Living with Earthquake and Water Scarcity in Rural Yogyakarta – Indonesia
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Living with Earthquake and Water Scarcity in Rural Yogyakarta – Indonesia Case study of household’s coping strategy against natural hazards in the earthquake‐prone district of Bantul and the water scarcity‐ prone district of Gunung Kidul Dissertation zur Erlangung des Akademischen Grades einer Doktor der Naturwissenschaften an der Fakultät für Geo‐ und Atmosphärenwissenschaften der Leopold‐Franzens – Universität Innsbruck eingereicht von Nurhadi Nurhadi Betreuung: Univ. Prof. Dr. Martin Coy, Institut für Geographie Innsbruck Innsbruck, 2014 Eidesstattliche Erklärung Ich erkläre hiermit an Eides Statt durch meine eigenhändige Unterschrift, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit selbständig verfasst und keine anderen als die angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel verwendet habe. Alle Stellen, die wörtlich oder inhaltlich den angegebenen Quellen entnommen wurden, sind als solche kenntlich gemacht. Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde bisher in gleicher oder ähnlicher Form noch nicht als Dissertation eingereicht. Innsbruck, am .2014 Datum Unterschrift | iii Table of Content Table of Content ……………………………………………………………………………….. iii List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………….. vii List of Boxes ……………………………………………………………………………………… ix List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………………….. x List of Pictures……………………………………………………………………………………. ix List of Maps ………………………………………………………………………………………… xi Acknowledgment …………………………………………………………………………….. xiii Zusammenfassung ………………………………………………………………….…………. xv Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………. xvii Chapter 1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………… 1 1. 1. Indonesia: A Country at Risk ……………………………………………………... 1 1.2. The Research Area of Yogyakarta: A Region with Multiple Hazards ……………………………………………………………………………….…. 7 1.2.1. The earthquake‐prone area of Bantul ..…………………………….. 8 1.2.2 The water scarcity‐prone of Gunung Kidul ……………………… 11 1.3. Research Questions …………………………………………………………………. 18 1.4. Research Methodology …………………………………………………………….. 21 1.4.1. Secondary data ………………………………………………………………. 23 1.4.2. Sub‐district samples ………………………………………………………. 24 1.4.3. Village samples ……………………………………………………………… 27 1.4.4. Survey ………………………………………………………………………….. 30 1.4.5. Focus‐Group Discussion (FGD) ………………………………………. 33 1.4.6. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) ……………………………… 36 Chapter 2 Literature Review ………………………………………………………………………….. 39 | iv 2.1. Discourse of Disaster ………………………………………………………………. 39 2.2. Risk ………………………………………………………………………………………… 47 2.3. Vulnerability …………………………………………………………………………… 55 2.4. Double Structures of Vulnerability …………………………………………… 61 2.5. Sustainable Livelihood Framework ………………………………………….. 65 2.6. Coping ……………………………………………………………………………………. 67 Chapter 3 Bantul and Gunung Kidul Regions ………………………………………………… 72 3.1. Location of the Area ………………………………………………………………. 72 3.1.1. Bantul and Gunung Kidul ……………………………………………… 72 3.1.2. Village administration ………………………………………………….. 75 3.1.3. Land use ………………………………………………………………………. 80 3.1.3.1. Paddy field ………………………………………………………. 84 3.1.3.2. Dry field ………………………………………………………….. 87 3.1.3.3. Non‐agricultural land ………………………………………. 89 3.1.4. Landownership and tenure system ……………………………… 94 3.2. Population …………………………………………………………………………… 97 3.2.1. Composition ………………………………………………………………… 97 3.2.2. Growth ……………………………………………………………………….. 100 3.2.3. Density ………………………………………………………………………. 101 3.2.4. Employment ………………………………………………………………. 104 3.3. Human Development ……………………………………………………………. 107 3.3.1. Education ……………………………………………………………………. 107 3.3.2. Health …………………………………………………………………………. 109 3.4. Economy and poverty alleviation ……………………………………………. 111 3.5. Summary ………………………………………………………………………………… 115 Chapter 4 Trajectory of Vulnerability …………………………………………………………….. 118 4.1. Pre‐colonial era (9th – 17th Century) …………………………………………. 119 4.2. Colonial era (17th Century – 1945) …………………………………………… 126 | v 4.3. Transition to the independent state (1945 – 1965) ………………….. 140 4.4. New‐order era (1966 – 1998) ………………………………………………….. 143 4.5. Transition to democracy (1998 – present) ……………………………… 152 4.6. Summary ………………………………………………………………………………… 157 Chapter 5 Coping with Risks in Rural Yogyakarta …………………………………………… 159 5.1. From risk denial to risk acceptance ………………………………………... 162 5.2. Household profile in the pre‐disaster period ……………………………. 171 5.2.1. The wealthy …………………………………………………………………… 172 5.2.2. The self‐sufficient ………………………………………………………… 175 5.2.3. The poor ……………………………………………………………………… 179 5.2.4. Access to social capital ………………………………………………… 181 5.3. Impact of disaster event to household’s assets …………….