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AS Vimed IROM SOCIOLOGICAL and PHILOSOPHICAL BASES THE PE0BLES4 OF INDOCTRINATION: AS VimED IROM SOCIOLOGICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL BASES DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By MiOhio Nagai, B.A., A,M. The Ohio State University 1952 Approvi Adviser H. Gordon flullfish AClSilOWLEDGMiiMT It would be diriicult to express adequately my appreciation of the contributions made by many persons to this study. I first wish to express my gratitude to Dr. H. Gordon Hullfish, my adviser, wnose sincere guidance, generosity, and patience have led me from the first stage of learning in English in July, 194-9, up to the very last minute of completing this dissertation in May, 1952. I am very much indebted to Dr. Aurt H. Wolff whose wisdom and painstaking guidance have been of invaluable help in the writing of this dissertation. Likewise my indebtedness is due Dr. Alan E. Griffin and Dr. Lloyd Williams who read the complete manuscript and made numerous valuable corrections and suggestions. I also wish to express my appreciation for the intellectual stimulation gained for contacts with Dr. John W. Dennett and Mr. Iwao Ishino. Acknowledgment of a less specific, but not necessarily of less important value, is due Dr. Ervin E. Lewis whose kindness guided my first steps in this new land, finally, I wish to thank my wife, Mieko Nagai, without whose help this dissertation might not have been completed. MIGHIO NAGAI 909454 XI TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I INTRODUCTION.......................... 1 I Dictionary Definition.............................. 3 II The Indoctrination Controversy....... 5 (a) The Position oi George Counts... ........... 7 ( b) The Position of The Educational Frontier........... 9 (c) The Concept of "Defensible Partiality"............. 11 III The Sociological and the Philosophical Approaches to the Problem........ 13 (a) The Sociological Approach........................ 14 (b) The Philosophical Approach....................... 21 II SCHOOL e d u c a t i o n AND INDOCTRINATION:A SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS.. 29 I The Ethos of Science................................ 30 (a) Universalisa................................... 31 (b) Communism ............................... 33 (c) Disinterestedness...... 33 (d) Organized Scepticism............................ 34- II Education in Institutions of Higher Learning............ 35 (a) Functional Specificity.......................... 36 ( b) Universalisa...................... 38 (c) Achievement Orientation......... 38 ( d) Affective Neutralily... ...... 39 (e) Collectivity Orientation........................ 4-0 III School Education and Indoctrination.................... 41 (a) School Education. ........................... 42 (b) Indoctrination and School Education: The content and the Method...... $1 17 School and Society at Large................... 56 XXX uüAPTiiR Pa g e III OBJECTIVITY m TEACHING: A PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS........... 62 I M.annh.exm.’s Theory of knowledge.............. ............ 64 (a) Geaeral character of Mannheim's Sociology of knowledge.................................. 64 (,b) "Substantive” Sociology of knowledge............. 67 ^.c) Sociological Theory of knowledge................. 71 II Weber on the Problem of Objectivity in the Social Sciences ........... 77 (,a) Relative Aspects of Knowledge. .... 78 (b) Objectivity in the Social Sciences: The Problem of Origin and Validity........... SO IIIMorris’ Theory of Signs.............. 82 (a.) The Importance of Semiotic............... 82 (b) Three Dimensions of Semiosis.................... 83 (c) Implications of Semiotic for the Sociology of Knowledge..................................... 86 (d) The Implications of the Theories of Weber and Morris for the Problem of Indoctrination.......... 88 IV The Teaching of Subjective Knowledge.................. 90 IV THE PRAGÎÂATIST THEORY OF KiTOWLEDGE.............. 95 I The Pragmatist Theory ol Knowledge.................... 97 (a) Experience..................................... 100 Cb} Scientific Inquiry....................... 102 ( c) Logic of Inquiry........................ 104 (d) Truth.......................................... 107 II Criticisms of Pragmatism............ 110 (a) Criticisms of Pragmatist Logic................ 110 (b) criticisms of Pragmatist Theory of Truth........... 115 V CONCLUSIONS............................................. 123 I Dimensions of Indoctrination......................... 123 ^Uy The Soc^o^v^xvcLjL i^Xiuen>dXon.......................... i,2/y XV uhaptjër Page (d) The Philosophical Dimension................... 124. II The Meaning of the Present Stuc^; In Respect to the Indoctrination Controversy......... 125 Ca) In Respect to the Position of The Educational If'rontier......................... 