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Recipe for Banda Sea Water 549 Journalof MarineResearch, 58, 547–569, 2000 Recipe forBanda Sea water byJorina M. Waworuntu 1,RanaA. Fine 1,DonaldB. Olson 1 andArnold L. Gordon 2 ABSTRACT Waterfrom the western Paci c owsthrough the Indonesian Seas following different pathways andis modied by various processes to form the uniquely characterized isohaline Banda Sea W ater. Theprocesses contributing to the isohaline structure are studied using data from three ARLINDO cruisesin 1993, 1994, and 1996. An inverse-model analysis using salinity and CFC-11data is applied toaverticalsection along the main path of ow,from the Makassar Strait to the Flores Sea and Banda Sea.The model reproduces the seasonal and interannual variability of the through ow andshows reversalsof owinthevertical structure. The model solutions suggest strong baroclinic owsduring thesoutheast monsoon of 1993 and 1996 and a small,more barotropic owduring the northwest monsoonof 1994. The isohaline structure can be accounted for by isopycnal mixing of different sourcewaters and by vertical exchanges, which are signi cant in this region. A downward ux equivalentto a downwellingvelocity of 5 3 102 7 m/sisestimated for the section. The total balance alsosuggests that seasonally and possibly interannually variable back ushing of water from the BandaSea into the Straits contribute to the isohaline structure of BandaSea water. 1.Introduction TheIndonesian Seas are the tropical link between the Paci c Oceanand the Indian Oceanand are part of the global thermohaline circulation (Gordon, 1986). The circulation andtransport through the Indonesian Seas have a largeannual variation due to thestrong monsoonalchange in the wind pattern in this area. The through ow has the maximum transportduring the south monsoon (northern summer), andthe owreachesits minimum inthe north monsoon (northern winter) (e.g., Wyrtki, 1987; Murray and Arief, 1988; Meyers et al., 1996;Molcard et al., 1996).The change in the circulation pattern and volumeof thethrough ow mustaffect the different processes that occur in theIndonesian Seas.Dynamics of interaction with coastlines and shelves invigorate processes like upwelling,downwelling, and internal wave action. Changesin the owpatternand transport variability in turn produce changes in water massesand properties. During different monsoon seasons, waters from differentsources owto the Indonesian Seas, and the result can be seen in the variation of salinity, temperature,and other tracers from thesurface down to the lower thermocline. Local 1.Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Universityof Miami,4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami,Florida, 33149, U.S.A. email:jwaw4296@ corp.newmont.com 2.Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, Palisades, New York,10964, U.S.A. 547 548 Journalof MarineResearch [58, 4 Figure1. Station locations during Arlindo Mixing 93 cruise (6 August– 12 September 1993), Arlindo Mixing94 cruise (26 January– 28 February 1994), and Arlindo Circulation cruise (18 Novem- ber–15 December 1996). processessuch as precipitation,tidal mixing and coastal upwelling also contribute to these changes.Historical and recent data show the seasonal as well as interannual changes in the water propertiesin theIndonesian Seas (e.g., Wyrtki, 1961; Boely et al., 1990;Zijlstra et al., 1990;Gordon and Fine, 1996; Ilahude and Gordon, 1996). Thesource of the through ow waters dependson the nonlinear properties of the MindanaoCurrent and South Equatorial Current retro ection at thePaci c entranceto the IndonesianSeas and the tropical Paci c wind elds(Nof, 1996;W ajsowicz,2000) (Fig. 1). Thereare two main pathways of thethrough ow inthe Indonesian Seas, the western route andthe eastern route. The primary is water that ows throughthe western route which is mostlyfrom theNorth Paci c. It ows throughMakassar Strait, Flores Sea, and BandaSea beforeexiting to theIndian Ocean via Timor Sea and Ombai Strait (Fine, 1985; F eld and Gordon,1992; Fieux et al., 1994,1996; Gordon et al., 1994;Bingham and Lukas, 1995; Ilahudeand Gordon, 1996; Gordon and Fine, 1996). Part ofthis water alsoexits to the IndianOcean through Lombok Strait (Murray and Arief, 1988).Prior toentering the Banda Sea,water thattakes the eastern route (east of SulawesiIsland) is mostlyfrom theSouth Pacic (VanAken et al., 1988;Gordon, 1995; Ilahude and Gordon,1996; Gordon and Fine, 1996;Hautala et al., 1996).It ows viaHalmahera and Seram Seato the Banda Sea and 2000] Waworuntuet al.: Recipe for Banda Sea water 549 TimorSea. There is probably also a mixtureof water comingfrom theNorth Paci c throughthe eastern route via the Maluku Sea. Most studies neglect the through ow from thewestern Paci c throughthe South China Sea, Karimata Strait and Java Sea because of