Y3-Z29) exhibit special proper- lends support to increasing eutectic con- grain boundary area vs. straight grain ties that are associated with the relatively stituent content and decreasing impurity boundaries, over a given length. Grain good atomic scale matching and conse- content in the weld-metal microstructure. boundary sliding is impeded by tortuous quently low energy of these grain bound- Increased eutectic constituent content will boundaries and orientation to the applied aries. Among these special properties are inhibit boundary migration and the conse- strain is increasingly random vs. a straight high resistance to 1) crack propagation, 2) quent sweeping of impurities, further min- grain boundary oriented favorably for localized corrosion, 3) sliding and cavitation imizing the probability of grain boundary DDC formation. at high temperatures, and 4) lower solute sliding and/or cracking. Previous research supports the concept segregation (Refs. 11, 27). Ductility-dip In the STF samples, most of the special of Nb and C additions to the weld metal to cracking is a high-temperature phenome- grain boundaries present in the mi- decrease cracking susceptibility (Refs. 2, non and, although the difference in proper- crostructure were a result of the thermo- 12-16). Increased C contents in Filler ties between the low-E CSL and the random mechanical work, which occurred during Metal 82 may result in increased MC-car- grain boundaries decreases when tempera- the test itself. Many of these special grain bide (NbC) formation along grain bound- ture increases (Ref. 30), the effect of CSL boundaries appeared to originate during aries that further restrict grain growth and grain boundaries on the DDC phenomenon the recrystallization process in the highly grain boundary migration ultimately re- was of interest. strained material around the cracks. sulting in increased grain boundary area to Although a high fraction of "special Based on this observation, low-Z CSL withstand higher applied strains. This in- grain boundaries" was not observed in ei- boundaries have little effect on crack ini- vestigation supports the hypothesis that ther of the filler metals (Table 2), most of tiation, but may play an important role in grain boundary precipitates act as locking the boundaries identified were low Z-CSL the crack arrest process. points along the boundary, thereby re- grain boundaries (Z3, Z 5, Z,~, and "~'29), to stricting grain boundary sliding and en- which special properties have been re- Insight into the DDC Mechanism abling significant matrix deformation and ported (Refs. 11,27). These boundary types higher ductility (Refs. 21, 32). Further- have low activity levels in relation to grain While the mechanism for DDC is still more, restricted boundary motion result- boundary migration, sliding, vacancy gener- not fully understood, the STF test has con- ing from pinning by eutectic constituents

WELDING JOURNAL BElr~ WELDING RESEARCH in the microstructure results in reduced shielding gas (Ref. 35) that the levels were subsequent grain boundary tortuosity ef- "sweeping" of impurities and undesirable on the order of 15-20 ppm. It is proposed fectively disrupt grain boundary sliding as solute elements into the boundary, further that this hydrogen is trapped within the cohesion between grains is enhanced. Im- enhancing resistance to DDC. microstructure at trap sites such as the car- purity and solute segregation is effectively Zhang et al. (Refs. 33, 34) revealed that bide/matrix interface and then released reduced as the "locked" and/or "pinned" fully austenitic stainless steel weld metals upon heating above 625°C. Since many of boundary maintains a low-angle orienta- precipitated M23C 6 carbides along mi- the carbides are present along the grain tion that is more resistant to solute and im- grated grain boundaries below 1200°C, boundaries and stress is concentrated at purity segregation as grain boundary while also observing a high density of in- these boundaries, the hydrogen accumu- "sweeping" of these detrimental elements tergranular precipitation in Fe-36%Ni lates in the boundary and reduces its co- is effectively controlled. Furthermore, weld metals. Generally, it was observed hesive strength and activates the localized controlling or eliminating impurity con- that the prevalence of precipitates in- plasticity around the grain boundaries. It tents and utilizing high welding speeds creased at locations where migrated grain is conceivable that the DDC mechanism is control intergranular segregation during boundaries intersect solidification sub- simply a manifestation of hydrogen- multipass welding operations, further in- grain boundaries. Subsequently, it was assisted cracking at elevated temperature. creasing resistance to grain boundary de- postulated that since the solute concen- Welding speed was very low for the but- cohesion and sliding. Controlling or elim- tration at the solidification subgrain ter passes (2 in./min) and relatively low for inating a single factor contributing to the boundary is high, migrated grain bound- the fill passes (5 in./min) during STF sam- DDC mechanism will assist in preventing ary precipitation should easily occur at ple preparation. Yeniscavich (Ref. 36) formation of DDC, but comprehensive this intersection. It was also determined used the hot ductility test to study the ef- control of all of the contributing factors that a certain region of the migrated grain fects of welding speed on ductility re- will most likely result in the most optimal boundary near the intersection could be sponse in Ni-Cr-Fe alloy wrought materi- ductility response in nickel-based alloy enriched by solute elements due to rapid als and weld metals. The results show filler materials. diffusion at the grain boundary intersec- significant differences in the ductility re- tion. These observations further support sponses of wrought and welded speci- Conclusions the hypothesis that as grain boundary pre- mens, indicating that microstructure is a cipitates form, grain boundary sliding is significant parameter affecting hot ductil- 1. Ductility-dip cracking occurred restricted, enabling significant matrix de- ity. Although somewhat mixed, data from along random high-angle grain bound- formation and higher ductility. a number of heats revealed that the duc- aries, generally referred to as migrated Controlling impurity contents (S, E tility response is a function of welding grain boundaries in austenitic weld metal. etc.) may also assist in controlling forma- speed with ductility typically increasing as 2. A low fraction of interdendritic con- tion of DDC, especially during multipass welding speed increased from 1 to 10 stituents (TIN) and eutectic MC-carbides welding operations. Based on the increase in./min. Higher welding speeds produced were inconsistently distributed through- in DDC susceptibility observed during finer grain sizes in both the fusion zone out the microstructure of Filler Metal 52 STF testing of Filler Metal 82 with addi- and heat-affected zone resulting in greater resulting in long, straight migrated grain tions of sulfur to the spot weld, it is antic- fissure resistance. Faster welding speeds boundaries. These boundaries have low ipated that minimizing S, P, and other im- not only produced a fissure-resistant resistance to grain boundary sliding and purity contents in Filler Metals 82 and 52 structure, but also reduced the volume of thus exhibited increased susceptibility to will increase the resistance to DDC. material susceptible to fissuring. Further- DDC. Cordea et al. (Ref. 31) concluded that more, Yeniscavich postulated that segre- 3. A higher fraction of eutectic con- after extensive grain growth, impurities gation decreased as the welding speed in- stituents, particularly (Nb,Ti)C, were dis- became sufficiently concentrated on the creased, decreasing the likelihood of a low tributed throughout the microstructure of grain boundaries to weaken them, result- ductility response. Filler Metal 82 resulting in formation of ing in crack initiation. As microsegrega- This investigation into DDC of nickel- tortuous grain boundary paths that are tion of S, R and other impurity elements based alloy filler materials has identified a more resistant to DDC. The increased re- easily occurs to solidification subgrain number of factors that contribute to DDC sistance to DDC was a function of the eu- boundaries during solidification and dif- formation. The DDC mechanism is most tectic constituents "pinning" grain bound- fusion along these boundaries is enhanced likely a complex interplay amongst these ary motion effectively minimizing grain in comparison to the matrix, it is antici- contributing factors rather than a result of growth and grain boundary sliding. pated that the intersection of a migrated any single factor. The research performed 4. Sulfur and hydrogen additions were grain boundary with a solidification sub- in this investigation has provided in- found to increase susceptibility to DDC in grain boundary will result in enrichment creased insight into a number of variables Filler Metal 82. of impurity elements along the migrated that can be manipulated to assist in de- 5. Triple-point grain boundary inter- grain boundary. This in turn will promote creasing or controlling DDC formation. sections act as high stress concentration decohesion and facilitate grain boundary Control of the DDC mechanism may regions conducive to crack initiation. The sliding along the boundary/matrix inter- be effectively described by the following: addition of hydrogen greatly increased the face. Eliminating or minimizing impurity Materials containing a consistent distribu- incidence of cracking at triple points. elements in the filler materials may assist tion of grain boundary precipitates and/or 6. Straight migrated grain boundaries in increasing the amount of strain neces- eutectic constituents effectively "lock" crack under low levels of strain (<2%). sary to initiate grain boundary sliding. and/or "pin" grain boundary motion, in- Higher levels of strain (>2%) are neces- The potent effect of hydrogen on DDC hibiting grain growth. Grain boundary tor- sary to initiate cracking along tortuous mi- susceptibility was initially quite surprising tuosity is therefore increased resulting in grated grain boundaries. based on the perceived resistance of increased boundary area per unit length 7. Recrystallization was observed in the austenitic microstructures to hydrogen- (vs. a straight grain boundary) to resist ap- upper temperature range (1050°-1200°C) induced cracking. Although the exact lev- plied strains while also subjecting less of of the DTR and coincided with ductility els of diffusible hydrogen were not deter- the grain boundary to orientations favor- recovery. mined, it is estimated based on data gath- able to boundary separation. Precipita- 8. Grain boundary orientation to the ered from multipass welds using 95Ar-5H2 tion, eutectic constituent formation, and applied strain is a contributing factor to

~l:m~l FEBRUARY 2004 WELDING RESEARCH DDC formation. Boundaries oriented at 12. Heuschkel, J. 1960. Weld metals in pp. 190-211. 45-90 deg to the applied strain were found nickel-base alloys. Welding Journal 39(6): 236-s 28. Bowers, R. 1997. Unpublished research, to be most susceptible to DDC. to 246-s. Edison Welding Institute, Columbus, Ohio. 9. Using the EBSD technique, it was 13. Sadowski, E. E 1974, Modification of 29. Kikel, J. M., and Parker, D. M. 1998. shown that high strain concentrations are cast 25Cr-20Ni for improved crack resistance. Ductility dip cracking susceptibility of Filler present along the migrated grain bound- Welding Journal 53(2): 49-s to 58-s. Metal 52 and Alloy 690. Proceedings qf the aries upon application of only small 14. Hadrill, D. M., and Baker, R. G. 1965. Trends" in Welding Research Confelz'nce, Pine strains in the STF test. Microcracking in austenitic weld metal. British Mountain, Ga., pp. 757-762. Welding Journal 12(8) 411-419 30. Pumphrey, E H. 1976. Special high angle 15. Matsuda, E 1990. Hot crack susceptibil- grain boundaries. Grain Bounda O, Structure and Acknowledgments ity of weld metal. Proceedings of the 1st U.S.- Properties, G. A. Chadwick and D. A. Smith, Japan Symposium on Advances in Welding Met- reds.). London, U.K.: Academic Press. pp. The authors would like to thank allurgy. Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society, 139-2110. Nathan Nissley, Dan Ryan, and Shu Shi, pp. 19-36. 31. Cordea, J. N., Evans, R. M., and Martin, members of the Welding and Joining Met- 16. Arata, Y., Matsuda, E, and Katayama, S. D. C. 1962. Investigation to determine causes of allurgy Group at The Ohio State Univer- 1977. Solidification crack susceptibility in weld fissuring in stainless steel and nickel-base alloy sity, for their valuable assistance during metals of fully austenitic stainless steels (Re- weld metals. Technical Documenta O' Repot1 No. this investigation. We are grateful for the port II) -- Effect of ferrite, P, S, C, Si and Mn ASD-TDR-62-317, Project No. 7381, Task No. technical input and guidance of Jeff Kikel on ductility properties of solidification brittle- 738102. Columbus, Ohio: Battelle Memorial and financial support by BWX Technolo- ness. Transactions of JWRl 6( 1): 105-117. Institute. pp. 1-41. gies, Inc. 17. Mintz, B., Abu-Shosha, R., and Shaker, 32. Dix, A. W., and Savage, W. E 1971. Fac- M. 1993, Influence of deformation induced fer- tors influencing strain-age cracking in Inconel rite, grain boundary sliding and dynamic re- X-750. WehlingJourna151(6): 247-s to 252-s. References crystallization on hot ductility of 0.1-0.75%C 33. Zhang, Y., Nakagawa, H., and Matsuda, steels. Materials" Seience and Technology 9( 10): E 1985. Weldability of Fe-36%Ni alloy (Report

1. Nissley, N. E. 2002. Development of the 907-914. VI) -- Further investigation on mechanism of Strain-to-Fracture Test to Study Ductility-Dip 18. Masubuchi, K., and Martin, D. C. 1962. reheat hot cracking in weld metal. Transactions Cracking in Austenitic Alloys. MS thesis. Mechanisms of cracking in HY-80 steel weld- ofYWRl 14(2) Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University. ments. WeMing.lournal 41(8): 375-s to 384-s. 34. Zhang, Y., Nakagawa, H., and Matsuda, 2. Hemsworth, B., Boniszewski, T., and 19. Rhines, E N., and Wray, E J. 1961. In- E 1985. Weldability of Fe-36%Ni alloy (Report Eaton, N. E 1969. Classification and definition vestigation of the intermediate temperature V) -- Behaviors of grain boundary sliding and of high-temperature welding cracks in alloys. ductility minimum in metals. Transactions of the cavity formation preceding reheat hot cracking Metal Construction and British Wehling Journal, ASM54:117-128. in weld metal. Transactions ol',IWRI 14(2): pp. 5-16. 20. Bengough, G. D. 1912. A study of the 119-124. 3. Honeycombe, J., and Gooch, T. G. 1970. properties of alloys at high temperatures. Jour- 35. Unpublished data provided by J. Kikel Microcracking in fully austenitic stainless steel nal, Institute of Metals 7: 123-174. of BWX Technologies, Inc., 2001. weld metal. Metal Construction and British 21. Mathew, M. D., Sasikala, G., Mannan, 36. Yeniscavich, W. 1966, A correlation of Welding Journal (9): 375-380. S. L., and Rodriguez, E 1993. A comparative Ni-Cr-Fe alloy weld metal fissuring with hot 4. Collins, M. G., and Lippold, J. C. 2002. study of the creep rupture properties of Type ductility behavior. Welding Journal 45(8): 344-s An investigation of ductility-dip cracking in 316 stainless steel base and weld metals. 7bins- to 355-s. nickel-based filler materials -- Part I. Welding actions of the A SME, .hmrnal of Engineering Ma - Journal 82( 10): 288-s to 295-s.. terials and Technolo,w 115: 163-170. 5. Collins, M. G., Ramirez, A. J., and Lip- 22. Hadrill, D. M., and Baker, R. G. 1965. pold, J. C. An investigation of ductility-dip Heat affected zone cracking in thick section cracking in nickel-based filler materials -- Part austenitic steels during post weld heat treat- 11. Welding Journal 82( 12): 348-s to 354-s. ment. BWRA Bulletin 6(11): 282-288. 6. Schwartz, A. J., Kumar, M., and Adams, 23. Totsuka, N., Lunarska, E., Cragnolino, B. reds.). 201/11. Electron Backscattered D([- G., and Szklarska-Smialnowska, Z. 1987. Cor- fiaetion in Materials Science. Kluwer Acade- ivsion 43(8): 515-514. mic/Plenum Publishers, p. 339. 24. Estman, J., Matsumoto, T., Narita, N., 7. Gourgues, A. E 2002. Electron backscat- Heubaum, E, and Birnbaun, H. K. 19811. Hy- REPRINTS REPRINTS tered diffraction and cracking, Materials Sci- drogen effects in nickel -- Embrittlement or ence and Technology 18(2): 119-133. enhanced ductility. Hydrogen E~l~'cts in Metals', 8. Lehockey, E. M., Lin, Y. E, and Lepik, O. M. Bernstein and A. W. Thompson reds.). War- To order custom reprints E. 2000. Mapping residual plastic strain in ma- rendale, Pa.: TMS pp. 397-409. of articles in terials using electron backscatter diffraction. 25. Symons, D. M. 1999. The effect of hy- Welding Journal, Electron Backscattemd D~ffraction in Materials drogen in the fracture toughness of Alloy X-750 Scieme, A. J. Schwartz et al. reds.). Kluwer Aca- at elevated temperatures. Journal o1" Nuch'ar call FosteReprints at demic/Plenum Publishers, pp. 247-264. Materials 265:225-231. (219) 879-8366 or 9. DuPont, J. N., Robino, C. V., and Marder, 26. Huang, X., Zhang, Y., Liu, Y., and Hu, (800) 382-0808. A. R. 1998. Solidification and weldability of Nb- Z. 1997. Effect of small amount of nitrogen on Request for quotes can be bearing superalloys, Welding Journal 77(11/): carbide characteristics in unidirectional Ni- 417-s to 431-s. base superalloy. Metallm~qcal Transactions A faxed to (219) 874-2849. 111. Ramirez, A. J. 2002. Unpublished re- 28( 10): 2143-2 t 47. You can e-mail search performed at The Ohio State University. 27. Palumbo, G., and Aust, K. T. 1992. Spe- FosteReprints at cial properties of Y grain boundaries. Materials 11. Watanabe, T. 1988. The potential for sales @fostereprints. corn grain boundary design in materials develop- lntefface,s'-- Atomic Level Stnwture and Proper- ment. Materials Forum ( 11 ): 284-300. ties, Chapter 5. Great Britain: Chapman-Hall.

