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Entire Citizen- Ry’ THE DÊMOS IN DÊMOKRATIA Daniela Cammack1,2 The dêmos in dêmokratia, ‘rule by the people’, is often interpreted ‘entire citizen- ry’. I argue that that is a specifically post-democratic interpretation. From Homer in the eighth century B.C. down to at least Aeschylus in the mid-fifth, dêmos indi- cated not the entire citizenry but a part of it, namely those who wielded political power through their participation in a collective agent, in the first instance an as- sembly, as opposed to those who had influence as individuals. Dêmokratia sig- nalled that supreme political power had passed to this group, away from the lead- ing men who had previously held sway. The original and (well into the classical period) primary meaning of dêmokratia was the rule of the collective common people over the rest of the polis, including over its own political elite. Background There are many things we know we do not know about ancient Greek democracy. One is when the term dêmokratia was coined. It may feature in an inscription ten- 1 From July 2017, Assistant Professor, Yale University, Political Science. Email: dan- [email protected]. I thank Cliff Ando, Victor Bers, Paul Cammack, Paul Cartledge, David Grewal, Kinch Hoekstra, David Lewis, John Mulhern, Gunnar Seelentag, George Scialabba, Rich- ard Tuck, Jane Mansbridge, Josiah Ober and John Zumbrunnen for their comments. Abbreviations follow the Oxford Classical Dictonary and L’Année Philogique; translations are mine unless oth- erwise stated. This draft Jan. 31, 2017. 2 The following works are cited repeatedly. P. Cartledge, Ancient Greek Political Thought in Prac- tice (Cambridge, 2009); W. Donlan, ‘Changes and Shifts in the Meaning of Demos in the Litera- ture of the Archaic Period’, PP 25 (1970), 381-95; J. Dunn, Democracy: A History (New York, 2005); V. Ehrenberg, ‘Origins of Democracy’, Historia 1 (1950), 515-48; M.I. Finley, Democracy Ancient and Modern (New Brunswick, 1985); M.H. Hansen, The Sovereignty of the People’s Court in Athens (Odense, 1974); M.H. Hansen, ‘The origin of the term demokratia’, LCM 11.3 (1986), 35-6; M.H. Hansen, ‘The Political Powers of the People’s Court in Fourth-Century Ath- ens’, in O. Murray and S. Price eds., The Greek City from Homer to Alexander (Oxford 1990), 215-44; M.H. Hansen, Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes (Norman, OK, 1999); M.H. Hansen, ‘The concepts of demos, ekklesia, and dikasterion in classical Athens’, GRBS 50 (2010), 499-536; M.H. Hansen and T.H. Nielsen eds., An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Pol- eis (Oxford, 2004); R. Harrison, Democracy (London, 1993); J.A.O. Larsen, ‘Demokratia’, CPh 68 (1973), 45-6; O. Murray, Early Greece (Cambridge MA, 1980); J. Ober, Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens (Princeton, 1989); J. Ober, The Athenian Revolution (Princeton, 1996); J. Ober, ‘The Original Meaning of “Democracy”’, Constellations 15 (2008), 3-9; R. Osborne, ‘The Demos and its Divisions in Classical Athens’, in O. Murray and S. Price eds., The Greek City (Ox- ford, 1990), 265-87; K. Raaflaub, ‘Introduction’ (2007a) and ‘The Breakthrough of Dēmokratia in Mid-Fifth Century Athens’ (2007b), in K. Raaflaub et al. eds., Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece (Berkeley, 2007); P.J. Rhodes, Ancient Democracy and Modern Ideology (London, 2003); J.T. Roberts, Athens on Trial (Princeton, 1994); E. Robinson, The First Democracies (Stuttgart, 1997); E. Robinson, Democracy Beyond Athens (Cambridge, 2011); G.E.M. de Sainte Croix, ‘The Character of Athenian Empire’, Historia 3 (1954), 1-41; R. Sealey, ‘The Origins of “Demokra- tia”’, ClAnt 6 (1973), 253-95; R.K. Sinclair, Democracy and Participation in Athens (Cambridge, 1988); G. Vlastos, ‘Isonomia’, AJPh. 74 (1953), 337-66; E.M. Wood, ‘Demos versus ‘We, the People’: Freedom and Democracy Ancient and Modern’, in J. Ober and C. Hedrick eds., Dēmokratia (Princeton, 1996), 121-37. 1 tatively dated 447/6 B.C., though only the letters δ-ε-µ-ο- are legible; after that, it appears in Herodotus’ Histories, c.440-25, Pseudo-Xenophon’s Constitution of the Athenians, often dated 431-24, Aristophanes’ Acharnians (425), Antiphon’s speech ‘On the Chorus-boy’ (418), and a fragment by Democritus (c.460-c.370).3 Based on this evidence, it is often suggested that dêmokratia entered political discourse around or just before the mid-fifth century.4 But as Mogens Hansen pointed out long ago, ‘inscriptions antedating 450 are so few that possible (rare) attestations are likely to have been altogether lost’, while the literary texts just listed are our earliest examples of every genre—history, polemic, comedy, orato- ry, and moral philosophy—in which we might hope to find the word, since met- rical considerations rule it out of earlier poetry.5 The name