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Research and Practice “Research & Practice,” established early in 2001, features educational research that is directly relevant to the work of classroom teachers. Here, Social Studies and I invited William Stanley to bring a historical perspective to the peren- nial question, “Should social studies the Social Order: teachers work to transmit the status quo or to transform it?” Transmission or —Walter C. Parker, “Research and Practice” Editor, University of Transformation? Washington, Seattle. William B. Stanley Should social studies educators The Quest for Democracy and schools are places where chil- transmit or transform the social order? Debates over education reform take dren receive formal training as citizens. By “transform” I do not mean the com- place within a powerful historical and Democracy is also a process or form mon view that education should make cultural context. In the United States, of life rather than a fixed end in itself, society better (e.g., lead to scientific schooling is generally understood as and we should regard any democratic breakthroughs, eradicate disease, and an integral component of a democratic society as a work in progress.1 Thus, increase productivity). Rather, I am society. To the extent we are a demo- democratic society is something we are referring to approaches to education cratic society, one could argue that edu- always trying simultaneously to main- that are critical of the dominant social cation for social transformation could tain and reconstruct, and education is order and motivated by a desire to be anti-democratic, a view held by essential to this process. ensure both political and economic many conservatives. From the left side When one looks at the question democracy. This progressive or radi- of the political spectrum, however, the of education for social transformation cal (depending on one’s point of view) view is that our nation is not now (nor in the context of American history, view of education for social transfor- ever was) a fully democratic society. In three prevailing perspectives emerge. mation crystallized in the 1920s and addition to a history of ethnic, racial, First, a strong form of education for ’30s and remains a persistent school and gender discrimination, the gap social transformation was developed of thought. However, the impact of a between the wealthy and lower classes by George Counts in the 1930s and focus on social transformation on edu- continues to increase; meanwhile, a sig- remains part of more recent work by cational policy and practice has been nificant percent of Americans still live various proponents of “critical peda- marginal. in poverty. Most people have little or gogy” and counter-socialization.2 A Given our cultural commitment in no influence on corporate or govern- second, and frequently misunderstood, the United States to individualism and ment institutions and policy, which are perspective is found in John Dewey’s free market theory, the limited impact largely controlled by dominant groups curriculum theory, which rejected of education for social transformation who support a system that serves their Counts’s core argument. The influ- should not be surprising. Schooling has own interests. If one accepts this line of ence of Dewey’s pragmatic approach functioned, in general, to transmit the thinking, education for social transfor- to education is also found in the work dominant social order, preserving the mation becomes a moral imperative in of more recent curriculum theorists status quo, and it would be more plau- the service of democracy. such as Cleo Cherryholmes and Tony sible to argue that the current economic But the either/or conception of Whitson.3 A third view, opposed to and political systems would need to education described above tends to education for social transformation, is undergo radical change before fun- oversimplify and distort. There is a found in the work of various conser- damental change in education could more productive way of looking at vative writers, most recently George take place. Still, the question remains, this issue. Democratic societies have Posner, a federal appellate judge, and What should be the role of teachers, been rare throughout history, only social studies educator James Leming. especially social studies teachers, with expanding significantly over the last Posner’s views have roots in the ear- respect to the social order—transmis- two centuries. Democratic thought and lier work of Walter Lippmann, one of sion or transformation? action (citizenship) must be learned, Dewey’s intellectual colleagues in the S OCIAL E DUCATION 282 1920s and 30s. I will summarize briefly of clearly defined purpose.”7 The pro- … assume an increasing responsibility each of the three perspectives and then gressive education movement’s failure for participation in projecting ideas of conclude with my thoughts on how this to develop such a purpose, a theory social change and taking part in their issue remains relevant to social studies of social welfare, “unless it be that of execution in order to be educative,” education.4 anarchy or extreme individualism,” was with particular attention to a more its core weakness.8 Progressive educa- just, open, and democratic society.14 George Counts’s Reconstructionist tors seemed incapable of responding to Consequently, teachers cannot escape Challenge to Teachers the great crises of the 1930s. Members the responsibility for assisting in the In 1932, Counts called on teachers to largely of the middle class, progressives task of social change or maintenance. “build a new social order.” It remains were too fond of their material posses- Considering such sentiments, it is the most explicit argument for educa- sions and tended to “follow the lead not surprising that many scholars mis- tion for social transformation or what of the most powerful and respectable takenly have described Dewey as a he called social “reconstruction.”5 forces in society and at the same time social reconstructionist.15 Dewey did Counts believed the Depression in the find good reasons for doing so.”9 believe that the schools should assist Progressive educators must free themselves from philosophic relativ- ism and the undesirable influences of an upper middle class culture to permit the development of “a realistic and (AP Photo/staff) comprehensive theory of social wel- fare” and “a compelling and challeng- ing vision of human destiny.”10 In addi- tion, progressives must come to accept “that all education contains a large ele- ment of imposition, that in the very Courtesy of Teachers College, Columbia College, University. Courtesy Teachers of nature of the case this is inevitable, that the existence and evolution of society depend upon it, that it is consequently eminently desirable, and that the frank acceptance of this fact by the educator is a major professional obligation.”11 Counts’s curriculum for social transformation was designed to expose George Counts the antidemocratic limitations of indi- John Dewey 1930s confirmed that America was in a vidualism and free market economic in the reconstruction of society, but state of crisis and required a new social theory, promote a strong form of par- his view of this process differed sig- order based upon democratic social ticipatory democracy, and create an nificantly from Counts’s. Rather than justice and a fundamental redistribu- economic system that reduces dispari- indoctrinating students with a particu- tion of economic and political power. ties of income, wealth, and power. lar theory of social welfare, Dewey Since political and economic power was believed the schools should partici- held largely by powerful elite groups, Dewey’s Critique of Social pate in the general intellectualization the realization of a truly democratic Reconstructionism of society by inculcating a “method of social order could not happen unless Dewey, like Counts, understood that intelligence.” This would provide stu- the capitalist economy of the United education must have a social orien- dents with the critical competence for States was eliminated “or changed so tation. The question, Dewey wrote, reflective thought applied to the analy- radically in form and spirit that its “Is not whether the schools shall or sis of social problems.16 Education’s identity will be completely lost.”6 shall not influence the course of future central aim is “to prepare individuals The progressive education move- social life, but in what direction they to take part intelligently in the manage- ment was in full swing at the time. While shall do so and how.”12 The way our ment of conditions under which they Counts acknowledged progressive schools actually “share in the build- will live, to bring them to an under- education’s positive focus on the inter- ing of the social order of the future standing of the forces which are mov- ests of the child, “progress” implied depends on the particular social forces ing, and to equip them with the intel- moving forward and this, he wrote, and movements with which they ally.”13 lectual and practical tools by which “can have little meaning in the absence According to Dewey, education “must they can themselves enter into the S E PT E MB E R 2 0 0 5 283 direction of these forces.”17 Over time, a great deal of indoctrination now of individuals to acquire directly the students would acquire the knowledge going on in the schools, espe- knowledge to determine their interests and skills that would enable them “to cially with reference to narrow and make informed public policy deci- take part in the great work of construc- nationalism under the name of sions. The exponential expansion of tion and organization that will have to patriotism, and with reference to social and scientific knowledge and the be done, and to equip them with the the dominant economic regime. increasing complexity of modern soci- attitudes and habits of action that will These facts unfortunately are ety only worsened the masses’ inability make their understanding and insight facts.

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