WELDING JOURNAL ~.~[,t,l~,l Liquation Cracking in Full-Penetration Al-Cu Welds

Keeping the weld-metal solute content above m not below -- the solidification cracking range can prevent liquation cracking as well as solidification cracking

BY C. HUANG AND S. KOU

ABSTRACT. Liquation cracking in the to relax tensile strains in the PMZ. Third, and similar alloys such as 6063 and 6082 partially melted zone (PMZ) of full-pen- raising the weld metal solute content be- (Refs. 5, 7-12). etration aluminum welds was investi- yond the solidification-cracking range can Gittos et al. (Ref. 5) used the circular- gated, using the simple binary Alloy 2219 prevent liquation cracking as well as so- patch test (Ref. 21) to study liquation (AI-6.3Cu) to gain better understanding. lidification cracking. cracking in an aluminum alloy close to The PMZ is the region outside the fusion Alloy 6082 in composition. Liquation zone where grain-boundary liquation oc- Introduction cracking occurred in full-penetration GTA curs during welding. The circular-patch welds made with the AI-5Mg filler metal at test was used to evaluate the crack sus- The partially melted zone (PMZ) is a high-dilution ratios (about 80%) but not ceptibility. Gas metal arc (GMA) welds region immediately outside the weld with the A1-5Si filler metal at any dilution were made with the weld metal contain- metal where liquation occurs during weld- ratios. They proposed that liquation ing 0.93, 2.32, 3.43, 6.30, and 7.55 wt-% ing because of overheating above the eu- cracking occurs when the base metal Cu. The curves of temperature (7) vs. the tectic temperature (or the solidus temper- solidus temperature is below the weld- solid fraction (/IT)were calculated for both ature if the workpiece is completely metal solidus temperature. the PMZ (same as the base metal) and the solutionized before welding) (Ref. 1). This Katoh et al. (Ref. 7), Kerr et al. (Ref. weld metal. The results were as follows: is illustrated in Fig. 1. Since the grain 8), and Miyazaki et al. (Ref. 9) used the First, at 0.93% Cu liquation cracking was boundaries are liquated, intergranular Varestraint test (Refs. 22, 23) to study livery severe; at 2.32% Cu liquation crack- cracking can occur under the tensile quation cracking in GTA and GMA welds ing decreased but solidification cracking strains induced by welding. Significant of 6000 alloys (partial penetration). Their appeared; at 3.43% Cu liquation cracking tensile strains are induced in the work- results contradicted the cracking condi- disappeared but solidification cracking piece when it is restrained and unable to tion of Gittos et al. (Ref. 5). was severe; and at 6.30 and 7.55% Cu nei- contract (due to solidification shrinkage Huang and Kou (Ref. 24) studied li- ther type of cracking occurred. Second, and thermal contraction) freely upon quation cracking in partial-penetration liquation cracking either stopped or did cooling during welding. Liquation crack- aluminum welds of Alloy 2219. The papil- not occur near solidification cracks. ing often occurs in the PMZ along the fu- lary (nipple) -type penetration common in Third, the T-fT curves did not intersect sion boundary. Aluminum alloys are GMAW with spray transfer was found to each other and they showed that, for the known to be susceptible to liquation oscillate along the weld and cause crack- welds that liquation-cracked, the weld- cracking in the PMZ during welding. Li- ing. Various filler metals, including 1100, metalfs exceeded the PMZfs throughout quation and liquation cracking in alu- 2319, 4047, 4145, and 2319 plus extra Cu, PMZ solidification. Three things were minum welds have been the subjects of were used but did not eliminate liquation proposed. First, liquation cracking is great interest in welding (Refs. 1-20). cracking. caused by the tensile strains induced in Metzger (Ref. 3) observed liquation Cross and Gutscher (Ref. 25) studied the solidifying PMZ by the solidifying and cracking in full-penetration gas tungsten the effect of Cu and Fe content on the so- contracting weld metal that exceed the arc (GTA) welds of Alloy 6061 made with lidification cracking and liquation in Alloy PMZ resistance to cracking. Under the AI-Mg filler metals at high dilution ratios, 2519 using a circular-patch test. same welding conditions, the tensile but not in similar welds made with AI-Si The present study demonstrates the sig- strains in the PMZ increase with increas- filler metals at any dilution ratios. This was nificant effect of the weld-metal solute con- ing weld-metalfs and workpiece restraint, confirmed by subsequent studies on 6061 tent on liquation cracking in full- and the PMZ resistance to cracking de- penetration welds. Alloy 2219 is selected, creases with increasing liquation. Second, not as the subject of investigation, but as a an aluminum weld metal higher in.liT than tool for better understanding of liquation the PMZ throughout PMZ solidification cracking. KEY WO RD S can cause liquation cracking if the workpiece is restrained tightly, the PMZ is li- Aluminum Experimental Procedure quated heavily, and there is no solidifica- Alloy 2219 tion cracking in the adjacent weld metal Solidification Cracking The circular-patch test (Ref. 21) was Liquation Cracking used to evaluate the susceptibility to liquation cracking. As shown in Fig. 2, the C. HUANG and S. KOU are respectively Partially Melted Zone Circular-Patch Test workpiece was highly restrained (by being Graduate Student and Profi'ssor in the bolted down to a thick stainless steel Department O[ Materials Science and Scheil Equation Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, plate) in order to prevent it from con- Wis. tracting freely during welding. This allows

~1~D,.'t FEBRUARY 2004 WELDING RESEARCH .ii,, .....

(A) (A)

mushy zone ~dendrite workpiece liquid ~.¢4]~_ fusion 3.2 mm PMZ liquid~ boundary thickness: PMZ grains (B) PMZ: partially melted zone; washer TL: liquidus temperature; ~ork~iece weld \ copper ring TE: eutectic temperature (solidus temperature if workpiece is solutionized before welding) , copper (g) PMZ (completely solidified) A ~ A' base metal base metal stainless steel base plate

Fig. 1 -- Formation of partially melted zone next to fusion boundary: A -- Fig. 2 -- Circular-patch test. A -- Top view of workpiece; B -- side view of top view; B -- transverse cross section along AA ' in A. apparatus. cracking to occur and be evaluated. Alloy 2219-O was welded in the as- Table 1 -- Compositions of Workpiece and Filler Metals in wt-% received condition, where the O-temper Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti stands for overaging (Ref. 26). The actual Si Fe Zr compositions of the alloys and filler met- Workpiece als are listed in Table 1. 1100 0.10 0.01 -- -- 0.01 -- -- 0.78 -- The workpiece consisted of two pieces. 2219 6.30 0.33 -- -- 0.01 0.03 0.08 0.12 0.12 The outer piece was Alloy 2219, the inner Filler Metals piece was either Alloy 2219 or 1100, and 1100 0.08 0.01 -- -- 0.02 -- 0.08 0.52 -- filler metal was Alloy 1100, 2319, or 2319 2319 6.30 0.30 ------0.15 0.10 0.15 0.18 plus extra Cu. By using different alloys as the inner piece and the filler metal, the weld-metal composition could be varied over a wide range. 25.4 mm. The bolts were tightened with a for GTAW were 16 V, 75 A DCEN, and The outer piece was 102 mm long, 102 torque wrench to the same torque of 47.5 7.4 mm/s welding speed (based on a rota- mm wide and 3.2 mm thick, with a hole of N'm to ensure consistent restraint condition speed of 2.8 rpm and diameter of 50.8 11.1 mm diameter in each corner. The tions. A similar design was used by Nelson mm) with Ar shielding. The resultant weld inner piece was a circular patch 57.2 mm et al. (Ref. 27) for assessing solidification bead was fully penetrating and about 4 in diameter, with a hole of 12.7 mm at the cracking in steel welds. mm wide at the top, well within, and thus, center. The gap between the outer and The workpiece was separated from the fully incorporated into the subsequent inner pieces was about 0.25 mm. In one copper plate and the copper ring by wash- GMA weld. weld (Weld 2219/1100/1100B), the diame- ers (1.6 mm thick, 12.2-mm ID, and 23.5- The welding parameters for GMAW ter of the inner piece (the circular patch) mm OD). Without the washers, it was dif- were 4.2 mm/s welding speed (based on a was changed to 50.8 mm to help adjust the ficult to make full-penetration welds 1.6-rpm rotation speed and a 50.8 mm di- weld-metal composition. because of the heat sink effect of copper. ameter), 22-V, 140-A average current, and The outer piece was sandwiched be- The extra Cu was a 99.999%-pure Cu Ar shielding. The filler wire, 1.2 mm in di- tween a copper plate (152 x 152 x 19 mm) wire of 1 mm diameter. When it was used, ameter, was positioned at 25.4 mm from at the bottom and a copper ring (19 mm it was positioned in a 1-mm-deep groove the center of the workpiece, and was fed thick, 83-mm ID, and 152 x 152 mm on the of 50.8 mm diameter at the top surface of at a speed of 93.1 mm/s. The distance be- outside) at the top. The workpiece to- the circular patch. The Cu wire was placed tween the contact tube and workpiece was gether with the copper plate and the cop- in a 1-mm-wide groove. The extra Cu was about 25.4 mm, and the torch was perpen- per ring were bolted down tightly to a GTA welded first to melt and mix with the dicular to the workpiece. stainless steel base plate of 203 x 203 x surrounding base metal. The conditions The macrostructure and microstruc-

WELDING JOURNAL B.1iB.'I WELDING RESEARCH

2219 welded to 1100 with 2219 welded to 1100 with filler 1100: weld metal (1) filler 2319: weld metal (3) [ O liquaD cracki~ X

..?....-..f..r C ~, ."!'-~ partially " C 100 um Iir~¢..-."- :4z,.~ ,,,¢~.~,. ;, ,"t' 4 E . ,-r f :¢ , . "•'NY..I',.~..~-~¢J melted ,'g.~ ~lll~~" -"h.~" 5', ,4, partl~l,¢, paqially d~L ~:~L ~-;'~ zone .~j ~, ~ ; melted', ., melted . -, ~_¢~ t,~ ,;S ,;.L, zone : zone

, .,q

Fig. 3 -- Weld made between Alloy 2219 (outer Fig. 4 -- Weld made between Alloy 2219 (outer Fig. 5 -- Weld made" between Alloy 2219 (outer piece) and Alloy I100 (patch of 57.2 mm diameter) piece) and Alloy 1100 (patch of 50.8 mm diameter) piece) and Alloy 1100 (patch of 57.2 mm diameter) with filler metal 1100. A -- Overview; B -- macro- with filler metal 1100. A -- Overview; B -- macro- with filler metal 2319. A -- Overview; B -- macrograph; C -- micrograph of area in square in A. graph; C -- micrograph of area in square in B. graph; C -- micrograph of area in square in B.

ture of the resultant welds were examined. amined with an optical microscope. metal using the following equation: The surfaces of the resultant welds were It has been shown that the composition cleaned with a solution of 48 vol-% HF in of a single-pass GMA aluminum weld is % element E in weld metal = [(%E in H20. Macrographs of the welds were essentially uniform (Ref. 28). The Lorenz base metalA) × a + (%E in base metal taken with a digital camera. The welds force, surface-tension gradients, and B) × b + (%E in filler metal C) x c] were then sectioned and etched with a so- droplet impingement help mix the filler /(a + b +c) (1) lution of 0.5 vol-% HF in water. The trans- metal with the melted base metal (Ref. 1). verse cross-sectional area of each weld Thus, the concentration of an alloying el- where the areas a, b, and c are the areas in was determined with the help of computer ement E in the weld metal was calculated the weld transverse cross section that rep- software. The weld microstructure was ex- from those in the base metals and the filler resent contributions from the base metal

II."P,IN"I FEBRUARY 2004 WELDING RESEARCH A, base metal 13, and filler metal C, re- :iller spectively. They were determined from circular-patchweld solidification the area and location of the transverse cracking 3m cross section of the weld. Results and Discussion primarily ~.~..f (A)liquation ~-!~, ~IQ J The percentage contributions from the cracking ~ inner piece, the outer piece, and the filler metal to the welds and the resultant weld- uation metal compositions are listed in Table 2. (B) The experimental results are summarized ~cracking in Table 3. For convenience, all welds are mixed identified with a series of three numbers. liquation/ The first, second, and third numbers refer solidification to the outer piece, the inner piece (circu- liquation cracking lar patch), and the filler metal used, re- cracking through weld metal ~:: spectively. For instance, Weld 2219/1100/2319 refers to a weld made by solidification joining an outer piece of Alloy 2219 to an cracking inner piece of Alloy 1100 with a filler (c) metal of Alloy 2319. primarily ~f" ~-?~ solidificationI:~ :~ j~ Overviews: Maerographs and cracking Mierographs of Welds ~ There were two 2219/1100/1100 welds. welding The one with a circular patch of 57.2 mm direction diameter will be called Weld welo metal 2219/1100/1100A, and the one (and the only one in the present study) with a cir- Fig. 6-- Three types of cracking observed. A -- Pri- Fig. 7-- Cracking at bottom of weld. A -- Bottom cular patch of 50.8 mm diameter, called marily liquation cracking; B -- mixed fiquation/so- surface of weld in Fig. 3B; B -- transverse cross sec- 2219/1100/1100B. lidification cracking; C -- primarily solidification tion along line "xy," sketched according to micro- Figure 3A is the overview of the top of cracking. graph observed (not shown due to space limit). Weld 2219/1100/1100A that has been traced with the help of computer software from the digital photograph of the weld. The cracks were marked with thick lines for Figure 3C shows the mi- clarity. Such an overview was used instead crostructure inside the small of the photograph itself because cracks square in Fig. 3A. The cellu- 800 ~ ...... , ...... ,...... j...... ,...... ,.... were too small to see at the magnification lar/dendritic fusion zone was alloy 2219 of the overview. The crater at the termina- clearly different from the li- Oo 700-~ (AI-6.3Cu) L tion of welding was included in the figure quated PMZ. The liquation but not the beginning of the weld (at the crack made a clear-cut sepa- three o'clock position of the weld), which ration of the two zones along ~ 600~ was welded over and replaced by the crater. the fusion boundary. No li- ~z 500_....-]uyl T E = 548 °C Weld 2219/1100/1100A had a weld- quation cracking was ob- & metal composition of AI-0.93Cu. As served inside the PMZ. shown in Fig. 3A, it suffered from very se- The weld-metal composi- E 4001/ O(AI2Ou)~ vere liquation cracking (91% of the weld tion was raised to AI-2.32Cu outer edge) and some solidification crack- in Weld 2219/1100/1100B to ing (13% of the weld length). Figure 3B is reduce liquation cracking. As a macrograph of the lower left region of shown in Fig. 4A, solidifica- AI 10 20 30 40 50 the weld. Liquation cracking was evident tion cracking (49% of the Weight Percent Cu along the outer edge of the weld, but there weld length) was more and li- was no liquation cracking along the inner quation cracking (28% of the edge. In circular-patch welding, the work- outer weld edge) was less piece is held tightly against a strong back than those in Weld Fig. 8 -- Aluminum-rich side of AI-Cu phase diagram (Ref 30). (the stainless steel base plate in Fig. 2). 2219/1100/1100A. Mixed li- This keeps the weld metal from contract- quation/solidification cracking due to thermal contraction and solidi- ing was observed in four regions along the stopped at the point where solidification fication shrinkage when it cools. Conse- outer edge of the weld. It is interesting to cracking started. This is probably because quently, the outer edge of the weld is in note that in each region liquation cracking solidification cracking in the weld metal tension while the inner edge is in com- and solidification cracking did not coexist, reduced the tensile strains in the adjacent pression. This explains why liquation that is, run side by side. Figure 4B shows PMZ significantly. In fact, a similar trend cracking was observed only along the cracking in the upper right region of the also was seen in the upper right region of outer edge of the weld. weld. It is evident that liquation cracking Weld 2219/1100/1100A- Fig. 3A.