…………… 184 5.3.1. The decline of human and natural assets ………………………… 184 5.3.2. The deprivation of physical and financial assets ……………… 185 5.3.3. The improved social asset ………………………………………………. 189 5.3.4. Seizing the opportunity ………………………………………………… 190 5.4. Strategies ………………………………………………………………………………… 192 5.4.1. National law and regulation ……………………………………………. 193 5.4.2. Policy context …………………………………………………………………. 196 5.4.3. Farm strategies at household level ………………………………….. 201 5.4.4. Non‐farming activities …………………………………………………… 216 5.4.5. Loan ……………………………………………………………………………… 229 5.4.6. Building quake‐proof houses …………………………………………. 233 5.4.7. Water use management …………………………………………………. 234 5.4.8. Saving withdrawal and assets liquidation ……………………….. 237 5.4.9. Migration ………………………………………………………………………. 237 5.5. Summary ………………………………………………………………………………… 239 | vi Chapter 6 Discussion and Conclusion …………………………………………………………… 241 Literature ……………………………………………………………………………………… 247 | vii List of Figures Figure 1.1. Population distribution ……………………………………………………………… 2 Figure 1.2. Population trend ……………………………………………………………………… 3 Figure 1.3. Drought events in Indonesia between 1979 and 2009 ..……………. 12 Figure 1.4. Diagram of flow linkages in karst drainage system ………………………. 16 Figure 1.5. Flow chart of research design ……………………………………………………… 31 Figure 1.6. Data input and output …………………………………………………………………. 35 Figure 1.6. Drought event in Indonesia (1979 – 2009) ………………………………... 13 Figure 1.7. Flowchart of research design ……………………………………………………. 24 Figure 2.1. Dikau’s model of disaster management ………………………………………. 45 Figure 2.2. Disaster management cycle ……………………………………………………… 46 Figure 2.3. Formulation of risk …………………………………………………………………… 50 Figure 2.4. GIRO framework ………………………………………………………………………. 51 Figure 2.5. Press and Release (PAR) model ……………………………………………….. 60 Figure 2.6. Bohle’s conceptual framework for vulnerability analysis ………….. 62 Figure 2.7. Sustainable Livelihoods framework ……………………………………….…. 66 Figure 3.1. Four concentration circles of Javanese kingdom …………………….…. 76 Figure 3.2. Land use of Bnatul and Gunung Kidul …………..……………………….…. 81 Figure 3.3. Stages of land conversion in Bantul ……………………………………….… 82 Figure 3.4. Settlement and forest area of Bantul and Gunung Kidul ………….… 89 Figure 3.5. Population pyramid of Bantul …….……………………………………………. 98 Figure 3.6. Population pyramid of Gunung Kidul ……………………………………… 99 Figure 3.7. Population growth of Bantul and Gunung Kidul ……………………… 100 Figure 3.8. Employment in Bantul and Gunung Kidul ……….………………………. 106 Figure 3.9. Health figure of Bantul and Gunung Kidul ………………………………… 110 Figure 3.10. Sectors contributing to the economy of Bantul and Gunung Kidul 111 Figure 4.1. Trajectory of vulnerability ………………………………………………………… 121 | viii Figure 4.2. Major administrative levels of Mataram state ……………………………… 127 Figure 4.3. Major administrative levels of the Mataram state ……………………… 124 Figure 4.4. Civil and military bureaucracies in the “new order” era ………………. 146 Figure 4.5. Structure of the Indonesian government (Law No 22/ 1999) ……… 154 Figure 4.6. Poverty in Indonesia ………………………………………………………………… 156 Figure 5.1. Javanese idea of crisis cycle ……………………………………………………….. 160 Figure 5.2. Asset status in the pre‐disaster event ………………………………………… 173 Figure 5.3. Taxonomy of Gotong Royong …………………………………………………….. 183 Figure 5.4. Asset status after the disaster event ….………………………………………. 183 Figure 5.5. Inflation of building material’s price …………………………………………. 184 Figure 5.6 ‘Wana’ Farming System of Gunung Kidul ………………………………….. 211 Figure 5.7. Pattern of water availability, labour, and household expenditure . 215 Figure 5.8. Access to credit ……………………………………………………………………….. 225 | ix List of Boxes Box 1.1. Indonesia’s key indicators ………………………………………………………………. 1 Box 1.2. Household in Indonesia ………………………………………………………………….. 30 Box 3.1. Law No 20/2003 on National Education System ……………………………. 107 Box 3.2. Indicators of poor family ………………………………………………………………. 114 Box 4.1. Family planning in Indonesia ………………………………………………………… 149 Box 4.2. Transmigration program ……………………………………………………………… 146 Box 5.1. Law No 24 / 2007 on disaster management …………………………………… 191 Box 5.2. Important articles in disaster management law ……………………………. 193 | x List of Tables Table 1.1. Evapotranspiration estimates of the Gunung Sewu zone ………………… 13 Table 2.1. Typology of vulnerability concepts ………………………………………………… 59 Table 3.1. Administrative division ……………………………………………………………….. 78 Table 3.2. Education in Bantul and Gunung Kidul ………………………………………….108 Table 5.1. Most worrying situations…………………………………………………………….. 164 Table 5.2. The ‘old’ and the ‘new’ approaches to disaster management .……….. 195 Table 5.3. Cost and benefit of agriculture business ……………………………………. 204 Table 5.4. Seasonal calendar …………………………………………………………………….. 214 | xi List of Pictures Picture 3.1. Harvested paddy field in Bantul ………………………………………………… 85 Picture 3.2. Terraces in the dry Field of Gunung Kidul …………………………………… 87 Picture 3.3.