Cultural Competence and Its Influence on the Teaching and Learning of International Students

CULTURAL COMPETENCE AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS

Claudia P. Nieto

A Thesis

Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

August 2008

Committee:

Margaret Zoller Booth, Advisor

Patricia Kubow

Sheri Wells-Jensen

Claudia P. Nieto

iii

ABSTRACT

Margaret Zoller Booth, Advisor

The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which one’s level of cultural competence impacts the teaching and learning process for both instructors and students at the university level. Specifically, this study examined whether there is a difference in the level of intercultural sensitivity between university instructors and ESL students, whether ESL instructors and non-ESL instructors vary in their levels of intercultural sensitivity, and the extent to which gender impacts cultural competence. Finally, an investigation was conducted to explore the relationships between the instructors’ level of intercultural sensitivity and the challenges they face in instructing international students, in addition to the relationship between students’ level of intercultural sensitivity and the challenges they face while pursuing a college degree in the

United States. A mixed methodology, using Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (Chen & Starosta) found that instructors in this university reported a higher level of intercultural sensitivity than college students at the same institution; a significant difference between ESL instructors and non-ESL instructors in the area of interaction engagement was revealed; and, that females scored higher than males. Finally, while instructors revealed that culture and language were the challenges most faced in teaching international students, those same students did not reveal them to be significant challenges.

Dedication: This is dedicated to my loving mom, dad, family and friends.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the many friends, relatives, and supporters who have made this happen. Dr. Margaret Booth for her patience and support, Dr. Patricia Kubow, Dr. Sheri Wells-

Jensen, Dr. Timothy Jurkovac, Jeffrey Jurkovac, Annette de Nicker, Esther García-Tió, Mandy

Miller, Andrea Van Vorhis, Dr. Erin Curran, Bill and Karen Thompson, professors and classmates in my classes at BGSU, colleagues in the office, and all the participants who helped me by participating in this study.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

LITERATURE REVIEW...... 4

Cultural Competence...... 4

Teaching Students from Various Cultures...... 9

Teaching Implications for a Second Language Classroom ...... 11

Gender Factors ...... 13

Language Acquisition...... 14

METHODOLOGY ...... 18

Site Selection and Description ...... 18

Participants ...... 19

Data Sources ...... 20

Data Analysis ...... 22

RESULTS ...... 23

Levels of Intercultural Sensitivity ...... 23

Understanding the Challenges of Teaching...... 24

Teachers’ Perceptions ...... 24

Students’ Perceptions...... 27

Understanding the Challenges of Learning ...... 28

Teachers’ Perceptions ...... 28

Students’ Perceptions...... 30

vii

DISCUSSION ...... 32

Limitations of the Study ...... 36

Future Studies ...... 37

CONCLUSION ...... 40

REFERENCES ...... 42

APPENDIX A. CONSENT LETTER...... 45

APPENDIX B. INTERCULTURAL SENSITIVITY SCALE (teacher survey)...... 47

APPENDIX C. INTERCULTURAL SENSITIVITY SCALE (student survey)...... 49

APPENDIX D. TABLE 1: INTERCULTURAL SENSITVITY SCALE: ANALYSIS OF

VARIANCE ...... 51

APPENDIX E. TABLES OF CORRELATIONS ...... 52

Table D1: Teachers’ Correlations ...... 52

Table D2: Students’ Correlations...... 52

INTRODUCTION

Students who come from non-English speaking countries face challenges in American schools and colleges because of their lack of language proficiency and the socio-cultural differences they encounter. Therefore, continuous exchange with other cultures in the United

States is necessary for teachers to be better equipped to instruct a culturally and diverse student population. It is in the hands of formal education, as the institution most influential in acculturation to improve the ability to broaden the spectrum of cross-cultural awareness.

However, in order to do this, teachers must first be culturally aware and sensitive to their various students’ cultural needs.