theshallowness of theshelf (mean depth of JavaSea is around40 m). Thereis also some evidenceof owfrom theIndian Ocean into the Banda Sea through the Straits of Lesser SundaIslands. This owfrom theIndian Ocean is mostly con ned to the surface layer duringboreal winter (Michida and Y oritaka,1996). As thewater owsthrough the Indonesian sills and straits, the extremely complex topographyand the combination of active monsoonal changes and higher frequency forcingin the low latitude region contribute to momentum transfer and water mass transformationthroughout the water column. Different studies show a largerange of verticaldiffusivity estimates for thedifferent basins in Indonesia. Gordon (1986) uses a 2 4 highvalue of verticaldiffusivity ( Kz . 3 3 10 m/s) withinthe Indonesian thermocline toaccount for themodi cation of the North Paci c thermoclinetemperature-salinity structure.F eld and Gordon (1992), using a simpleadvection-diffusion model for average 2 4 basinpro les, estimate a lowerlimit of vertical diffusivity, Kz at 1 3 10 m/s, for transformationof Paci c waters intoIndonesian water .Thesevertical diffusivities are greaterthan those typically estimated for theinterior ocean (e.g., Gargett, 1984; Ledwell andWatson,1991; T oole et al., 1994). Hautala et al. (1996)examine isopycnal advection and mixing between North and South Pacic lowlatitude western boundary current sources to form BandaSea water. Three regimesare apparent in their analysis. The surface and upper thermocline layers, down to s u 5 25.8,required vertical mixing of surfaceprecipitation and runoff. V erticalmixing is alsoapparent below s u 5 27.0.In the lower thermocline purely isopycnal spreading gives a simplevariation in the ratio of sources toward a largerSouth Paci c contributionwith depth. Besidesa largerange of transportand diffusivity estimates, little is knownabout vertical distributionof owand mixing in the Indonesian Seas. Changes in the direction of the currentssuggest that the owishighlybaroclinic. Change in direction and strength of the windforce the change in thesurface Ekman ows,moving surface water toward opposite directions.The build up of water alongthe boundaries change the pressure gradient across theshallowsills surrounding this area and presumably force the baroclinic owthroughout thewholeregion. V erticalmotion could also play an important role in the waterdistribution andtransformation in this region. Lack of sufficient direct and long-term measurements makeit difficult to get a completepicture of circulation and processes in the region, especiallythe vertical distribution of the circulation. Inthis paper we willdiscuss some new observations from theArlindoMixing cruises in 1993and 1994 (AM93, AM94) onboard KALBarunaJaya I andArlindoCirculation 1996 cruise(AC96) onboard KALBaruna Jaya IV . Wewilldescribe an inverse analysis for quantifyingthe mixing and advection parameters along the pathways of thethrough ow 550 Journalof MarineResearch [58, 4 thatform BandaSea water .Thisanalysis makes use of Arlindotemperature, salinity and CFC-11data. As moretracer data become available, different techniques are developed to quantifythe velocity eldand mixing parameters from thetracer distribution. One of the rst attempts toobtain velocities from tracerdistributions was doneby Fiadeiro and V eronis(1984). Lee andV eronis(1989) show that velocities and mixing coefficients can be obtainedfrom an inversionof perfect tracer data, but inversion of imperfectdata leads to substantialerrors. Hogg(1987) obtains the ow eldsand diffusivities on two isopycnal surfaces from temperature,oxygen and potential vorticity distribution of Levitus Atlas data (Levitus, 1982). Oneway to solvethis problem is byusingdifferent tracer distributions, with at least one transienttracer .Wunch(1987, 1988) studies the transient tracer inverse as a problemin controltheory and the regularization aspect of using transient tracers. Jenkins (1998) combines 3H-3He agewith salinity, oxygen, and geostrophy to computeisopycnal diffusivi- ties,oxygen consumption rates, and absolute velocities for theNorth Atlantic subduction area.Mc Intoshand V eronis(1993) show that an underdetermined tracer inverse problem canbe solvedby spatialsmoothing and cross validation. Here aninversemethod similar to thatof McIntosh and V eronis(1993) is used to quantify the advective and diffusive processesin the eastern Indonesian Seas. 2.Observations a. Data Atotalof 103hydrographic stations were occupiedduring AM93 cruise from 6August to12 September 1993 in the Southeast Monsoon (SEM). TheAM94 cruise from 26 Januaryto 28 February1994 during the Northwest Monsoon (NWM) hasa similarstation distribution(station 104– 209). Cruise AC96, including 37 hydrographic stations into the easternBanda Sea were occupiedfrom 18November to
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