WELDING JOURNAL I-1~!~1 Table 2 -- Compositions of Weld Metals

Contribution from Contribution from Contribution from Contribution from Weld-Metal Outer Piece Inner Piece Filler Metal Extra Cu Composition Weld metal (1) of weld 13.5% from 52.3% from 34.2% from -- A1-0.93Cu 2219/1100/1 I00A 2219 1100 111111 Weld metal (2) of weld 36.0% from 28.8% from 35.2% from -- AI-2.32Cu 2219/1100/1100B 2219 1100 1100 Weld metal (3) of weld 21.5% from 46.3% from 32.2% from -- AI-3.43Cu 2219/1100/2319 2219 1100 2319 Weld metal (4) of weld 65.3% from 2219 (both 34.7% from -- AI-6.30Cu 22 l 9/2219/2319 inner and outer pieces) 2319 Weld metal (5) of weld 63.14% from 2219 (both 35.52% 1.34% from AI-7.55Cu 2219/2219/2319+Cu inner and outer pieces) from 2319 Cu

as in the case of Weld 2219/1100/1100A Table 3 -- Summary of Experimental Results (91% of the outer weld edge, Fig. 3A). However, when liquation cracking was Outer Piece/Inner Piece/Filler Metal less severe, it appeared to be located more Weld 2219/ Weld2219/ Weld2219/ Weld2219/ Weld 2219/ or less in three regions: between the cen- 1100/11(10A 1100/1100B 1100/2319 2219/2319 2219/2319+Cu ter of the workpiece and its lower left, Weld-metal AI-(I.93Cu AI-2.32Cu AI-3.43Cu AI-6.3Cu AI-7.55Cu upper left, and upper right corners. Weld composition 2219/1100/1100B is an example -- Fig. 4A. Liquation cracking 18.42 5.82 No No No The region between the center and the (cm) lower right corner was more complicated Liquation cracking 91 28 (1 0 (1 because of the overlapping between the (% of weld outer beginning and the end of the weld. The edge) rolling direction did not appear to have a Solidification 2.118 8.26 9.80 No No cracking (cm) significant effect on liquation cracking. Solidification cracking 13 49 61/ 0 0 In fact, solidification cracking also ap- (% of weld length~,~) peared to be located more or less in the same three regions. Welds 2219/1100/1100A (a) Weld length = (length of weld outer edge plus length of weld inner edge)/2. (Fig. 3A), 2219/111X)/1100B (Fig. 4A), and 2219/1100/2319 (Fig. 5A) are examples. Figure 4C shows the microstructure in As the weld-metal composition was in- Solidification cracking can be initiated in the square of Fig. 4B. The solidification creased to AI-6.30Cu in Weld a weld metal with a composition highly crack in the fusion zone was connected to 2219/2219/2319, which is the same as the susceptible to solidification cracking when the liquation crack at the weld interface. composition of Alloy 2219 (AI-6.30Cu), the weld pool enters the three regions. As This suggests that liquation cracking can neither liquation cracking nor solidifica- already mentioned, when solidification trigger solidification cracking. However, tion cracking occurred except for some so- cracks open up in the weld metal, tensile solidification cracking can also initiate lidification cracking inside the crater. strains in the adjacent PMZ are greatly re- within the fusion zone by itself and does Finally, as the weld-metal composition duced and liquation cracking stops (or not have to initiate at liquation cracks. was increased to A1-7.55Cu in Weld tends not to occur). This explains why li- The weld-metal composition was fur- 2219/2219/2319+Cu, neither liquation quation cracking switched to solidification ther raised to AI-3.43Cu in Weld cracking nor solidification cracking oc- cracking in Welds 2219/1100/1100A (Fig. 2219/1100/2319 to reduce liquation crack- curred, not even in the crater. Figure 6 3A) and 2219/1100/1100B -- Fig. 4A. ing. Solidification cracking (60% of the summarizes the three types of cracking in weld length) took over completely, that is, the welds discussed above. It includes pri- Bottom View of Liquation Cracking liquation cracking disappeared. As shown marily liquation cracking (Fig. 3A), mixed in the overview in Fig. 5A, solidification liquation/solidificationcracking (Fig. 4A), Figure 7A shows the bottom surface of cracking occurred in three different re- and primarily solidification cracking -- Weld 2219/1100/1100A. The crack did not gions of the weld, each crack being about Fig. 5A. look like liquation cracking because it ran 3 to 4 cm long. parallel to but not exactly along the outer The macrograph in Fig. 5B shows so- Locations of Cracking edge of the weld. It did not look like solidification cracking in the upper right re- lidification cracking, either, because it did gion of the weld. Cracking started from The tensile strains in the weld are ex- not move toward and propagate along the near the outer edge of the weld, propa- pected to be highest in the regions be- weld centerline. In fact, this crack was the gated inward, and then followed the weld- tween the center of the workpiece and its bottom of the liquation crack shown in ing direction. four corners because the workpiece was Fig. 3B. Figure 5C shows the microstructure of bolted down at the center and near its four The transverse cross section along line the weld inside the square in Fig. 5B, in- corners-- Fig. 2. The weld could not have "xy" is shown schematically in Fig. 7B. cluding the tip of the solidification crack been subjected to uniform constraint dur- During welding the molten metal at the near the fusion boundary. Clearly, solidifi- ing welding even if the washers were re- bottom of the weld pool spread over the cation cracking initiated within the weld moved. bottom surface of the PMZ, that is, the metal near the outer edge of the weld, and When liquation cracking was severe, it bottoms of the weld metal and the PMZ there was no liquation cracking in the PMZ. occurred essentially along the entire weld, overlapped. The liquation crack along the

~,"~m,,"i FEBRUARY 2004 WELDING RESEARCH

700 ..... : Liquation cracking in partially melted zone (PMZ) of ~) 660~ L i full-penetration aluminum welds

~ ~ , ," /¢ ,~i TE = 548 °C i 8.500F-i i V i.,'k ~,e~ base ,- metal o o,tat,.0, i 400 ~ O lll 51 10 15 20 25 30 35 AI / wt % Cu in weld metal transverse cross-/~ ~'\~ushg// section along X-Y// \ "--.._,L.-./ / L magnified // ~ ~'~..~ ~ ]uation ] // • we, meta, liquation I ...... lacking ] cracking/so,omcauon solidificationI ~/ / ~--fusion boundary ~~ cra2cking~ / /.. At fusion boundary the weld metal ~./is solidifying, contracting and pulling the PMZ. (A) L~uation cracking is unlikely if the weld-metal is I lower in fraction solid (or strength) than the PMZ. weld weld weld weld metal (4): metal (1): metal(2): metal (3): AI-6.3Cu; X PMZ ~ weldmetal y AI-0.93Cu AI-2.32Cu AI-3.43Cuweld metal (5): t =:::: ...... AI-7.55Cu ...... I" I l= decreasing liquation cracking in alloy 2219 (AI-6.3Cu)

q ' T ...... decreasing solidification cracking in AI-Cuweld metals tension Fig. 10 -- Effect of weld-metal composition on cracking in welds made in (B) Liquation cracking is likely if the weld-metal is higher in fraction solid (or strength) than the PMZ. Alloy 2219. X PMZ weld metal y

tectic liquid dissolves thermal expansion coefficient of alu- the surrounding minum is roughly twice that of iron-based phase, increases in vol- alloys. The grain-boundary liquid in the ume, and becomes hy- PMZ, however, does not contract signifi- t poeutectic. Upon cantly as it solidifies because of its much ~c~aii~l.bOundary tension cooling, the hypoeu- smaller volume than the weld pool. Con- tectic liquid solidifies sequently, the solidifying and contracting first as a Cu-depleted weld metal pulls the adjacent PMZ. The Fig. 9 -- Liquation cracking in full-penetration aluminum welds: A -- c~ phase and finally as a higher the solid fraction of the weld metal, Liquation cracking unlikely; B -- liquation cracking likely. Cu-rich eutectic. the greater its strength and contraction The mechanism of are. For a given material, the tensile liquation cracking is as strains induced in the PMZ depend on the fusion boundary propagated through the follows. Liquation cracking is caused by welding conditions, such as the heat input, weld metal and ended up as a major crack the tensile strains induced in the solidify- welding speed, workpiece thickness, fix- at the bottom weld surface, while that in ing PMZ by the solidifying and contract- turing, type of weld (circular or linear), the PMZ also propagated through the ing weld metal that exceed the PMZ resis- and so on. If the weld metal cracks, the weld metal and ended up as a minor crack tance to cracking. Therefore, liquation tensile strains in the adjacent PMZ are re- at the bottom weld surface. cracking requires the presence of both sig- laxed. Tensile strains can also be imposed nificant tensile strains in the PMZ and a on the PMZ if external forces are applied Mechanism of Liquation Cracking susceptible PMZ microstructure. to the workpiece during welding (for in- Significant tensile strains are induced stance, in Varestraint testing). Huang and Kou (Refs. 17, 19, 20) stud- in the PMZ if the adjacent weld metal be- A susceptible microstructure is present ied the mechanism of liquation in Alloy comes stronger than the PMZ during if the PMZ resistance to cracking is lowered 2219. Figure 8 shows the Al-rich side of PMZ solidification, and if the workpiece is by severe liquation. For a given material, the the AI-Cu phase diagram (Ref. 30). Cu- severely restrained (for instance, in circu- extent of liquation depends on the welding rich 0 particles are present both along lar-patch testing) and thus unable to con- condition, such as the welding process, heat grain boundaries and within the grain in- tract freely upon cooling. As the weld input, and welding speed. Therefore, for the terior. Upon reaching the eutectic tem- metal solidifies, it contracts because of so- same material under the same welding con- perature, the 0 particles react with the sur- lidification shrinkage and thermal condition, the strength of the weld metal rela- rounding c~ phase to form a eutectic liquid. traction. The solidification shrinkage of tive to that of the adjacent PMZ can have a Above the eutectic temperature, the eu- aluminum is as high as 6.6% (Ref. 29). The significant effect on liquation cracking.

WELDING JOURNAL II-,"l.'l~1 WELDING RESEARCH

40 660 E [] pulsed laser welding ---_-2 ...... - (Michaud et al., 1995) ...... (2)- = 30

640 - 20

0 N 10 62O t '.

\ t I O[ ...... I' 0 1 2345 6 78 9 10 •~ 600 wt%Cu E

I-- Fig. 12 -- Effect of composition on solidification cracking sensitivity in 58O pulsed laser AI-Cu welds (Ref. 33). weld metal (1): AI-0.93Cu m -- -- weld metal (2): AI-2.32Cu 560 ...... weld metal (3): AI-3.43Cu --weld metal (4) & PMZ: AI-6.3Cu liquation solidification ..... weld metal (5): AI-7.55Cu cracking cracking > 540 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 c- Solid Fraction, fs O

Fig. 11 -- Temperature vs. solid fraction for the partially melted zone 0 (PMZ) in Alloy 2219 and weld metals of various Cu contents.

Weld-m~tal solute ; content Condition for Liquation Cracking of a semisolid depends I I primarily on the frac- EO}I e-O} O r.- tion of the solid phase .m -,.,~OE .-- Gittos et al. (Ref. 5) proposed that li- I :.,= T.~ quation cracking occurs when the base- in it, though the mi- metal solidus temperature is below the crostructure and the I weld-metal solidus temperature. How- grain size can also affect I Ill ever, the cooling rate during welding is too the strength. Experi- I ._x I E high for equilibrium solidification to exist, mental data have and solidification can continue far below shown that the strength the solidus temperature in an equilibrium of a semisolid alu- Fig. 13 -- Effect of weld-metal solute content on liquation cracking and so- phase diagram. A new condition for liqua- minum alloy increases lidification cracking in full-penetration welds of a binary aluminum alloy tion cracking in full-penetration alu- with increasing solid such as 2219 (Al-6.3Cu). minum welds is proposed here. fraction (decreasing Figure 9 shows schematically the mi- temperature) (Ref. 31). crostructure at the fusion boundary. Con- This condition for cracking in full-penetration welds in Alloy sider the material at the junction between liquation cracking in full-penetration alu- 2219. The closer the weld-metal composi- the weld pool and the fusion boundary, such minum welds is illustrated in Fig. 9. The tion is to pure Al, the more severe liqua- as point Z. Here, the metal is completely PMZ is in tension because of the solidify- tion cracking can be. As the weld-metal melted both on the side of the weld pool and ing and contracting weld metal. In the case Cu content increases, liquation cracking the side of the PMZ. As the weld pool trav- shown in Fig. 9A, at the fusion boundary decreases. els a little further, the material at this point the weld metal has a lower solid fraction The effect of the weld-metal composi- falls behind and is now at the position and hence strength than the PMZ, which tion on liquation cracking shown in Fig. 10 marked by the line XY. By now, the mater- is only slightly liquated. Consequently, no will be explained in the next section based ial has been cooling and solidifying. It con- liquation cracking occurs. In the case on the curves of temperature vs. the solid sists of dendrites and interdendritic liquid shown in Fig. 9B, on the other hand, at the fraction. on the weld-metal side, and grains and fusion boundary the weld metal has a grain-boundary liquid on the PMZ side. higher solid fraction and hence strength Temperature vs. Solid Fraction It is proposed that a weld metal higher than the PMZ, which is severely liquated. in solid fraction and hence strength than the Consequently, liquation cracking is likely As mentioned previously, equilibrium PMZ throughout PMZ solidification can to occur. solidification does not exist during weld- cause liquation cracking if: 1) the workpiece ing and nonequilibrium solidification is restrained tightly; 2) the PMZ is liquated Effect of Weld-Metal Composition needs to be considered. The simplest case heavily; and 3) there is no solidification of nonequilibrium solidification is that cracking in the adjacent weld metal to relax Figure 10 summarizes the effect of the represented by the Scheil equation (Ref. the tensile strains in the PMZ. The strength weld-metal composition on liquation 1). If the solidus line and the liquidus line