125 (h) In Respect to the Position of George Counts............................... 127 L c) In Respect to the Concept "Defensible Partiality"...................... 128 BIhLlOGRAPtiY................................................ 130 AUTOBIOGRAPHY............................................... 136 THE HROBLiTiH OE IiNDOCTEH^a ÏION ; AS VIETiED ËROM SOCIOLOGICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL EASES CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION It is with this clashing of nodes of thought, each of which has the same claims to representational validity, that for the first time there is rendered possible the emergence of the question which is so fateful, but also so fundamental in the history of thought, namely, how it is possible that identical human thought-processes concerned with the same world produce divergent conceptions of the world.1 This statement is found in the introduction, especially written by Earl Mannheim himself, for the English edition of his Ideology and Utooia. It was written in 1936. Sixteen years later, however, it still expresses the general feeling of our time. It probably does so more today than it did at the time it was written. Day after day at international and national political gatherings, we see the same event interpreted and explained differently by differing people. The fear arises that there may not be a common ground between people, especially at the international level, in terms of which the ideas of differing parties can be freely exchanged and objectively examined. Also at the national level, differences in ideas which might have been conceived, during the prosperous period of laisez-faire. as ^ Mannheim, Earl, Ideology and Utopia, trans. by Louis Wirth and Edward Shils, New Yorij Harcourt, brace and Uompany, 1936, p.S. 2 the source of diversity in ttie so-called free culture, are, at present, so often a source of tension, conl'lict, and fear. Fear, unfortunately, is not confined to the realm of politics. A common ground for the exchange of ideas is scarce in virtually T aspects of our contemporary life. Eaucation is not an exception. To mention only a few, the issue of academic freedom at the level of higher learning has been raised time and again— most recently, for instance, at the University of California and the Ohio State University— and the question of ideologies in teaching at the level of elementary and secondary education was raised by those involved 2 in the famous Pasadena incident. The term “indoctrination,” which is to be under examination in the present study, is one of the concepts most commonly and conveniently used by either or both parties to characterize "the evils" of the other, whenever such issues of power, academic freedom, and objectivity in education are in question. Whatever the one party does is branded by the other as sheer indoctrination. Thus in the eyes of the radicals "the reactionary indoctrinate," and according to the reactionary, "radical education is indoctrination." In some cases, both the radicals and the reactionary even agree with each other, and say, "the so-called middle road is another type of ^ Of. Radin, Max, "The Loyalty Oath at the University of California," ■bulletin of the American association of University Professors. Vol. 36, No. 2, Summer 1950, pp.237-24.5. Fine, Benjamin, "Issue of Academic Freedom is Raised Again; This Time at Ohio State University," The New Y one Times. Sunday, October 28, 1951, Section, 4-. Hulburd, David, This Happened in Pasadena. New YorJc, The Macmillan Company, 1951. 3 indoctrination." Those who are concerned with this common use and abuse of the term "indoctrination" in the field of education thus are compelled to raise the question, "What is indoctrination?" Otherwise, we cannot Know what is to be protected, if anything is to be, from indoctrination. It _is precisely the aim of this study to find. if not a clear and satisfactory solution to the problem of indoctrination as it is practiced in the elementary and secondary schools, at least ways in which such solution may be sought. We may Know, then, in which direction our educational efforts are to be made. before indicating the major directions of this study (Section 3) > a dictionary definition of the term "indoctrination" will be introduced (Section 1), and an attempt will be made to describe in what sense indoctrination has been a subject of controversy among educational thinKers (Section 2). I. DICTIOMABl DEFINITION It may be convenient to start our study with a dictionary definition of the term "indoctrination." According to Webster* s New International Dictionary: Indoctrinate (ML. in-infdoctrinare to teach, fr. doctrina teaching.. See Doctidne,) 1. To instruct in the rudiments or principles of learning, or of a branch of learning; to instruct (in), or to imbue
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