As a result of cross-cultural and language differences, teachers and students must understand each other in order to achieve an optimum level of learning. As an example, the fastest growing ethnic group in the United States is the Hispanic American population. This population is predicted to increase from 15% of the 2007 school aged population to 25% by the year 2050 (Bollin, 2007, p. 177). The basis for the increase is primarily reflected in the number of immigrants as a result of economic and political needs. Immigrant children arrive with parents who are unfamiliar with the American school system. For this reason, it is vitally important that teachers develop the skills necessary to assist with cultural sensitivity, the understanding of the challenges of second language acquisition, and a commitment to helping children and parents feel a sense of self worth and welcome.

For teachers, it is important to focus on the improvement of different skills involved in the learning of a second language and also to be sensitive to the culturally different student in their classroom. At the university level in the United States, for example, students are supposed to possess a high level of language competence; that is to say students must manage the language

2 with competence in all aspects (reading, writing, speaking, and listening). Normally a test of

English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) is required as a means to demonstrate that the students’ ability in English is at the college level. Nevertheless, when foreign students are in a classroom, language and cultural interaction becomes extra challenging.

In order to be effective in dealing with other cultures, people must be willing to adapt to new situations, to respect others’ ways of approaching the world. With a continued influx of international students, studies of how teachers create a cultural sensitivity practice must be done since they contribute to a responsible pedagogy that empowers diverse students by simultaneously cultivating their culture, individual abilities, and academic success. Previous research has identified intercultural sensitivity as central to the role of education and improving relationships cross culturally (Hammer et al., 2003). Thus, research must be conducted investigating the effectiveness of instructors in teaching foreign students with limited English proficiency (LEP), including the effectiveness of their own cultural competence and to measure its impact on international students.

The purpose of this research is to investigate the relationship between cultural competence and the teaching and learning of international students. Consequently, our question becomes: to what extent does one’s level of cultural competence impact the teaching and learning process for both instructors and students at the university level? Specifically, this study will first examine whether there is a difference in the level of intercultural sensitivity between university instructors and ESL students. It will also investigate whether ESL instructors and non-

ESL instructors vary in their levels of intercultural sensitivity. In regard to comparing levels of intercultural sensitivity, a gender analysis will also be investigated to examine whether male or female instructors or students differ in their levels of intercultural sensitivity. Finally, an

3 investigation will be conducted which explores the relationships between the teachers’ level of intercultural sensitivity and the challenges they face in instructing international students, in addition to the relationship between students’ level of intercultural sensitivity and the challenges they face while pursuing a college degree in the United States.

These considerations led to the formulation of the following research hypotheses: First, instructors, in comparison with ESL students, will demonstrate higher levels of cultural competence than students since as a result of their professions they have more varied experiences teaching diverse populations of international students. Second, ESL instructors will demonstrate a higher level of cultural competence than non-ESL instructors since they are professionally trained to work with diverse populations from different cultures. Third, as a result of conflicting evidence presented about gender and its implications for cultural competence, it will not be an influential variable in cultural competence. Fourth, challenges that teachers face in instructing international students may be most related to the language and the culture of the students.

Finally, challenges that international students face while pursuing a college degree in the United

States will most prominently be related to language and culture.

LITERATURE REVIEW

In order to understand the complexity of the area of cultural competence, an analysis of previous research conducted on this topic and its role in education will be presented. In addition, studies on second language acquisition and second language teaching and learning will be offered.

Cultural Competence

In a globalized society relationships among people from different cultures are constant.

That is why the ability of being culturally competent is a necessity. In the educational realm, cultural competence has been defined as “the ability to successfully teach students who come from different cultures other than your own” (Diller & Moule, 2005, p. 2). According to Cross, cultural competence is a “set of congruent behaviors, attitudes, and policies that come together in a system, agency, or among professionals and enable that system, agency, or those professionals to work effectively in cross-cultural situations” (Diller & Moule, 2005, p. 12). Hence, a culturally competent education system must look forward to attain unified values in order to best educate and empower a diverse community. The ability to be culturally competent is central in increasing understanding and improving relationships across cultures.

Another concept associated with cultural competence is intercultural sensitivity which is

“the ability to discriminate and experience relevant cultural differences” (Hammer et al., 2003, p.