ml.1;'ll,:,! FEBRUARY 2004 WELDING RESEARCH of the binary phase diagram are assumed tions before the PMZ, solidification crack- selected for studying liquation cracking. to be straight lines, the solid fraction fs- at ing occurred before liquation cracking. To test the susceptibility to liquation any given temperature Tcan be calculated The T-fs. curve for the AI-6.3Cu weld cracking, circular-patch welds were made from the following Scheil equation: metal coincides with Curve 4 for the PMZ. by GMAW. To vary the weld-metal com- 1 Curve 5 for the AI-7.55Cu weld metal is on position over a wide range, Alloy 2219 was the lower,fi~ side of Curve 4 for the PMZ. welded either to Alloy 1100 or to itself In neither case, the solidifying weld metal with filler metals 1100, 2319, or 2319 with (2) has a higher solid fraction and hence extra Cu. The compositions of the resul- where C o is the solute content of the alloy, strength than the PMZ to cause liquation tant welds varied from 0.93 to 7.55% Cu. C L the composition of the liquid at the cracking. This helps explain why liquation The macrostructure and microstructure of solid/liquid interface at T, and k the equi- cracking occurred neither in Weld the welds were examined. The curves of librium partition ratio. It can be shown 2219/2219/2319 (Weld metal 4 in Fig. 10) temperature (T) vs. solid fraction (J~,), (Ref. 32) that the Scheil equation can be nor Weld 2219/2219/2319+Cu (Weld were calculated for both the weld metal rewritten as metal 5 in Fig. 10). and the PMZ to analyze the competition l between the solidifying weld metal and the Solidification Cracking and solidifying PMZ. Liquation Cracking The conclusions are as follows: 1) Effect of weld-metal composition. Li- (3) Figure 12 shows the curve of solidifica- quation cracking can be severe when the where m c (< 0) is the slope of the liquidus tion cracking vs. composition from weld-metal solute content is low and much line in the phase diagram, and T m the Michaud et al. (Ref. 33) for the pulsed lower than the base-metal solute content melting point of pure aluminum. laser beam welding of binary A1-Cu alloys. but decreases as the weld-metal solute Consider first the effect of the weld- As shown, the maximum crack suscepti- content increases. metal composition on liquation cracking bility occurs between 3 and 4% Cu, which 2) Effect o[" solidification cracking. So- in Alloy 2219 -- Fig. 10. According to is close to the maximum crack susceptibil- lidification cracking can occur if the weld- Equation 3, at any temperature T the ity at 3.43% Cu in the present study. As metal composition is in the range most lower the weld-metal solute content C o, shown in Fig. 10, reducing liquation crack- susceptible to solidification cracking. Li- the greater the solid fraction fs. is. That is, ing by increasing the Cu content can en- quation cracking tends to be absent near the stronger the solidifying weld metal be- courage solidification cracking. In view of solidification cracks probably because so- comes and causes liquation cracking. This this, the weld-metal Cu content should be lidification cracking relaxes the tensile is consistent with the effect of the Cu con- increased to beyond 3 to 4% Cu in order strains in the nearby PMZ. tent shown in Fig. 10. That is, the closer to avoid both solidification cracking and 3) T-fs curves. The curves for the PMZ the weld-metal composition is to pure A1, liquation cracking. This is further illus- (same as the base metal) and the weld the higher the susceptibility of Alloy 2219 trated in Fig. 13 (shaded area). metal, which can be calculated based on to liquation cracking is, and the suscepti- the Scheil equation, do not intersect each bility decreases as the weld-metal Cu con- Comparison with Partial-Penetration other in binary-alloy welds such as AI-Cu tent increases. Welds welds. They show that for the AI-Cu welds Figure 11 shows the T-fs. curves calcu- that liquation-cracked, the weld-metal fs lated, based on the Scheil equation, for the As already demonstrated, in full-pene- exceeded the PMZfs. throughout PMZ so- PMZ in Alloy 2219 and weld metals of var- tration aluminum welds, liquation crack- lidification. The curves, especially when ious Cu contents. As shown, Curve 1 for the ing can be eliminated by using filler met- coupled with the data of solidification AI-0.93Cu weld metal is well on the higher- als to adjust the weld-metal composition. cracking vs. composition, help understand f~ side of Curve 4 for the PMZ (AI-6.3Cu). As shown by Huang and Kou (Ref. 24), how liquation cracking in full-penetration This suggests that the weld metal was higher however, in partial-penetration welds aluminum welds can be avoided by adjust- in solid fraction and hence strength than the made in Alloy 2219, liquation cracking ing the weld-metal solute content. PMZ during solidification. This helps ex- caused by oscillation of weld penetration 4) Mechanism q[ liquation cracking. Li- plain why severe liquation cracking oc- can persist regardless of the filler metal quation cracking is caused by the tensile curred in Weld 2219/1100/1100A (Weld used because penetration oscillation al- strains, induced in the solidifying PMZ by metal 1 in Fig. 10). Similarly, Curve 2 for the lows the weld metal to solidify and hence the solidifying and contracting weld metal, AI-2.32Cu weld metal was on the higher-/is, develop strength well ahead of the PMZ that exceed the PMZ resistance to crack- side of Curve 4 for the PMZ, and this ex- regardless of the weld-metal composition. ing. Under the same welding conditions, plains the liquation cracking in Weld Before a new penetration front arrives the tensile strains increase with increasing 2219/1100/1100B (Weld metal 2 in Fig. 10). and liquates the PMZ grain boundaries weld-metalfs, and workpiece restraint, and Curve 3 for the AI-3.43 Cu weld metal immediately behind it, much weld metal the PMZ resistance to cracking decreases was also on the higher-fs side of Curve 4 has already been solidifying near these with increasing PMZ liquation. for the PMZ. Surprisingly, liquation grain boundaries after the previous pene- 5) Condition for liquation cracking. A cracking did not occur (Weld metal 3 in tration front stopped. weld metal higher in fs than the PMZ Fig. 10). This is probably because solidifi- throughout PMZ solidification can cause cation cracking occurred first, and the ten- Summary and Conclusions liquation cracking in full-penetration alu- sile strains in the adjacent PMZ were thus minum welds if 1) the workpiece is re- reduced significantly before liquation In summary, in view of the susceptibil- strained tightly; 2) the PMZ is liquated cracking had a chance to occur. As will be ity of many aluminum alloys to liquation heavily; and 3) there is no solidification shown later, AI-Cu alloys are most sus- cracking during welding, the present study cracking in the adjacent weld metal to ceptible to solidification cracking between was conducted to investigate liquation relax the tensile strains in the PMZ. This 3 and 4% Cu. Since the weld metal was cracking in full-penetration aluminum condition is different from that of Gittos highly susceptible to solidification crack- welds. The simple binary AI-Cu Alloy and Scott (Ref. 5) based on equilibrium ing and since it reached high solid frac- 2219, which is easier to understand, was solidus temperatures, that is, liquation

WELDING JOURNAL ~1r15.1 cracking occurs when the base-metal alloys. WeldingJournal 45(6): 241-s to 249-s. mechanism and directional solidification. Wekt- solidus temperature is below the weld- 3. Metzger, G. E. 1967. Some mechanical ingJoumal 79(5): 113-s to 120-s. metal solidus temperature. Equilibrium properties of welds in 6061 aluminum alloy 18. Huang, C., and Kou, S. 2/)02. Liquation solidification does not exist in welding. sheet. WeMingJounlal 46( 10): 457-s to 469-s. mechanism in multicomponent aluminum al- 6) Avoiding cracking. In the case of bi- 4. Steenbergen, J. E., and Thornton, H. R. loys during welding. Welding ,lournal 81 ( 10): nary-alloy welds such as AI-Cu welds, in- 1970. Quantitative determination of the condi- 21 l-s to 222-s. creasing the weld-metal solute content to tions for hot cracking during welding for alu- 19. Huang, C., and Kou, S. 2001. Partially reduce liquation cracking can encourage minum alloys. VVeldingJourna149(2): 61-s to 68-s. melted zone in aluminum welds -- planar and solidification cracking. Decreasing the 5. Gittos, N. E, and Scott, M. H. 1981. Heat- celluar solidification. WeMingJourna180(2): 46- weld-metal solute content to reduce solid- affected zone cracking of AI-Mg-Si alloys. WeM- s to 53-s. ification cracking can encourage liquation ing Journal 60(6): 95-s to 103-s. 20. Huang, C., and Kou, S. 2001. Partially cracking. The weld-metal composition 6. Ma, T.. and Den Ouden, G. 1999. Liqua- melted zone in aluminum welds -- solute seg- should be adjusted to where both types of tion cracking susceptibility of AI-Zn-Mg alloys. regation and mechanical behavior. ~t'~,lding cracking can be avoided, that is, beyond blternational JournalJor the Joining qf Materials Journal 80( 1): 9-s to 17-s. the solidification cracking range. (Denmark) 1113): 61-67. 21. Borland, J. C., and Rogerson, J. H. 1963. 7) Pattern of liquation cracking. Liqua- 7. Katoh, M., and Kerr, H. W. 1987. Investi- Examination of the patch test for assessing hot tion cracking initiates at, or in the PMZ gation of heat-affected zone cracking of GTA cracking tendencies of weld metal. British Weld- near, the outer edge of the weld and prop- welds of AI-Mg-Si alloys using the Varestraint ing Journal 8: 494~.99. agates along the outer edge. test. WeldingJournal 66( 12): 360-s to 368-s. 22. Savage, W. E, and Lundin, C. D. 1965. 8) Pattern of solidtfication cracking. So- 8. Kerr, H. W., and Katoh, M. 1987. Investi- The Varestraint test. WeMing .lournal 44(10): lidification cracking initiates in the weld gation of heat-affected zone cracking of GMA 433-s to 442-s. metal near the outer edge of the weld or welds of AI-Mg-Si alloys using the Varestraint 23. Savage, W. E, and Lundin, C. D. 1966. from liquation cracks at the outer edge test. WeldingJournal 66(9): 25 l-s to 259-s. Application of the Varestraint technique to the and moves inward to propagate more or 9. Miyazaki, M., Nishio, K., Katoh, M., study of weldability. Welding Journal 45( l 1): less along the weld centerline. Mukae, S., and Kerr, H. W. 1990. Quantitative 497-s to 503-s. 9) Liquation cracking at weld bottom. investigation of heat-affected zone cracking in 24. Huang, C., and Kou. S. 21R13. Liquation At the bottom surface liquation cracking aluminum Alloy 6061. Welding Journal 69(9): cracking in partial-penetration aluminum welds: may not appear at the outer edge of the 362-s to 371-s. Effect of penetration oscillation and backfilling. weld as expected but just inside the weld 1(1. Gitter, R., Maier, J., Muller, W., and WeMingJouma182(7): 184-s to 194-s. metal. This can occur if the weld metal Schwellinger, P. 1992. Formation and effect of 25. Cross, C. E., Gutscher, D. 2003. Effect of spreads slightly over the bottom surface of grain boundary openings in AIMgSi alloys Cu and Fe on weldability of aluminum 2519.6th the PMZ, thus allowing liquation cracking caused by welding. Proceedings" of 5th Interna- h~ternational Trends" in Welding Research Confer- to propagate through the weld metal and tional Conference on Aluminum Weldments. Ed. ence Ppvceedings, Eds. S. A. David, T. DebRoy, J. reach its bottom surface. D. Kostcas, R. Ondra, and E Ostermann, C. Lippold, H. B. Smartt, and J. M. Vitek, Mate- 1O) Comparison with partial-penetration Munchen, Germany: Technische Universita rials Park, Ohio: ASM International, pp. welds'. As demonstrated in the present Munchen, p. 4.1.1. 638-641. study, in full-penetration aluminum welds, 11. Powell, G. L. E, Baughn, K., Ahmed, N., 26. The Aluminum Association. 1982. Alu- liquation cracking can be eliminated by Dalton, J. W., and Robinson, P.. 1995. The crack- minum Standards and Data. p. 15, Washington, using filler metals to adjust the weld-metal ing of 6001/series aluminum alloys during weld- D.C.: The Aluminum Association. composition. In partial-penetration alu- ing. f~roceedmgs of hTternational Conference on 27. Nelson, T. W., Lippold, J. C., Lin, W., and minum welds, however, liquation cracking MateriaLs' in WeldingandJoining. Parkville, Vic- Baeslack III, W. A. 1997. Evaluation of the cir- near the weld root caused by oscillation of toria, Australia: Institute of Metals and Materi- cular patch test for assessing weld solidification weld penetration can persist regardless of als Australasia. cracking, I. Development of a test method. the filler metal used because penetration 12. Ellis, M. B. D., Gittos, M. E, and Hadley, I/VeldingJournal 76(3): 1 l()-s to 119-s. oscillation allows the weld metal to solid- 1. 1997. Significance of liquation cracks in thick 28. Houldcroft, R. T. 1954. Dilution and uni- ify and hence develop strength well ahead section AI-Mg-Si alloy plate. The WeMingInsti- formity in aluminum alloy weld beads. British of the PMZ regardless of the weld-metal tute Journal (U.K.) 6(2): 213-255. Welding Journal 1 : 468-472. composition (Ref. 24). 13. Schillinger, D. E., Betz, I. G., Hussey, E 29. Flemings, M. C. 1974. Solidification Pro- W., and Markus, H. 1963. Improving weld eessing, pp. 34-36, pp. 160-162, and Appendix Acknowledgments strength in 2000 series aluminum alloys. I~,M- B. New York: McGraw-Hill. ing Journal 42: 269-s to 275-s. 30. American Society for Metals. 1986. Bi- This work was supported by National 14. Young, J. G. 1968. BWRA experience in na~ Alloy Phase Diagrams, Vol. 1, p. 1116, Met- Science Foundation under Grant No. the welding of aluminum-zinc-magnesium al- als Park, Ohio: ASM International. DMR-0098776. The authors are grateful loys. WeldingJournal 47(10): 451-s to 461-s. 31. Singer, A. R. E., and Cotrell, S. A. 1946. to Bruce Albrecht and Todd Holverson of 15. Lippold, J. C., Nippes, E. E, and Savage, Properties of the AI-Si alloys at temperatures in Miller Electric Manufacturing Co., Ap- W. E 1977. An investigation of hot cracking in the region of the solidus. Journal qf Institute of pleton, Wis., for donating the welding 5083-0 aluminum alloy weldments. Welding MetaLs" 73:33-54. equipment (including Invision 456P Journal 56(6): 171-s to 178-s. 32. Kou, S. 2003. WeMing Metallur~', 2nd power source, and XR-M wire feeder and 16. Huang, C., Kou, S., and Purins, J. R. edition, New York, N.Y.: John Wiley and Sons, gun). 21101. Liquation, solidification, segregation and p.151. hot cracking in the partially melted zone of AI- 33. Michaud E. J., Kerr, H. W., and Week- R~ferences 4.5Cu welds. Proceedings" of Merton C. Flemings man, D.C. 1995. Trends in Welding Researeh. Symposium on Solid~eation Processing. p. 229. Eds. H. B. Smartt, J. A. Johnson, and S. A. 1. Kou, S. 1987. Welding Metallurgy, New Ed. R. Abbaschian, H. Brody, and A. David, Materials Park, Ohio: ASM Interna- York, N.Y.: John Wiley and Sons, pp. 239-262, Mortensen, Warrendale, Pa.: The Mineral, tional, p. 154. pp. 137-138, and pp. 91-1/18. Metals and Materials Society. 2. Dudas, J. H., and Collins, E R. 1966. Pre- 17. Huang, C., and Kou, S. 2000. Partially venting weld cracks in high-strength aluminum melted zone in aluminum welds -- liquation m.l:m,,'..1 FEBRUARY 2004 Influence of Stress Ratio on Fatigue Crack Propagation Behavior of Stainless Steel Welds

Crack initiation and growth rates in relation to residual stresses were studied in gas metal arc welds of 316L