Demokrates, moreo- ver, was in use in the 460s, while circumlocutions such as ‘the ruling (kratousa) hand of the dêmos’ appear in Aeschylus’ Suppliants (c.463).6 Accordingly, Han- sen speculates that dêmokratia may have been in use in the late sixth century, though we cannot say for sure.7 Also uncertain is when dêmokratia came into being as a regime, whether or not it was known by that name.8 Here everything depends on what we take dêmokratia to have meant in practice. Eberhard Ruschenbusch interpreted it as ‘any system in which the people in assembly are involved in communal decision making’, in which case our first glimpse comes in the Homeric epics.9 Nearer the other extreme, Kurt Raaflaub has argued that democracy was realized only ‘when active citizenship and full political participation were extended to all adult male citizens…and when this (exceptionally broadly defined) citizen body through as- sembly, council and law courts assumed full control over the entire political pro- cess, from the conception of policies to their realization and the oversight of those involved in executing them’.10 On that account, Athens became a democracy only after the reforms of Ephialtes in 462/1 (and, we may add, no modern state has yet managed it).11 Other possible ‘start dates’ are the reforms of Solon in 594/3, those of Cleisthenes in 508/7 (favoured by Herodotus), or even, as Walter Eder has ar- gued, the post-civil war legal reforms of 403/2.12 3 IG I3 37.48; Hdt. 6.43, 131; Xen. [Ath. Pol.] 1.4-8, 2.20, 3.1, 8-12; Ar. Ach. 618; Ant. 6.45; DK §251. 4 Cartledge, 63; Murray, 279; Raaflaub 2007a, 14; Rhodes CAAP, 261; Sealey; Sinclair, 16. 5 Hansen 1986, 35. 6 J. Davies, Athenian Propertied Families (Oxford, 1971), 359-60; Hansen 1986, 35-6; Aesch. Suppl. 604, cf. 699, with Ehrenberg; Raaflaub 2007b, 108, 150-1. 7 Hansen 1986, 36. 8 An alternative candidate is isonomia. Ehrenberg; M. Ostwald, Nomos and the Beginning of Athe- nian Democracy (Oxford, 1969), 97-121; Sealey, 272-7; Vlastos. 9 Raaflaub 2007a, 14; E. Ruschenbusch, ‘Zur Verfassungsgeschichte Griechenlands’, in K. Kinzl ed., Demokratia: Der Weg der Griechen zur Demokratie (Darmstadt, 1995), 432–45. 10 Raaflaub 2007a, 14. 11 Raaflaub 2007b. 12 Arist. [Ath. Pol.] 41.2; Hdt. 6.131. Cf. Cartledge, 58-62; R. Wallace, ‘Revolutions and a New Order’, in Raaflaub et al. eds, 49-82; J. Ober, ‘“I Besieged that Man”: Democracy’s Revolutionary Start’, ibid., 83-104; W. Eder, ‘Aristocrats and the Coming of Athenian Democracy’, in I. Morriss and K. Raaflaub eds. Democracy 2500? Questions and Challenges (Dubuque, 1998), 105-40. 2 Outside Athens things are equally debatable. Hansen and Nielsen, in the In- ventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis, take a pragmatic approach: if a polis is identified as a dêmokratia in our ancient sources or possessed features said to be democratic, then it is classed as such.13 Eric Robinson, in his second book on an- cient Greek democracy, adopts the same strategy, having employed a different one in his first.14 But even this may not settle the matter, since some sources are decades (Aristotle) or centuries (Diodorus, Plutarch) later than the times they de- scribe, thus raising the possibility of anachronism. Again, the onus falls on the historian to make the case for what dêmokratia meant in practice. Amid this uncertainty, the basic meaning of dêmokratia is not usually disput- ed. Dêmos means ‘people’, kratos ‘power’ or ‘rule’, hence dêmokratia is usually glossed ‘rule by the people’15 or (less often) ‘people-power’.16 A more elaborate interpretation of kratos as ‘the collective capacity of a public to make good things happen in the public realm’ has been suggested by Josiah Ober, but dêmos has not received similar treatment.17 It is widely agreed to have indicated the entire citi- zenry, synonymous with polis, ‘body of citizens’ or ‘city-state’. The clearest ancient Greek example of this interpretation is attributed by Thu- cydides to Athenagoras of Syracuse, speaking in 415: ‘I say dêmos names the whole (sympan), oligarchy only a part’.18 Similar modern glosses include ‘People (all the people, the citizen body as a whole)’, ‘the people as a whole (or the citizen body to be more precise)’, ‘the people as a whole (that is, everyone)’, ‘the whole body of citizens’, ‘the sum of all male adult citizens’, ‘the whole community, in- cluding the privileged few as well as the underprivileged many’, ‘the entire citi- zenry’, ‘the whole of the people’, ‘the whole citizen body’, and ‘all residents of the state who are culturally defined as potential citizens, regardless of their class or status’.19 Each of these interpretations identifies dêmos with the whole citizen body, including both rich and poor, mass and elite. This is not to suggest that dêmos was univocal.
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