422). Chen and Starosta have defined intercultural sensitivity as the affective aspect of intercultural communication where the individuals have “active desire to motivate themselves to understand, appreciate, and accept differences among cultures” (Peng, S., 2006, p. 39).

Intercultural sensitivity is viewed as an “attitudinal forerunner to successful intercultural encounters and a predictor of cultural competence” (Altshuler et al., 2003, p.388). For Hammer

5 et al., the greater the intercultural sensitivity is, the greater is the potential for exercising cultural awareness.

With increasing globalization, the world is continually becoming more connected and interdependent with each passing year; therefore, qualified educators in cultural competence are needed. Cultural competence has become essential in all future occupations and cultural settings

(Diller & Moule, 2005). Furthermore, education is the indispensable tool by which society ensures the learning of behaviors and values necessary to sustain culture and to encourage cultural awareness. Therefore, in the case of teachers, Diller and Moule have found that culturally competent teachers are, in general, more effective educators as a result of the demanding work essential to acquire the knowledge and the dispositions necessary to relate to students from other cultures and to open minds to different worldviews and learning styles.

In order to understand why culture is important, it is central to comprehend its concept.

Pai et al. (2006) proposed that culture is a set of values that belong to a society. It refers to people’s behaviors, beliefs and worldviews. Every society attributes value to situations in their social environment. However, those values may vary between one group and another. Rogoff

(2003) stated, “understanding different cultural practices does not require determining which one way is ‘right’” (p. 12). Rather, it is important to be open to other concepts and assumptions about the world and be thoughtful of other cultures without abandoning one’s own or disregarding the other. Herskovits has defined culture as “the man-made part of the environment” (Segall et al., 1999, p. 1). Human actions are shaped and limited by the social and physical environment that surrounds them. That environment encompasses personal ideas, values, beliefs, and languages of all its inhabitants. Human beings are the constant creators and

6 preservers of culture, which makes them active participants in their cultural process, which is in constant movement.

Therefore, culture is always producing and creating change. For Rogoff (2003), cultural processes may change from generation to generation as a result of different factors. Culture is a dynamic process subjected to variations made by individuals or the community as a way of improving, adapting, or modifying culture. Moreover, as cultures come into contact with one another, new conceptions and adjustments occur within each culture. Each generation develops new alternatives in pursuit of progress.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory has also placed the individual in active interaction with the environment including culture. Bronfenbrenner described the environment as interconnected levels of microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem influencing the individual. For Segall et al. (1999), the microsystem corresponds to the individual’s interaction with the “immediate, physical or social, surroundings” (p. 58). It deals with the relationships the individual experiences face to face with the immediate environment, which is also represented by institutions such as the home, the school, the hospital, the church, the workplace, etc. In other words, the microsystem is composed of the closest individual’s experiences. The mesosystem symbolizes the connection between two or more settings from the microsystem and the experiences shared by them; for example, the union among family and religion represented by the church. The exosystem relates the microsystem where the individual is not in direct contact but nonetheless affected. Rogoff (2003) has exemplified this with the experience of a child who is affected by his/her parents stress caused by their work. Finally, the macrosystem is the ideology system presented in the individual’s culture. That is to say, the macrosystem refers to the general aspects of society such as cultural values and beliefs.

Furthermore, Viramontez and Ibrahim (2004) examined how human beings are affected by the different factors they encounter in their development. Since interactions with others and the environment are the key to development, human beings experience multiple influences that make them react in different ways. In other words, the culture to which one belongs becomes the root of the individual’s identity, because culture gives us a sense of power and confidence providing the basis of achieving individual goals by determining what is desirable and undesirable, and developing a purpose for life.

According to Sharon Ruhly within the concept of culture there are three levels implied: the technical, the formal, and the informal (Harris & Moran, 1987). The three levels are exemplified through the analogy of an iceberg. The technical aspect is the full view of the iceberg that represents the characteristics of culture transmitted practiced by an individual in a given social situation. For example, the way a child dresses and behaves at school. This is represented by behaviors, appearances, and procedures. The formal aspect is that portion of the iceberg that “is partially above and partially below sea level” (Harris & Moran, 1987, p. 40).