BY C. S. KUSKO, J. N. DUPONT, AND A. R. MARDER

ABSTRACT. The fatigue crack propaga- behavior of welds can be characterized by larger than the minimum applied stress, tion behavior of 316L stainless steel gas the well-known Paris equation, which re- then the crack may remain closed during a metal arc welds has been investigated lates the fatigue crack growth rate, da/dN, portion of the load cycle. In this case, it is using the K-increasing testing procedure. to the stress intensity range, AK (Ref. 3) useful to identify an opening stress inten- A series of stress ratios from 0.10 to 0.80 sity value, Kop, where Kop represents the was investigated in order to observe the in- d~ = C(AK)" minimum stress intensity required to keep fluence of stress ratio and stress intensity dN (1) the crack fully open. In short, if the mini- range on the fatigue crack growth rate. A where a is the crack length, N is the num- mum applied stress intensity, Kmin, is stress ratio of 0.55 has been shown to over- ber of cycles, and C and n are material below Kop, then the crack will be closed come closure for all the gas metal arc constants. The stress intensity range, zXK, whenever the applied stress intensity welds tested. Crack closure measurements is given by the difference between the drops below Kop. Under this condition, the obtained through the compliance offset maximum and minimum applied stress in- fully applied stress intensity range, AK, method were utilized to exphiin the intensity of the load cycle, AK = Kmax Kmin. does not contribute to crack propagation, crease in crack growth rate and decrease While the stress intensity range is the main and it is useful to define an effective stress of crack closure as the stress ratio is in- factor that governs the crack growth rate, intensity range, kK~ff, where M£cff is given creased. The increase in fatigue crack the stress ratio, R, (ratio of minimum to by Km~,x- K,,p. Under this condition, kK~ff growth rate, which occurs as the stress maximum applied stress intensity) can represents the true driving force for crack ratio is increased from 0.10 to 0.55, is gen- also influence the crack growth rate. The propagation. Lastly, it is important to note erally attributed to an extrinsic crack resulting effect of an increase of R on that one cannot separate an intrinsic crack opening effect in which higher stress ratios da/dN has been investigated for wrought growth rate dependence on R from a crack promote a fully open crack and corre- stainless steels (Ref. 4), carbon steels closure effect unless the condition at sponding higher growth rates. Continued (Ref. 5), alloy steels (Refs. 6-8), alu- which crack closure occurs is identified increase in the crack growth rate that oc- minum (Refs. 9-12), and titanium alloys during testing. curs as the stress ratio is increased further (Ref. 9). Generally, an increase in R re- Crack closure has been applied to ex- from 0.55 to 0.70 is attributed to a true in- sults in an increase in da/dN for a given plain the influence of R over various trinsic material response to increasing stress intensity range, AK. This influence regimes of da/dN (Refs. 9-11, 13-15). stress ratio. of R can essentially come from two sources However, most previous research was con- -- a true material dependence of crack ducted on wrought test specimens that are Introduction growth rate on R (i.e., an intrinsic mater- not subject to the residual stresses preva- ial effect) and/or a crack closure effect. lent in welded samples. An investigation Conventional arc welds can represent Crack closure refers to the condition in of alloy steel arc welded joints for R ratios stress concentrations in load-bearing which the crack is not fully open during of 0.00 and 0.50 showed no increase in structures because of geometry changes the entire loading cycle. In this condition, da/dN as R increased (Ref. 16). That is, the and defects associated with welding. Since only a portion of the applied stress serves da/dN-AK curves essentially overlapped welding serves as a prominent joining to drive crack propagation. Crack closure for all decades of crack growth. Since the process for many structural applications, is most often attributed to residual test samples were oriented such that crack weld-related features can aid in the initia- stresses. For example, if the crack enters propagation occurred within the weld tion of cracks. When considered in con- into a compressive stress field, the com- metal along the direction of welding, such junction with welding residual stresses, pressive stress will counteract the applied behavior has been attributed to tensile propagation of such cracks can become a tensile stress. If the compressive stress is residual stresses that were encountered concern during service. Consequently, an within the weld metal. The presence of understanding of the fatigue crack propa- these tensile residual stresses promotes a gation behavior of welds is important. completely open fatigue crack at all stages KEY WORDS Maddox (Ref. 1) and Parry et al. (Ref. 2) of loading. That is, crack closure, or pre- have shown that the fatigue crack growth mature closure of the crack tip during Residual Stress loading, would not be expected to influ- Crack Initiation ence the crack growth behavior. C. S. KUSKO is Research Assistant; J. ?4. Crack Growth To correctly evaluate the influence of DUPONT is Associate Professor and Director, Stainless Steel crack closure, accurate assessment of the Joining and Laser Processing Laboratory; and A. Gas Metal Arc crack opening load, Pop, during testing is R. MARDER is I'rqf~'ssor, Dqmrtment of Materi- K-Increasing Test als &'ience and Engineering, Lehigh Universily, crucial as it serves as the foundation for Bethlehem. I{l.

WELDING JOURNAL B,"fCH..1 WELDING RESEARCH

n IE-04 • 316L GMAW-A-I: AK @ 316[, GMAW-A- 1: A/t"e~- 1% slope ol~et IE-05 d, 316L GMAW-A- I: t~r~ - 2 % slope offset U] 3161, GMAW-A- 1: AKdr - 4 % slope offset O 316L GMAW-A-I: AKIn - S % slope ot~et 1E-06 X 316L GMAW-A-I: AK~ - 16%~slopeoffset 6.096 1E-07 ¢m plied

i IE-08 ~ All; ~

IE-09 ; Bale Metal WeM Metal l i 1E-10 ¢m [-1.27-t cm 10 10( I 6.. = I AK (MPaIml la)

Fig. 1 -- Schematic illustrations of C(T) specimens corresponding to gas metal Fig. 2 -- Slope offset data for 316L GMA W tested at an R ratio of O. 10. arc weM of AB orientation.

nificant residual stresses. The purpose of describing weld C(T) specimen orienta- Table 1 -- Chemical Compositions (in wt-%) this research is to investigate the fatigue tion was utilized by James and co-workers of 316L Base Metal and Filler Metal crack propagation behavior of stainless (Refs. 21, 22) and is based on the desig- 316L SS 316L Filler steel gas metal arc welds in order to ob- nations adopted for wrought specimens Base Metal Metal serve how R influences such behavior. by ASTM in Standard E399 (Ref. 23). In this system, the first letter represents the Ni 10.16 12.17 Experimental Procedure direction of applied loading while the sec- Cr 16.12 18.20 ond letter represents the direction of Fe 68.85 64.43 The 316L base metal and filler metal crack extension. In addition, A, B, and C Mo 2.05 2.53 Mn 1.71 1.66 compositions used to prepare the weld symbolize the direction of welding, nor- Cu 0.44 0.10 samples are provided in Table 1. Weld mal to the direction of welding, and the Si 0.41 0.86 samples were prepared by gas metal arc thickness direction, respectively. It has C 0.017 0.016 welding on base metals (dimensions 1.905 been observed that orientation AB, for P 0.027 0.017 x 15.24 x 60.96 cm) by deposition of mul- which crack propagation occurs normal to S 0.0011 0.014 tiple passes on an automatic table using a the welding direction, would be most af- 90-deg torch angle to the plate. The con- fected by residual stresses (Ref. 22). tact tip distance varied from 19.05 mm at All fatigue crack propagation testing Table 2 -- Gas Metal Arc Welding Parameters the root to 12.70 mm from mid-plate to was conducted in accordance with ASTM cap because of the addition of subsequent E647. Compliance measurements were Parameter Value filler metal passes. Table 2 provides fur- recorded on both loading and unloading Base metal 316L ther details on the processing parameters. portions of the load-displacement curve. Backing bar 316L Compact tension (C(T)) test speci- For the C(T) specimen, the following Welding wire 316L mens required for fatigue crack propaga- polynomial expression was utilized for de- Welding wire 1.5875 tion testing were removed from the gas termination of the normalized crack diameter, mm Voltage, V 25-26 metal arc welds. Specimen dimensions length, a/W, as a function of compliance, Current, A 280 conformed to those stated in American BE~/P (Ref. 24). Wire speed, cm/min 469.9 Society for Testing and Materials a Carriage speed, cm/min 38.10 (ASTM) Standard E647 (Ref. 19). Figure -- = 1.00098 - 4.66951X Welding position flat 1 shows a schematic illustration of final W Shielding gas 98%Ar/2%O~ dimensions, along with specimen orienta- + 18.4601X 2 - 236.825X 3 Number of layers 6 tion with respect to the fatigue crack Number of passes 16 + 1214.88X 4 - 2143.57X 5 Preheat temp, °C 24 starter notch and welding direction. The (2) Interpass temp, °C 149 crack starter notch was inserted within the base metal normal to the direction of where (Ref. 24) welding such that the distance from the end of the notch to the start of the weld X= gop and concomitant Ageff calculations. A metal on the front face was approximately 1 standardized compliance-based slope off- 1.016 cm. The fatigue crack starter notch set method has been previously utilized of length 2.54 cm, diameter 0.1524 mm, (3) for the investigation of both AK and AKeff and radius of curvature 0.0762 mm was infor homogeneous wrought aluminum test serted by wire electrical-discharge ma- In Equation 3, E is the modulus of elastic- specimens (Ref. 17). However, this chining (EDM). The configuration illus- ity. The term BE~/P is referred to as the method has yet to be systematically ap- trated in Fig. 1 is designated as normalized compliance and is measured plied to welds that are susceptible to sig- orientation AB. This two-letter system for as a function of N. Once a/Whas been cal-

I.'[,15,."t FEBRUARY 2004 WELDING RESEARCH

1E-04 IE-04 e 316LGMAW-A-I: AK • 316LGMAW-A-2: AK • 316LGMAW-A-2: AK O 316LGMAW-A-2: AK ~t - 1% slope offset ~. 316LGMAW-A-2: AK dr" 2 % slope offset 1E-05 1E-05 [] 316LGMAW-A-2: AK af- 4 % slope offset 316L X~° 316L GMAW-A-2:AK ~ - 8 % slope offset 316LGMAW-A-2: M( d-- 16% slope offset I E-06 1E-06

o ~, IE-07 // ~,~ 1E-07 I E-08 1E-08 AK 1E-09 1E-09 Base Metal Weld Metal

IE-10 i IE-IO 4 10 100 10 I0( AK (MPalm]'a) AK (MPalml la)

Fig,. 3 -- Comparison of 316L G MA W fatigue data tested at an R ratio of O. 10. Fig. 4 -- Slope offs'et data for 316L GMAW tested at an R ratio of O.lO.

culated from Equation 2, the following ex- 1 dKmax all slope offset curves are plotted, it is de- pression developed for the C(T) specimen C- termined whether unique slope offset was used to calculate K (Ref. 25) K max da (6) curves result for each slope offset level or a single, overlapping curve is present for The K-increasing tests were run with a C all slope offset levels. Unique da/dN value of 0.118 mm-I . On all samples, pre- curves for each slope offset level, as shown cracking was conducted until the crack for most of the crack growth rates in Fig. propagated 1.27 mm, after which, all en- 2, indicate legitimate crack closure data, KBW 2 _ 2+ W suing da/dN were measured. The compli- signifying true crack closure. However, , ance-based crack lengths, measured as a overlap of all slope offset level curves in- 1-E/5 function of N, were converted to da/dN dicates that the software has "artificially" k~ w) using a modified version of the secant generated crack closure data, thus indi- method (Ref. 28), which requires the cal- cating that the crack is fully open and the '0.886 + 4.64(~) culation of the slope of a straight line con- effective stress intensity range is equal to necting specified points on the a-N curve. the applied stress intensity range. -13.32(-~) 2 In Fig. 2, unique da/dN curves are evi- Results and Discussion dent for each slope offset level up to da/dN of ~10 -6 m/cycle. Thus, crack clo- +14.72(~)3 - 5.6(~) 4 Fatigue Crack Propagation Results sure is significantly influencing crack growth behavior up to this level of crack Fatigue crack propagation data ob- growth rate at an R ratio of 0.10. At da/dN tained from testing at an R ratio of 0.10 greater than - 10-6 m/cycle, the slope off- (4) are shown in Fig. 2. The dotted line in the set curves for the five offset levels begin to figure denotes the location where the fa- converge to a single AKdf curve, indicating Displacement was measured using an tigue crack crossed from the base metal that the crack is fully open beyond this MTS clip gauge attached to knife-edges into the weld metal. The solid black growth rate. Under this condition, the on the front edge of the C(T) specimen. squares represent applied da/dN-AK data. Kmin has increased to a point where it ex- All testing was conducted using con- The open symbols correspond to AKcft- ceeds Kop and the crack is fully open in the stant amplitude loading and a sine wave- data generated for various slope offset lev- growth rate regime above -10 -6 m/cycle. form at a frequency of 25 Hz at room tem- els from 1% to 16% obtained from the A second specimen of 316L weld was perature. Testing was performed under compliance-based slope offset method, as tested at an R ratio of 0.10 (over a wider K-gradient control at constant R ratios of described in Ref. 17. In this figure, the crack growth rate) in order to assess the re- various magnitudes to determine the in- zSXefl, curve for 1% slope offset level is far- producibility of the results. The applied fluence on fatigue crack growth. Data thest from the applied AK curve, while the da/dN-M£ curves for the two tests are shown were generated using K-increasing proce- &Keff curve for 16% slope offset data is in Fig. 3 and exhibit good agreement. In ad- dures (Ref. 26), according to the equation closest to the applied AK data. As ex- dition, Fig. 4 shows compliance offset data. (Ref. 24) plained in Ref. 17, the slope offset method These results are also in good agreement may generate "artificial" crack closure in- with Fig. 2, verifying a significant influence +-,,,,) formation even if closure is not actually in- of crack closure during testing at R = 0.10 Kmax = Kmax.0 e (5) fluencing crack growth. Such artificial up to growth rates of -10 -6 m/cycle, at measurements are easily identified which point the curves converge, and the where C, the normalized K-gradient, rep- through analysis of da/dN-AK and z~d~eff crack is fully open above a growth rate of resents the fractional rate of change with curves for the various slope offset levels 10-6 m/cycle. Thus, only one specimen increasing a, such that (Ref. 27) (Ref. 17) in the following manner. Once was tested at each of the remainingR ratios.

WELDING JOURNAL E,lil~,1 WELDING RESEARCH

I E-04 1 E-04 • 316L GMAW-A-3: AK • 316L GMAW-A-4: AK O 316L GMAW-A-3: AKa~- 1% slope offset O 316L GMAW-A-4: AK af- 1% slope offset I E-05 A 316L GMAW-A-3: AKdf- 2 % slope offset A 316L GMAW-A-4: AK~r- 2 % slope offset 1E-05 [] 316L GMAW-A-3: AK~r- 4 % slope offset [] 316L GMAW-A-4: AK~r- 4 % slope offset 316L GMAW-A-3: AK en" 8 % slope offset O 316L GMAW-A-4: AKdr - 8 % slope Offset { 1E-O6 X 316L GMAW-A-3: AK~- 16% slope offset X 316L GMAW-A-4: AK~r - 16% slope offset ¢J IE-06

~ 1E-07 ~1E-07

1E4)8 ed

I E-09 I E-09 Base Metal Weld Metal Base Metal Weld Metal

IE-10 IE-10 10 I0 I00 100 AK (MPalml in) AK (MPalm] ta)

Fig. 5 -- Slope offset data for 316L GMA W tested at an R ratio of O. 40. Fig. 6 -- Slope offset data for 316L GMA Wtested at an R ratio of 0.55.

1E-04 IE-04 • 316L GMAW-A-6: AK • 316L GMAW-A-5:AK O 316L GMAW-A-6: AKaf- 1% slope offset O 316L GMAW-A-5:AK~- 1% slope offset a 316L GMAW-A-6: AK ar" 2 % slope offset I E-05 A 316L GMAW-A-5:AKnr- 2 % slope offset I E-05 t21 316L GMAW-A-5:AK~,- 4 % stope offset [3 316L GMAW-A-6; AKea - 4 % slope offset O 316L GMAW-A-5:AK~- 8 % slope offset O 316L GMAW-A-6: AK ~ - 8 % slope offset X 316L GMAW-A-6: AKe~- 16% slope offset 1E-06 X 316L GMAW-A-5:AK ~-- 16% slope offset IE-06

~ IE4)7 1E-07

I E-08 I E-08 Applied ~APAPlied K AK 1E-09 1E-09 I m Base Metal Weld Metal Base Metal IE-10 1E-10 I 10 100 I0 I00 AK (MPalm] ha) AK (MPa|m] v2)

Fig. 7 -- Slope offset data for 316L GMA W tested at an R ratio of O. 70. Fig. 8 -- Slope offset data for 316L GMA W tested at an R ratio of O.80.

Based on the results of Figs. 2 and 4, the R ratio increases, da/dN also increases ever, relatively little research has been the R ratio was increased to higher values for a given AK. For each respective R ratio conducted on stainless steel welded speci- in an attempt to overcome closure. These test, this behavior occurs up to a specific mens. In addition, the condition at which results are shown in Figs. 5-8. Figure 5 (R da/dN at which the curves appear to coin- the crack is partially closed is not always = 0.40) shows a true influence of crack cide. The samples tested at R ratios of 0.70 identified and, as a result, it is often not closure below much lower da/dN values and 0.80 exhibit crack growth rates that possible to separate an extrinsic effect of (-5 x 10 -8 m/cycle) than Figs. 2 and 4. are similar over a wide range of crack R (i.e., crack closure) from a true intrinsic, Thus, because of the higher stress inten- growth rates. material behavior effect. In this work, sity ratio, Kmin exceeds Kop at much lower identification of closure conditions per- crack growth rates and forces the crack to Influence of R Ratio on mits separation of closure effects from remain open at lower growth rates. Figure Crack Growth Behavior true material dependence of crack growth 6 (R = 0.55) exhibits a single AKeff curve rate on R. An influence of R has been ob- for all slope offset levels (i.e., only one off- Figure 9 illustrates a general increase served for 304 austenitic stainless steel for set curve is visible in the figure because all in da/dN with R for a given AK up to the a series of R ratios ranging from 0.05 to the offset curves lie on top of one an- point where R = 0.70. The curves corre- 0.75 at elevated temperatures (Ref. 4). other), indicating the crack is always fully sponding to R ratios of 0.70 and 0.80 are That work was completed on wrought open and AK = AKeff over the entire essentially equivalent, while the curves for specimens rather than welds and did not growth rate regime. As exhibited in Figs. 7 R ratios of 0.10, 0.40, and 0.55 show de- consider crack closure measurements. and 8, closure is also overcome for all pendence on R. The dependence of da/dN Thus, based on the limited available re- da/dN at R ratios corresponding to 0.70 on the R ratio at lower da/dN, followed by search of austenitic stainless steel welds, it and 0.80. Figure 9 shows the applied a convergence to a single curve at higher is useful to verify whether crack closure da/dN-AK data from Figs. 2, 3, and 5-8 on da/dN, has been previously observed for can explain the influence of R ratio on a single plot. This figure illustrates that as wrought aluminum alloys (Ref. 10). How- da/dN for these welded specimens. l[~.,~"l FEBRUARY 2004 WELDING RESEARCH

I E-04 ...... • 316LGMAW-A-I:AK (R=0,10) 1.00 • 316LGMAW-A-2:AK(R=0.10) • 316LGMAW-A+ 1 : 2 %slope offset dala I E-05 + 3161,GMAW-A-3:AK{R =0.40) 316L GMAW-A-4:AK (R = 0.55) 0.90 316LGMAW-A-5: AK (R : 0.70) ~1 ,O ~ 316LGMAW-A-6: AK (R - [L801 j ! I E-06 0.80

I E-07 0.70 k /-"

I E-08 0.60

I E-09 0.50 Bale Metal Weld Metal

0.40 ...... , "1 .... i,, IE-IO 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 I0 I00 AK (MPalml la) AK (MPalml v2) lqg. 9 -- 316L GMA Wdata tested at a series qf R ratios. kTt,,. 10 -- U vs'. AKjbr 2% slope off~s'et data .[br 316L GMA W tested at R = 0.10.

1.00 1.00 - • 316L GMAW-A-3:2 % slope offset data • 3161,GMAW-A-4:2 % slope offsetdata

0.90 0.90 Base Metal Weld Metal Ill 0.80 0.80 0.70 7 0.70 0.60 0.60 Base Metal Weld Metal

0.50 0.50

0.40 .... : .... ; .... : .... i .... : ..... I .... I .... : .... [ .... i .... : .... i 0.40 0 5 I0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

AK (MPalm] m) AK (MPalm[ In)

F~,'. l l -- U l'S. AK for 2% slope q~:~et data .]br 316L GMA W tested at R = Fig. 12 -- U vs. AK for 2% slope off;~et data .fbr 316L GMA W tested at R = 0.40. 0.55.

Crack closure behavior can be quantita- compliance offset software generates arti- crack closure level initially increases with tively characterized by the effective stress ficial crack closure measurements even AK at lower AK. This can most likely be at- range ratio, U, which is defined as the ratio when crack closure is not actually being tributed to the crack entering a compres- of AKcfr to AK (Ref. 31). As U increases to- detected, AKcfr will appear to have a value sive residual stress field in the base metal ward a value of unity, the influence of crack that differs in magnitude from AK even from welding. However, as AK increases, closure diminishes. In other words, a value when the crack is fully open. However, Kmin starts to approach Kop and the level of U equal to one represents a completely these values are actually equal when there of crack closure decreases (U increases). open crack and a condition in which the ap- is no influence from crack closure. Conse- This trend continues until U = 0.92, tit plied stress intensity range, AK, is equal to quently, for the current analysis, U will which point Kmin exceeds Kop, closure is the effective stress intensity range, AKcff. As never actually equal a value of one. How- overcome completely, and the crack is U decreases, the crack is closed during a ever, closure-free conditions are easily fully open. Thus, the increase in U and cor- larger portion of the loading cycle, and identified when U becomes constant and responding decreases in crack closure can crack closure has a larger influence on the nearly equal to unity. For example, in Fig. be attributed to the increase in applied AK growth rate. Such knowledge can be applied 10, a closure-free condition is identified as and/or the crack beginning to enter a to the da/dN data shown in Fig. 9 to deter- the horizontal portion of the curve where residual tensile stress field. mine if crack closure explains the da/dN de- U is constant and equal to 0.92, which oc- As shown in Fig. 9, applied da/dN-AK pendence on R. Figure 10 illustrates the re- curs over limited AK above approximately increases for a given AK when R increases lationship between U and AK for the 316L 50 MPaJ-m. This figure verifies the domi- from 0.10 to 0.40. Figure 11 shows Uas a weld tested at an R ratio of 0.10. In this fig- nant influence of crack closure for the function of AK for 2% slope offset data for ure, only 2% slope offset data are pre- weld samples tested at an R ratio of 0.10. an R ratio of 0.40. This plot exhibits the sented, as this offset level has been recom- Over a significant range of AK (approxi- same behavioral trend as Fig. 10. U ini- mended as the most accurate (Ref. 17). mately 14 MPa~-m to 26 MPa~-m), U de- tially decreases with increasing AK prior to Since, as previously discussed, the creases with an increase in AK. That is, the reaching a AK at which U escalates with

WELDING JOURNAL I1,I~!~.1 WELDING RESEARCH

IE-04 creases from 0.55 4. James, L. A. 1972. Nuclear Technology 14: • 316LGMAW-A-I:AK(R= 0.10) to 0.70 up to a 163-170. • 316LGMAW-A-2: AK (R = O. 10) growth rate of ap- 5. Cooke, R. J., and Beevers, C. J. 1973. En- 1 E-05 + 316LGMAW-A-3:AK(R=0.40) gineering Fracture Mechanics 5: 1061-1071. • 316LGMAW-A-4:M((R=0.55) ~ proximately 3 × - 316LGMAW-A-5:AK(R=0.70) fully open 6. Ohta, A., and Sasaki, E. 1977. Engineering X 316LGMAW-A~: AK (R = 0.80) for R = 0.10 10- 8 m/cycle. Thus, Fracture Mechanics 9: 655-662. IE4)6 _.•Crack the increase in 7. Ohta, A., and Sasaki, E. 1977. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 9: 307-315. Crack fully open growth rate which ~1 E-07 | for R =0.40 is observed as R in- 8. Ohta, A., Sasaki, E., Kamakura, M., Nihei, M. Kosuge, M., Kanao, M., and Inagaki, creases from 0.55 M. 1981. Transactions of the Japan Welding So- I E-08 to 0.70 within this ciety 12: 31-38. growth rate regime 9. Katcher, M., and Kaplan, M. 1974. Frac- 1 E-09 is a true intrinsic ture toughness and slow-stable cracking. ASTM f STP 559, American Society for Testing and Ma- material response terials, pp. 264-292. to the increase in IE-10 10. Brown, R. D., and Weertman, J. 1978. 10 I00 stress ratio. No sig- Engineering Fracture Mechanics 10: 757-771. AK (MPalm] la) nificant further ma- 11. Vazquez, J. A., Morrone, A., and Ernst, terial response in H. 1979. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 12: Fig. 13 -- Replot of" Fig. 9 showing locations where the crack becomes .[idly da/dN is observed 231-240. open for R ratios of O. 10 and 0.40. as R is increased 12. Stofanak, R. J., Hertzberg, R. W., Miller, G., Jaccard, R., and Donald, K. 1983. Engineer- further from 0.70 to ing Fracture Mechanics 17: 527-539. 0.80. 13. Lindley, T. C., and Richards, C. E. 1974. Materials Science and Engineering 14: 281-293. AK. However, for an R ratio of 0.40, the z~ Summary and Conclusions 14. Boutle, N. E, and Dover, W. D. 1977. at which this change occurs is approxi- Fracture 1977 2: 1065-1071. 15. Clerivet, A., and Bathias, C. 1979. Engi- mately 10 MPa~/m, which is considerably The influence of R ratio on the fatigue less than the ~ of 25 MPa3/m at which neering Fracture Mechanics 12:599-611. crack propagation behavior of stainless 16. Ohta, A., Suzuki, N., and Maeda, Y. similar behavior transpires for an R ratio steel gas metal arc welds was evaluated. 1977. International Journal of Fatigue 19: of 0.10. For comparison to the first two R The compliance offset method was ap- $303-$310. ratios, Fig. 12 exhibits the U-z~ relation- plied to gas metal arc weld specimens in 17. Donald, J. K. 1988. Mechanics of fatigue ship for the 2% offset level for an R ratio order to explain the influence of R ratio on crack closure. ASTM STP 982. Eds. C. New- man, Jr., and W. Elber. American Society for of 0.55. The single, horizontal line is in- crack growth behavior. For the stainless dicative of artificial crack closure, and Testing and Materials, pp. 222-229. steel gas metal arc welds evaluated, an R 18. Banovic, S. W., DuPont, J. N., and therefore, a completely open crack. Simi- ratio of 0.55 has been shown to overcome Marder, A. R. 2001. Metallurgical Transactions lar behavior was observed for R ratios of crack closure over all growth rate regimes. B32B: 1171-1176. 0.70 and 0.80. Increases in crack growth rates as R is in- 19. Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Vol. 3.01. 1996. ASTM E647 Section 3. Metals test With this information in mind, a more creased from 0.10 to 0.55 can generally be detailed interpretation of Fig. 9 is now and analytical procedures. American Society attributed to an extrinsic effect in which for Testing and Materials: Materials Park, possible. Figure 13 shows a replot of Fig. crack closure is overcome. In contrast, the Ohio, pp. 565-601. 9. In this figure, the point at which crack increase in crack growth rate observed for 20. Hickman, G. 2000. Allegheny Ludlum, closure is overcome for R ratios of 0.10 an increase in R from 0.55 to 0.70 is a true Private communication. 21. James, L. A. 1973. Welding Journal, and 0.40 are noted on the figure. For an R intrinsic material response. Further in- 52(3): 173-s to 179-s. ratio of 0.10, the crack is fully open at fa- crease in R from 0.70 to 0.80 produces no tigue crack growth rates above 1 × 10 -6 22. James, L. A., and Mills, W. J. 1987. Weld- significant enhancement in the fatigue ing Journal 66(8): 229-s to 234-s. m/cycle. For an R ratio of 0.40, the crack is crack growth rates. 23. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. fully open at fatigue crack growth rates 03.01. 1996. ASTM E399, Section 3: Metals test above 5 × 10-8 m/cycle. For the remaining Acknowledgments methods and analytical procedures, ASM In- R ratios, the crack is always open. First, ternational: Materials Park, Ohio, pp. 407-437. note that the crack growth rates are es- 24. Saxena, A., and Hudak, S. J., Jr. 1978. In- The authors thank the United States ternational Journal of Fracture 14: 453468. sentially independent of R at growth rates Office of Naval Research for providing 25. Srawley, J. E. 1976. International Journal above -1 x 10 -6 m/cycle, which is com- funding for this research. The authors of Fracture 12: 475476. monly observed since R has the largest in- would also like to acknowledge Mike Rex, 26. Donald, J. K., and Schmidt, D. W. 1980. fluence on da/dN at low AK values. Below Journal of Testing and Evah~ation 8: 19-24. John Gregoris, and Gene Kozma at 27. Saxena, A., Hudak, S. J., Jr., Donald, J. this growth rate, the crack is not fully open Lehigh University for assistance with fa- for an R value of 0.10. Thus, the increase K., and Schmidt, D. W. 1978. Journal of Testing tigue crack propagation sample prepara- and Evaluation 6: 167-174. in growth rate which occurs as R is in- tion and testing. Preparation of the gas 28. Clark, W. G., Jr., and Hudak, S. J., Jr. creased from 0.10 to 0.40 can be attributed metal arc weld samples by Ravi Menon at 1975. Journal of Testing and Evaluation3: to an extrinsic effect. In other words, this Stoody Co. in Bowling Green, Ky., is also 454476. 29. Shih, Y. W., Chen, B. Y., and. Zhang, J. increase in da/dN is caused by overcoming greatly appreciated. crack closure and is not an intrinsic mate- X. 1990. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 36: 893-902. rial effect. A similar argument can be References 30. Donald, K. 2002. Fracture Technology made for an R ratio of 0.40 at growth rates Associates, Private communication. below 5 x 10- 8 m/cycle, where the increase 1. Maddox, S. J. 1970. Metal Construction 31. Elber, W. 1971. Damage tolerance in air- in da/dN which is observed as R is in- and British Welding Journal, Vol. 2, pp. 285-289. craft structures. ASTM STP 486, American So- creased from 0.40 to 0.55 is due to over- 2. Parry, M., Nordberg, H, and Hertzberg, R. ciety for Testing and Materials, pp. 230-242. 32. Frost, N. E., Pook, L R, and Denton, K. coming crack closure. However, even W. 1972. WeldingJournal 51(10): 485-s to 490-s. 3. Paris, P. C. 1964. Fatigue -- An Interdis- 1971. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 3: though the crack is always open for the re- ciplinary Approach. Proc. of the lOth Sagamore 109-126. maining R values of 0.55, 0.70, and 0.80, an Army Materials Research Conference, Eds. J. J. increase in growth rate is observed as R in- Burke, N. L. Reed, and V. Weiss, pp. 107-132.