The part of the iceberg that is partially above is for example rituals in a culture: physical space, use of time, religious beliefs, and values. The part of the iceberg that is below sea level is the hidden rationale for those rituals. Individuals can be aware of rituals in their culture but not always know the rationale for them. The informal level is that part of the iceberg that is totally unseen. For instance, responses to actions that are automatic and almost unconscious, as exemplified in the roles given to males and females in all cultures. In many cultures it is permissible for women to show emotions while for men it is frowned upon.

As illustrated by Kumaravadivelu (2008), the concept of culture involves rights and responsibilities. With regard to this, the author adds that culture “offers them [individuals] a

8 rationale for their behavior, a prism through which to see it, a measurement by which to evaluate it…It equips them with a road map to explore the possibilities as well as the limits of their individual rights and responsibilities” (p. 10). Culture thus plays a vital role in the development of the individual. Culture is the manual individuals follow in order to become skilled at in their society. Therefore, it is at this point that language becomes an essential component of culture, since it is through language that individuals communicate what is implicated in the way they view the world. Thus, language becomes the way to transmit the elements implicated in culture.

Language is the vehicle to transmit the ideology system the individual possesses.

According to Benjamin Whorf, culture and language are linked since language shapes our conceptualization of the world. Whorf stated that “the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds – and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds” (Wardhaugh, 2002, p. 221). Language is the instrument by which human beings connect their impressions of the world and organize them into concepts. Associations about the world are done through the union of language with the culture where it is spoken. In their theory, Whorf and Sapir maintained that “culture shaped the consciousness, or worldview, of the speaker, and the consciousness was revealed in language” (Subbiondo, 2005, p.151). For

Whorf, it is possible to understand the speaker’s worldview through the study of the speaker’s language. Hence, language both reflects and shapes reality.

Cognitive developmentalists such as Lev Vygotsky, who took a socio-cultural approach, also analyzed the relationship between language and culture. For Vygotsky, “the overlapping parts, thought and speech coincide to produce verbal thought” (Wink & Putney, 2002). That is to say, words become meaningful as soon as they are a representation of the speakers’ world, of the speakers’ reality. Connecting this approach to the fact that Vygotsky also viewed language

9 as a tool and as a psychological function, in the process of learning a second language, students are expected to create a new reality of their experience with the second language and the new social context. Therefore, in every social interaction speakers create a shared social world.

Cultural competence can assist in understanding this shared social world.

Teaching Students from Various Cultures

Conflicts are likely to occur when teachers and students come from different cultures.

Geneva Gay (2000) has found that most teachers expect all students to behave according to school standards and norms. When students fail to do that, they may be evaluated as problematic.

Gay illustrated how European American instructors are mostly teacher-centered. That is to say, teachers give their lectures while the students remain passive. This is the passive-receptive discourse. Students are only allowed to talk when it is time to answer the questions posed by the teacher or when the teacher gives them the chance to participate. However, teachers and students’ expectations are in jeopardy since in a diverse classroom there is not just one way to look at the world.

Problems arise when basic cultural differences occur in day-to-day discourse. The following is an illustration of cultural differences found in African American, Pacific Islanders, and Southeast Asian students. Sileo and Prater (1998) for example, have found that African

American students who are more accustomed to a highly interactive style demonstrate their engagement in lectures by eagerly participating and giving comments. Disharmonious relationships between teachers and students do exist. American teachers who are unaware of this occurrence may feel that students are being disruptive in class. Sileo and Prater also commented on the Pacific Islanders who value interpersonal harmony. Teachers may regard students as lazy for not being willing to participate in competitive activities. Trueba (Sileo & Prater) has found

10 that western teachers are often shocked at Southeast Asian students’ responses to particular socio-functional situations such as smiling while being scolded. However, their smiling is not meant to show disrespect. Rather, it means that they are showing there are no hard feelings.