E~!$,1 FEBRUARY 2004 Single-Pass Laser Beam Welding of Clad Steel Plate

Trials show the possibility of a satisfactory composition and crack-free weld metal

BY S. MISSORI, F. MURDOLO, AND A. SILl

ABSTRACT. The possibility of laser beam and cost savings in comparison with the consumable inserts. It is well known that welding (LBW) clad steel plates in one utilization of solid plates. consumable inserts of several configura- pass with a single filler metal was investi- In our experiments, we considered one tions (inverted T, Y, rectangular shape, gated. Two procedures, one with a single- of the most usual cases, that of carbon etc.) are often utilized with conventional side laser beam and the other with a dual- steel clad with stainless steel. It is impor- arc welding for better fitup and easier root beam laser, were utilized for butt-joint tant to remark that due to adverse metal- welding of components that cannot be welding of carbon steel plates clad with lurgical reactions, the welding techniques back welded from inside (e.g., piping). austenitic stainless steel. Filler metal was described below can by no means be ap- Particularly in these cases, a welding tech- in the form of strips, interposed within plied to plate clad with titanium or other nique for clad steel that uses a single filler edges prior to welding. Metallographic nonferrous alloy materials. Usually, weld- metal could be an interesting solution. observations and X-ray energy dispersive ing of plate clad with stainless steel is car- Investigations on welded samples in- spectroscopy microanalysis were per- ried out by arc welding processes (manual cluded metallographic observations by op- formed on welded specimens. Mechanical arc, submerged arc, gas metal arc, or gas tical and scanning electron microscopy properties were evaluated by Vickers mi- tungsten arc welding). The conventional (SEM), microanalysis by energy dispersive crohardness and tensile tests. These inves- welding techniques require the following spectroscopy (EDS), microhardness tests, tigations have shown the possibility of steps to be undertaken (Refs. I-3): and tensile tests. making sound welds with a satisfactory 1) the base steel is first welded with a composition and crack-free weld metal filler metal; Materials and Methods with both experimental procedures. 2) the steel weld is backgouged to the sound metal, producing a groove; Materials Introduction 3) welding of clad material can start with deposition of one or several buffer The materials utilized in these welding Plates or tubes of carbon or low-alloy layers by using a filler metal higher alloyed trials were carbon steel plates (6.5 mm steel clad with an alloyed material are an than the cladding metal in order to form a thick), clad with a low-carbon austenitic economical solution to meet the increas- layer that is tolerant of some dilution with stainless steel (2.5 mm thick). These plates ing demand of industrial processes for the base metal; were produced by hot rolling by Voest- combining elevated strength with good 4) welding is completed with filler and Alpine Stahl GmbH, Linz, Austria. The corrosion resistance. Both base steels and cover layers of cladding-like weld metal. clad thickness was chosen because it was cladding materials can be selected from a This welding procedure requires a readily awlilable from the supplier. Even large variety according to specific require- quite complex practice including the use though the thickness is a little greater than ments and operations. The available base of different types of filler metals; more- usual (27.7% of the total thickness), the steels include structural steels, pressure over, the number of passes is the sum of results obtained can be extended to dif- vessel steels for elevated temperature, and passes required to weld base steel and ferent thickness ratios provided that the fine-grained steels. Cladding materials are cladding material separately plus the ad- effect of different dilution on the fusion provided in several classes of stainless ditional passes due to backgouging. Nor- zone (FZ) is properly taken into account steels, nickel alloys, copper alloys, or tita- really, many passes are required. Thus, it in the choice of filler metal composition, nium alloys. is advantageous to investigate the possi- as explained afterward in the discussion of Cladding materials are normally ap- bility of reducing the number of passes by results. The base material specification is plied to base steels by explosion welding, high-penetration LBW. In particular, our H II DIN 17155, equivalent to ASTM 515 weld surfacing, solid-state welding by co- work deals with butt-joint welding of car- Gr. 60. The cladding metal specification is extrusion, or hot rolling, obtaining strong bon steel plates clad with stainless steel by 1.4306 DIN 17440, equivalent to AIS1304. metallurgical bonding at the interfaces. single-pass LBW. Both single-side and The chemical compositions of the two Cladding thickness may vary from 5 to dual LBW procedures were considered. steels are given in "Fable 1. 50% of the total thickness, but it is gener- Filler metal was in the form of strips or The weld metal derives from the fusion ally 10 to 20% for most applications (Ref. of the filler metal and of a portion of base I). This advantageous combination gives and cladding metals, according to the di- rise to a remarkable reduction in weight lution and melt pool dynamics caused by KEY WORDS the welding process. The filler metal was chosen in such a way that the weld metal S. MISSORI is with Dipartimento lngegneria Clad Steel is suitable to ensure the continuity of the Meccanica, Univer~'itt'~ di Roma, Italy. E MUR- Consumable Inserts cladding layer and its good anticorrosion DOLO and A. SILl are with Dipartimento Laser Beam Welding (LBW) properties and, moreover, does not con- Chimica lndustriale e Ingqgneria dei Materiali, Hot Cracks tain structures that might develop unde- Universit~t di Messina, Italy. sirable brittleness or cracking after dilu-

WELDING JOURNAL E~"~,.I WELDING RESEARCH

Table 1 -- Specifications and Chemical Composition of Plates, from Maker Certificate filler strips Material: Base: Carbon Steel Cladding: Stainless Steel Thickness: 6.5 mm 2.5 mm clad steel [//////[I////2 DIN Specification: H II DIN 17155 1.4306DINI7440 carbon steel ASTM Equiv. Specification: A 515 Gr. 60 A240 Type 304 L Chemical Composition (wt-%) C 0. 145 0.0 l 7 Mn 0.85 1.32 Si 0.20 0.39 Fig. 1 -- Square edge preparation of'c:lad plates. P 0.008 0.029 S 0.001 0.003 AI {}.04 -- Cr -- 18.39 tion with the steel. Based on results of pre- Ni -- 1{}.07 vious experiments in LBW of dissimilar metals (Refs. 4, 5), two different filler materials have been utilized (Table 2): a) Nickel-based alloy (DIN 2.4806), which can tolerate high dilution with carbon steel without becoming crack sensi- "Fable 2 -- Specifications and Chemical Composition of Filler Metals, from Maker Certificate tive. In addition, the solubility of carbon is Specification: DIN 2.4806 DIN 1.4465 lower by comparison to that in austenitic Other Designation: AWS ERNiCr3 AWS ER310Mo Modified stainless steel, minimizing carbon migra- Thickness: 0.4 mm 0.5 mm tion from the ferritic steel to the weld Chemical Composition (wt-%) metal during welding and while in service C 0.020 0.010 (Refs. 6-8). Mn 3.00 6.00 b) Austenitic stainless steel (DIN Cr 20.50 25.00 Si 0.10 0.10 1.4465), with the aim of achieving a FZ Ni bal. 22.6 composition similar to the one of clad Mo -- 2.10 stainless steel, free from martensite (to re- Nb 2.50 0.01 duce risk of cold cracking), and with little Fe 1.5 bal. delta ferrite, effective in preventing hot cracking in the austenitic matrix (Refs. 9-13). Edge Preparations and Welding Processes Table 3 -- Welding Parameters Procedure A Procedure B Welds in butt joints were performed on Dual LBW Single-Side LBW plates with square edge preparation, as shown in Fig. 1. The filler metal was put into Power at the Workpiece: 2x10.0 kW 10.0 kW Welding Speed: 3.0 m/rain 1.6 m/rain the joint in the shape of strips. Initially, the Distance Az: 0 mm -1 mm LBW techniques were scheduled to utilize F-Number: 10/8 4 either dual laser beam or single laser beam, Focal Radius: 530/342/am 250/am as well as either nickel-based alloy or Helium Flow Rate: 2x25 L/rain 2{/L/min austenitic steel alloy filler metal (four tech- Filler Metal: N.3 strips N.2 strips niques in all), but the program could not be ERNiCr3 alloy ER310Mo modified completed and, in fact, only the following (0.4 mm thick) (0.5 mm thick) two techniques were tested: Position: Plates on vertical plane Plates on horizontal plane Procedure A: Dual LBW, with the with two laser beams with laser beam on beams traveling horizontally and the traveling horizontally, the clad side. plates being positioned on a vertical plane -- Fig. 2. The two laser systems were a unit Edge Preparation: Squared Squared UTIL 25 kW and a Rofin Sinar SR 170 (nominal power 17 kW). The focusing de- vices were 35-deg-off-axis paraboloids with a focal length of 682 mm each. Three strips of Ni-based alloy filler metal Type 2.4806, each being 0.4 mm thick (1.2 mm 300 mm. Two strips of the austenitic filler pieces. The weld pool protection and the total thickness), were utilized for this pro- metal Type 1.4465 (similar to ER 310Mo), plasma control were performed by a stream cedure. each being 0.5 mm thick (l mm total thick- of helium gas. No preheating or postweld Procedure B: Single-side LBW with the ness), were utilized. heat treatments were carried out. plates in flat position -- Fig. 3. The laser The welding parameters of procedures equipment was a unit UTIL 25 kW, DC, A and B are given in Table 3. For both pro- Metallurgical Investigations with unstable resonator configuration, cedures, a diagnostic system was utilized be- nonpolarized, using CNC five-axis gantry fore welding to check the features of the The welded plates were cut trans- portal. The focusing device was a 90-deg- laser beam. The estimated Rayleigh lengths versely to the bead to obtain samples of off-axis paraboloid with a focal length of are adapted to the thickness of the work- the welded sections. Metallographic spec-

E,-'I,-'~I FEBRUARY 2004 Az < 0 ~z > 0 Laser Beam [ I t telmm strem-n~ ~<~ [ weld travel ~'~ flelium stream ,~ | (horizontal direction)

Laser Beam- ~--'-~ ~

,,'1 clad steel \l [ Workpiece ] Az>O ~_ Workpiece carbon steel

--¢> bz>O Az

WELDING JOURNAL 17,1r15,"1 WELDING RESEARCH weld interface undergoes a fast heating at a temperature exceeding the Ac3 point (fer- B rite-austenite transformation). Conse- quently, complete or partial austenitization with different homogeneity of austenite occurs in the carbon steel at several distances from the weld interface, according to nude- ation and growth controlled by the temperature/time history of each portion of steel. Furthermore, the subsequent microstructural transformations vary according to the cooling rate at the several distances from the weld interface. With reference to a sample welded with procedure A, on the carbon steel Fig. 4 -- Macrographs of welded sections: A -- dual LBW," B -- single-side LBW. side, the HAZ, less than 0.8 mm wide, is characterized by: • first a narrow zone near the weld in- b) Traverse along clad steel, parallel to milled products. As pointed out in a pre- terface where a hard structure, probably a claddingline (Fig. 6B and E). No significant vious work (Ref. 15), a carbon migration bainite + martensite mixture, with a mi- variation of microhardness occurred along from the base steel toward the stainless crohardness peak of about 400 HV can be the width of the FZ or in the clad steel near austenitic steel occurs during the fabrica- observed (Fig. 8); the FZ (variation range of 180-210 HV). tion process of clad plates due to the hold • a second zone with greater width in Moreover, these microhardness values are time at high temperature. The carbon dif- which hardening structures are present of the same order as the initial microhard- fusion gives rise to microstructural mixed with untransformed ferrite (Fig. 9) ness of the clad material. changes in the two steels, near the with intermediate values of microhard- c) Traverse along carbon steel, parallel to bimetallic interface or cladding line (Fig. ness (200-250 HV). The amount of un- cladding line (Fig. 6C and F). The hardness 7). This interface is clearly detectable as a transformed ferrite increases gradually profile along the FZ width is quite even, ex- narrow band, less than 10 p.m wide. At the with the distance from the weld interface. cept for some increase in the vicinity of the carbon steel side, a decarburized region The microhardness decreases down to fusion boundary. In the HAZ, as commonly about 120 pm wide, without pearlite and about 150 HV in the unaffected zone. observed in ferritic steel, the hardness de- with ferritic grains larger than ones far In the clad steel near the FZ, there is creases as the distance from the fusion from the interface, can be observed. The no evidence of structural transformations. boundary increases. Peak hardness values austenitic side is characterized by a pre- were measured near the fusion boundary cipitation zone, -200 Bm wide, where pre- Microstructures of FZ line in the range of 300--400 HV. At dis- cipitated alloy carbides are clearly visible. tances greater than 3 mm, the hardness In particular, the carbide concentration Figure 10 gives the concentration pro- stays constant and is equal to that of the un- gradually decreases as the distance from files of Ni and Cr by EDS measurements affected carbon steel (about 150 HV). the cladding line increases. Energy disper- in the FZ along the joint thickness. The sive spectroscopy measurements on tra- highest Ni and Cr concentrations are Metallographic Observations and verses across the cladding line have shown reached in the FZ of samples obtained Microanalysis by EDS diffusion profiles of substitutional ele- with the dual-beam laser welding proce- ments centered around the cladding line dure, utilizing a high-nickel alloy as filler Microstructures the Base Metals and the and interesting small distances of about 20 metal. With the single-side procedure, the Clad Steel/Carbon Steel Interface I.tm (Ref. 15). Welding operations do not alloy element concentrations in the FZ appear to affect this initial condition. gradually decrease along the joint thick- The carbon-base steel shows a mi- ness, from the austenitic clad metal to the crostructure consisting of a mixture of Microstructures of the HAZ carbon steel side. In both procedures, grains of ferrite and pearlite, with pearlite metallographic observations have shown a disposed in longitudinal bands, typical of During welding, the region closest to the crack-free, austenitic microstructure in

A B

Fig. 5 -- Sketches of the welded sections: A -- dual LBW; B -- single-side LBW.. ~LW4FEBRUARY2004 1 A 600 B clad steel 1~~ 6(R) 500 hardness traverse ~ ~22,~ii~_ ] 500 carbon steel 400 400 300 hardne!s traverse I 300 weld center 200 200 • *%*

100 100

0 0 -65 45 -4,5 -3,5 -2,5 - 1,5 -0,5 0,5 1,5 2,5 -3,0 -2,0 -I,0 0,0 1.0 2,0 3,0 Distance from cladding line (mm) Distance from weld center (ram)

C 600 D 600 clad steel 500 , 500 Cal~oon steel 400 , ~, hardness traverse 400 i t 300 / I 300 hardness traverse weld center 200 * 200 • • 100 100 0' 0~ T -6,5 -5.5 -4,5 -3,5 -2.5 -I.5 -0,5 0,5 1,5 2.5 -4,0 -3,0 -2,0 - 1,0 0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 Distance from cladding line (ram) Distance from weld center (mm)

E F 600 600

sO0 hardness traverse ~ ~.2~! ~_1 500 e • hardness traverse ~~i]i i__~] 400 400 ! 300 x~eld cciltcr 300 t • ~cld ccntcr e 200 • t~, e l,.e• 200 * • • 1 O0 100 0 0' -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 .3,0 Distance from weld center (ram) -4,0 -3,0 -2,0 -1,0 0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 Distance from weld center (ram)

Fig. 6 -- Microhanlness prqfiles in weMed sections: A, B. C -- dual LBW; D, E, F single-side LBW. the FZ, along all the thickness of the metal, gives rise to a quite homogeneous should be present all along the width. joints. In particular, the FZ has the fol- composition of the fusion zone along all The single LBW (procedure B) with the lowing characteristics according to the the thickness, resulting in a fully austenitic use of filler metal Type ER 310Mo/modi- welding procedures utilized: phase. All the points representative of the fled shows a composition of FZ with both • procedure A, dual LBW: an FZ composition are in the austenitic re- Cr and Ni decreasing a little along the austenitic microstructure, with high- gion, typical of the alloys with high Ni thickness going from the clad steel to the nickel alloy composition, fairly homoge- composition (Fig. 13). The microhardness carbon steel side. Chromium goes from 18 neous, with some precipitates at the grain values are relatively low. The evaluation of to 14% and Ni from 14 to 11%. On the boundary (Fig. 11); average composition based on SEM mi- Schaeffler diagram (Fig. 14), the points • procedure B, single LBW: an austenitie eroanalysis agrees with the determination representative of Ni and Cr equivalent microstructure with alloy composition close based on dilution of fusion zones and ma- compositions along the weld thickness are to the austenitic clad steel (Fig. 12). terial compositions. However, the Cr con- still in the austenitic field. In particular, the tent, estimated by EDS, decreases along points related to the compositions of the Discussion the thickness from 16% (clad steel side) to FZ at the carbon steel side fall at the 12% (carbon steel side). Ni content is boundary between the austenitic and the The phases in the FZ have been esti- more homogeneous and is in the range of austenitic-martensitic regions. In any case, mated by reporting microanalysis mea- 3540%. According to the results of mi- composition and microstructure can be surements as points on a Schaeffler crohardness tests, showing an even trans- considered satisfactory for this procedure diagram. versal profile, it appears reasonable to as well. The hardness values are relatively The dual-beam LBW (procedure A), suppose that no anomalies due to incom- low with an even profile along the fusion which utilizes a Ni-based alloy as filler plete mixing out of the FZ centerline zone, confirming the phase estimation ac-

WELDING JOURNAL l,"Ielt,:'! WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 7 -- Micrograph of the bimetallic interface. Fig. 9 -- Mierograph o/the carhon steel HA Z region with low hardness.