Educators must be aware of the different worldviews they may encounter in a classroom and work towards the understanding and knowledge of the culturally different students. This is important since to “reject or demean a person’s cultural heritage is to do psychological and moral violence to the dignity and worth of that individual” (Pai et al., 2006, p. 22). There is no inherently superior culture. There are differences in the way individuals encounter the world, even though, understanding a culture, even one’s own, is not an easy mission. It is not that simple to know every detail of what people think or the way they act in specific situations. But it is fundamental to respect others in order to get acquainted with their reality and the way they face the world. Educators need training in obtaining input on students’ backgrounds.

Bollin (2007) explored the field of cross-cultural classrooms by bringing teachers, especially instructors of Hispanic students, to develop cultural awareness. Bollin’s goals were to stimulate student teachers (in college classrooms) to look at situations from multiple perspectives, to understand and appreciate the parents’ and students’ culture, to develop a sense of empathy for others, and to make students pursuing a degree in education aware of social inequities based on ethnic groups. In the same vein, Sheets and Gay (1996) concluded that teachers need to understand the cultural heritages of different ethnic groups and their sanctioned behaviors, celebrated accomplishments, social taboos, relational patterns, and important motivational systems for that culture. Weinstein et al. (2004), revealed that schools, colleges, and departments of education must encouraging ways for teachers to examine their own biases,

11 to learn about their students’ backgrounds, and to develop pedagogical practices that respect diversity.

Knowledge about culture provides insight into the learned behaviors of groups. As cited in Harris and Moran (1987) “It helps one to gain awareness of what makes a people unique – their customs, their traditions, their values and beliefs, attitudes and concepts, hierarchies and roles, time and space relations, and verbal and non verbal communication processes” (p. 20).

Cultural awareness is the key to enable teachers and students to succeed in a society that is becoming more cosmopolitan throughout the years. Educators cannot ignore their obligation to become more open to issues of cultural sensitivity; they are principal actors in the communication or transmission of this characteristic that might become central for the fast globalizing world. Second language teachers and learners must include cultural awareness as part of their second language teaching and learning.

Teaching Implications for a Second Language Classroom

Important factors such as the study of the dominant language, the maintenance of respectful and empathetic classrooms, and the creation of safe verbal environments as documented by Diller and Moule (2005) are critical when teaching students of various cultures.

They shape the psychological and educational experiences of culturally diverse students. For instance, the study of a second language represents a big concern not just for teachers but also for the students who have to struggle with the learning of a language different from their native tongue.

In a study involving the creation of an intercultural competence measure in a second language classroom, Hammer et al. (2003) discovered “as one’s experience of cultural difference becomes more complex and sophisticated, one’s potential competence in intercultural relations

12 increases” (p. 423). As an individual is exposed to diverse cultures, he or she has more opportunities to compare, and construct a more diverse worldview. When one adopts monoculture socialization, chances to change that perspective are almost nil as there is no point of comparison. Acceptances of various cultural perspectives lead a person to position his or her own culture as one of a number of equally valuable worldviews.

Similarly, in a study by Wright (2000) it is shown a clear consensus on the importance of teaching the second language culture the students are learning as a way to improve their attitude and achievement towards the second language. Wright researched the use of constructivist theories about culture to improve motivation and attitudes towards the second language. The results showed that when students are given the chance to consider their own personal ideas about their culture and to compare them with the second language culture, there are more positive responses towards the second language culture.

Additionally, Young said, “classrooms are decontextualised from the learners’ point of view when the learners’ feelings, their beliefs about what is important, their reasoning and their experience are not part of the assumed context of the teacher’s communication”

(Kumaravadivelu, 2008, p. 192). Kumaravadivelu exemplified the previous by commenting on an incidence in which international students in a classroom he was supervising were not cooperative with their teacher in a lesson. The lesson was designed to teach about the history of

American heroes. During the class, Kumaravadivelu noticed that the students were answering the teacher’s questions in monosyllables which meant the students were not engaged in the lesson. After the class, the teacher left the classroom and the students stayed with the supervisor

(Kumaravadivelu) in order to talk about their impressions on the lesson. The students started to complain about the fact that the second language instructor was focusing just on the American

13 culture during her class and that their experiential knowledge about the topic was not taken into account. The students regarded this as a characteristic of ethnocentrism, in which

Kumaravadivelu supported them.