Fig. 8 -- Micrograph of the carbon steel HAZ region with high hardness.

A 5o B 50 ...... 45 .F. Ni eq. ~'~-. , 45" 4o 40" 35 35 .5 _= 3() 30

v 25 25" [] 20 =,O 20' _ C_r~eq :__~_~ ~ --~'----~-~ 15 " Cr eq. _" • 15 Io 10 Ni eq. 5' 5 0 O -6,5 -5.5 -4,5 -3,5 -2,5 -1,5 -0,5 0.5 1,5 2,5 -6,5 -5,5 -4.5 -3,5 -2,5 -1,5 -(L5 (I,5 1,5 2,5 Distance from reference line (mm) Distance from reference line (mm)

Fig. 10 -- Ni and Cr concentration profiles in welded sections." A -- dual LBW; B -- single-side LBW..

found in the carbon steel HAZ may be reduced by preheating and/or postweld heat treatment. As noted in the introduction, the available clad thickness was about 27.7% of the total thickness. However, the clad thickness is usually in the range of 10-20% of the total plate thickness. To successfully apply the welding techniques tested here to cases of smaller ratios of cladding/total thickness, one should consider that the small reduction of alloy element content in Fig. 11 -- Micrograph of the FZ: dual LBW Fig. 12 -- Micrograph of the FZ: single-side LB IV.. the FZ, resulting from a greater contribution of carbon steel to its formation, can be easily compensated by a slightly higher Cr- cording to the Schaeffier diagram and the more even along the thickness. Ni content in the filler metal. Under this absence of martensitic structures. Tensile tests showed good mechanical condition, the little divergence from usual The results obtained with the two pro- soundness of welded joints for both pro- clad thickness ratio should not influence cedures A and B are not easily compared, cedures A and B. It was found that all the the applicabilityof the welding techniques. due to the different compositions of filler welded specimens have an ultimate tensile A further improvement of the quality metal and different welding techniques strength not less than the minimum nom- of fusion zones could be expected by using (single or dual LB). It appears, however, inal tensile strength of the carbon steel. more appropriate filler materials, not that dual LBW offers more capability to fit The failure zone is located in the base readily available at present, to be espe- to geometrical inaccuracies in joint prepa- metal, out of the FZ. Therefore, the re- cially provided for LBW. In particular, for ration -- also thanks to a slightly wider sults can be considered satisfactory. single-side LBW (procedure B), filler ma- FZ. Moreover, the FZ composition is The relatively high values of hardness terial should have a composition slightly

Ii~$I FEBRUARY 2004 WELDING RESEARCH

+ 4248 ...... 1 0°/°]"elTI 1~2 42 Fclrite 0% 36 5% ae ...... S0/o -~ 3o / .... 10% "~ Austemte ?- Austenite 30 ...... i Io% 24 20% ~. 24 ...... J";...... '/ .... z 20% i 40% ""~ '' '' """ " ...... 40% ...... •...... ::;.-:...... A+M ...... <~-'" .-" ~ ~/ .-J'" _.... 80% 12 100% Martensite ;:'~--~5~~5- ;~-*-~--~ ~ ~ ...... ~ 1000/0 ...... M+F ~f.- .... ~ "',. Ferrite "...... /M + F []]4/- ...... ~'- Ferrite

6 12 18 24 30 36 42 Chromium equivalent 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 Chreraium equivalent

Fig. 13 -- Procedure A (ERNiCr3 dual LBW procedure). Scha£ffler diagram Fig,. 14 -- Procedure B (ER31OMo modified single-side LBW procedure). with points' (+) representative of Ni and Cr equivalent compositions in the FZ. Schaeffler diagram with points (+) retnvsentative of Ni and Cr equivalent compositions in the FZ.

richer in Cr in order to better compensate to geometrical inaccuracies in joint prepa- 6. Klueh, R. L., and King, J. E 1982. for the greater dilution occurring in the ration, due also to a slightly wider FZ. Austenitic-ferritic weld-joint failures. Welding base metal carbon steel side. Further- Moreover, the FZ composition is more Journal 61(9): 302-s to 31 l-s. 7. Viswanathan, R. 1985. Dissimilar metal more, for both procedures, the thickness even along the thickness, thus giving rise welds in service and boiler creep dmnage eval- of the filler metal strips should be in- to a more homogeneous microstructure. uation for plant life extension. Journal qfPres- creased to make possible the use of a sin- c) In the FZ obtained by both experi- sure Vessels Technology 107:218-225. gle strip, instead of a number of packed mental procedures, moderate and uni- 8. Roberts, D. l., Ryder, R. H., and strips. This should improve the heat flow form hardness values were exhibited. Me- Viswanathan, R. 1985. Performance of dissimi- conditions from the weld pool to the base chanical strength of the joints was in all lar welds in service. Journal of Pressure H,ssels metal and reduce the risks of incomplete cases greater than the nominal strength of Technol~w 107: 247-254. fusion or penetration. the base carbon steel. 9. Brooks, J. A., Thompson, A. W., and Williams, J. C. 1984. A fundamental study of the d) The results encourage further ex- beneficial effects of delta ferrite in reducing Conclusions periments to improve the adopted welding weld cracking. Welding Journal 63(3): 71-s to techniques, with the aim of optimizing the 83-s. It is possible to draw the following con- composition of filler metal, with possible 10. Singh, J., Purdy, G. R., and Weatherly, clusions: utilization of integral thicker filler strips. G. C. 1985. Microstructural and microchemical a) Both experimental LBW proce- aspects of the solid-state decomposition of delta ferrite in austenitic stainless steels. Metal- dures, named A and B, gave promising re- lu~,ical Transactions A 16A(8): 1363-1369. sults for welding clad steel plates by a sin- Acknowledgments 11. Kujanpaa, V. R, David, S. A., and White, gle pass as it appears feasible to weld clad C. L. 1986. Solidification cracking, formation of steel with a satisfactory composition and The authors thank the Laser Welding hot cracks in austenitic stainless steel welds. crack-free FZ. Department of Fraunhofer Institut ILT- WeMingJournal 65(8): 203-s to 212-s. Procedure A. The dual LBW procedure Aachen for its support in setting up weld- 12. David, S. A., Vitek, J. M., and Hebble, T. showed the possibility of performing sound ing procedures and providing technical as- L. 1987. Effect of rapid solidification on stain- sistance. less steel weld metal microstructures and its im- welds in a single pass, obtaining a homoge- plications on the Schaeffler diagram. Welding neous structure with high Ni content. Journal 66(10): 289-s to 302-s. Procedure B. Metallographic samples 13. Vitek, J. M., and David, S. A. 1988. The of welds showed a quite homogeneous R£f~,renees effect of cooling rate on ferrite in Type 308 composition of the FZ all along the thick- stainless steel. Welding Journal 67(5): 95-s to ness, close to that (fully austenitic) of the 1. Oates, W., and Saitta, A., eds. 1998. l~,/d- 102-s. ing Handbook 8th ed., Vol. 4, pp. 37(I-371. clad steel. The small difference of compo- 14. Schaeffier, A. L. 1949. Constitution di- Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society. agram for stainless steel weld metal. Metal sition between the portion of the FZ con- 2. Funk, W. H. 1960. h;terpretative Report on Progress 56( 11 ): 680-680B. tiguous to clad metal and that contiguous Welding of Nickel Clad and Stainh, ss Clad, Bul- 15. Missori, S., and Sill, A. 1997. Metallur- to the carbon-steel metal may be compen- letin 61. New York: Welding Research Council. gical transformations on hot rolled clad steel. sated for by a proper increase of Cr con- 3. Voest-Alpine Stahl. 1997. Clad Plates Proceedings q[" EUROMAT 97, Maastricht tent in the filler metal. Camk~gue. Linz, Austria. 4:51-55. b) The results obtained with the proce- 4. Missori, S., and Koerber, C. 1997. Laser beam welding of austenitic-ferritic transition dures A and B are not easily compared, joints. Welding Journal 76(3): 125-s to 134-s. due to the different compositions of filler 5. Missori, S., and Koerber, C. 1998. Proce- metal and different welding techniques dure development for improved quality single (single or dual LB). It appears, however, and dual LBW of dissimilar metals. Wehling that dual LBW offers more capability to fit Journal 77(6): 232-s to 238-s.

WELDING JOURNAL B'~I,,."] Guidelines for submitting electronic files

1. Platform: Macintosh or PC accepted 2. Files accepted: QuarkXpress, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator, TIFF, EPS and PDF files only. 3. Color: Send all files in as CMYK (for color) or Grayscale (for b/w). 4. Images: Minimum resolution required for magazine printing is 300 dpi for full color artwork or grayscale at least 1000 dpi for bitmap (B&W/line art). Images and Iogos from Web sites are NOT usable for printing. They are low resolution images (72 dpi). Images taken with a digital camera are not acceptable unless they meet the minimum 300 dpi requirement. 5. Proof: A proof of the images should always be provided. 6. Electronic File Transfer: Files larger than 68k are not acceptable as an email attachment; please CD or Zip, may also send files to the printer FTP site ( a user name and password will be provided when requested)

Check list for submitting electronic files:

Colors: CI 4/C ~1 Grayscale [] B&W/line art

File Type: [] TIFF CI EPS

File sent via: ~ Floppy disk [] Zip disk [] Jaz disk [] CD ~ Email (68k limit)

£3 Proof supplied/faxed

[J CMYK images at 300 dpi or higher, B&W/line art at 1000 dpi or higher.

[] All color in all images set to CMYK process (not RGB)

When submitting ads please send them to the attention of

Frank Wilson Advertising Production American Welding Society 550 NW LeJeune Rd. Miami, Fla. 33126 1 37 73 109 145 181 217 253 289 325 Io receive your 2 38 74 110 146 182 218 254 290 326 I .=bruary 2004 Card void after August 1,2004 3 39 75 111 147 183 219 255 291 327 4 40 76 112 148 184 220 256 292 328 I Name Title 5 41 77 113 149 185 221 257 293 329 ree literature I Company 6 42 78 114 150 186 222 258 294 330 Address 7 43 79 115 151 187 223 259 295 331 I 8 44 80 116 152 188 224 260 296 332 I City State Zip 9 45 81 117 153 189 225 261 297 333 •'rum our I Phone:. Fax: 10 46 82 118 154 190 226 262 298 334 11 47 83 119 155 191 227 263 299 335 E-mail I 12 48 84 120 156 192 228 264 300 336 I Please c.~le an unity lor each calegorv: 13 49 85 121 157 193 229 265 301 337 14 50 86 122 158 194 230 266 302 338 i. TYPEOF BUSINESS III PURCHASINGAUTHORITY Vh THISINQUIRY IS FOR tdvertisers, I 15 51 87 123 159 195 231 267 303 339 1. Construction 1. Recommend t, ImmediatePurchase 16 52 88 124 160 196 232 268 304 340 I 2. PrimaryMetal Products 2. Specify 2. FutureProject 17 53 89 125 161 197 233 269 305 341 3. FabricatedMetaIProducts 3. Approve 3 Generallnformation I 18 54 90 126 162 198 234 270 306 342 4, Transportation 19 55 91 127 163 199 235 271 307 343 ircle the I 5. WholeSaleTrade IV. NUMBEROF EMPLOYEES VII I HAVECIRCLED 20 56 92 128 164 200 236 272 308 344 6. Misc.Repair Services 1 Under 1. 6 Items or fewer I 21 57 93 129 165 201 237 273 309 345 7. EducationalServices 2. 50 to 99 2 Over6 items 22 58 94 130 166 202 238 274 310 346 I 8. Other 3 100to499 23 59 95 131 167 203 239 275 311 347 lumbers that 4 500 to 999 I 24 60 96 132 168 204 240 276 312 348 I1. JOB FUNCTION/TITLE 5 1000to 2499 25 61 97 133 169 205 241 277 313 349 I 1. Corp Management 6. 2500to more 26 62 98 134 170 206 242 278 314 350 2, PlantMgmt. & opar. I 27 63 99 135 171 207 243 279 315 351 ;orrespond to 3. Chemicaland petroleum V. ANNUALDOLLAR VOLUME 28 64 100 136 172 208 244 I Prodn. Mgmt. t. Under$1 Million 280 316 352 I 4. Welding& CuttingOper. 2 $1 Millionto 5 MiHiofl 29 65 101 t37 173 209 245 281 317 353 5, QualityControl 3 Over$5 Million 30 66 102 138 174 210 246 282 318 354 31 67 103 139 175 211 247 I 6. Sales 283 3t9 355 :he items that 32 68 104 140 176 212 248 284 320 356 7. Purchasing ~ AWS Member I 33 69 105 141 177 213 249 285 321 357 I 8. Other T.J 361- Mail me: List of AWS publications 34 70 106 142 178 214 250 286 322 358 I Non-Member 35 71 107 143 179 215 251 287 323 359 nterest you. : ~ 362- informationon AWS Membership 36 72 108 144 180 216 252 288 324 360 I I

• ~'' ~ I i iCelnl elrll gin e

| . ! -~ THE COMPLETE JOINING COMPANY - www.cntrline.com

163o1 oo. ,' NECESSARY IF MAILED rype or print the I IN THE nformation and copy ,I UNITED STATES )efore faxing.

[his fax numt~r is for '! I BUSINESS REPLY MAIL I FIRST-CLASS MAIL PERMIT NO. 11992 MIAMI FL :he service bureau ' I POSTAGE WILL BE PAID BY ADDRESSEE dy, not AWS.. I I I I I I C/O CREATIVE DATA I 519 E BRIARCLIFF RD I BOLINGBROOK IL 60440-9882 ! ! . ! i .~. '! hlh,lh,,,h,hh,llh,Bhh,h,hh,h,,hlhh,I ib,,~ ~ ,

F~I~ ifh~ G Chrome Nozzle Seat and Dual \ f Cooling...the most updated approach • 4 water-cooling found only in the new 4 4 ABI guns from ABICOR Binzel Corp. These 41ml rugged yet lightweight MIG guns now feature a chrome nozzle seat that reduces wear on the swanneck, extending service life. The dual cooling design channels water along the bolted copper inner barrel, cooling the tip, while concurrently water travels along the bolted brass outer barrel, cooling the nozzle. Dual cooling draws heat away from the source, ensuring not only longer tip life but nozzle life as well. The improved strain relief of the 500, 550 and 650 ampere Water-Cooled ABIMIG welding torches protects cable componentsand withstands the toughest handling.

Welding and cutting brought to the point. ~'~ "~R

8 0 0 . 5 4 2. 4 8 6 7 BINZEI;

Circle No. 1 on Reader Info-Card www.abicorusa.com • Celebrating 20 years of excellence as a manufacturer and supplier of premium quality aluminum weld wire, aluminum welding technology, trainin! • v and innovation.

Premium Quality Almtgwold ~

o I~ ~P~

~CONTACT US TO LEARN HOW ALUMAPAK SAVES YOU MONEY