Gender Factors

The role of gender has also been measured in studies of intercultural sensitivity. For example, Hammer et al. (2003) in their research to validate five main dimensions of the

Intercultural Development Inventory (Denial/defense, reversal, minimization, acceptance/adaptation, and encapsulated marginality) by Bennett (Hammer et al.) found that gender does not have significant effect on four of the five scales of the Intercultural

Development Inventory. They discovered that men had a significantly higher mean score than women in the scale referring to denial and defense. However, the writers reported in their results that men did not score higher in the other four scales; it appears that the intercultural development inventory is not influenced by gender differences.

In a similar vein, Wright (2000) compared two languages courses to measure the effects of two ways to teach about the German culture. One of the courses followed the constructivist approach where process oriented teaching was the key while the other course was based on an information-acquisition approach to culture. Both of the courses participants were administered the Cross Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI) by Kelley and Meyers (Wright) to assess the students’ cultural sensibility acquired while taking the two classes. In the results, Wright found that there was not any significant correlation between the CCAI scores and the gender factor.

What emerges from this finding is that regardless of gender and other subjects such as age or previous language experience, when teaching culture in order to promote intercultural awareness,

14 second language courses must focus on the process of knowledge and the students’ personal experiences, attitudes, and values.

Rundstrom (2005) explored the impact of studying abroad on students’ intercultural communication and found in the predictor of ethno relativism, which refers to the stages of acceptance, adaptation, and integration, meaning that one’s culture is experienced in the context of other cultures, that women reported greater increases in ethno relativism than men.

Nonetheless, gender still had some influence on this stage, it was not a major factor since “the sample was not truly distributed according to gender” (Rundstrom, p. 369) which may have diminished the possibility of accurately detecting their influence on change in scores.

Language Acquisition

The second language classroom is an excellent place for expanding tolerance for diversity. Different theories on language acquisition support the idea of giving the second language learner (SLL) the time to acquire the knowledge of the structures of the second language. Hence, in cross-cultural situations, Krashen stated that language acquisition is a natural process (Herrel & Jordan, 2004). Individuals acquire their active language without formal education. This achievement is gradual, building vocabulary by listening, and gradually attempting to produce words verbally. For Krashen, the same conditions foster second language learning. Students must be allowed to go at their own pace to gain competence in the second language. Various approaches and materials that add context to the language can do it.

Krashen’s (1982) acquisition-learning hypothesis, states that individuals develop two different processes to obtain competence in a second language: acquisition and learning. On one hand, acquisition is subconscious and happens in a similar way as acquiring a first language.

Students should be exposed to the language that is learned in order to have communicative acts.

On the other hand, learning is a conscious process that takes place when an individual receives instruction about the rules of a language. Furthermore, Krashen’s hypothesis on comprehensible input notes that acquisition occurs when the learner is exposed to input that is linguistically comprehensible and that is one step beyond the learner’s linguistic competence. In addition,

Krashen also proposed the affective filter. This underscores the responsibility of the teacher to provide a comfortable environment for the learner. Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypotheses stresses the importance of working for increasing students’ motivation and self-esteem while anxiety is diminished.

From a constructivist approach, Vygotsky (1978) emphasized the social context of learning and asserts that language functions as a tool in cognitive processes. When children interact with their parents, teachers or other adults, they learn concepts that will only be acquired after these concepts are linked to the child’s ideas and previous knowledge. Ormrod (1995) has stated that in this way, children start using this knowledge and forming generalizations.

Vygotsky considered language as a tool that facilitates understanding. He attested that children learn better when experts give students challenges within their zone of proximal development

(ZPD). For Woolfolk (2005), the ZPD is “the area where the child cannot solve a problem alone, but can be successful under adult guidance or in collaboration with a more advanced peer” (p.

55). This means that there is a distance between the children’s development and the potential development that they can obtain when adults scaffold them. In other words, the ZPD is the area where instruction can succeed and real learning is possible.

Another important component in second language teaching is to let the second language learner discover what they can accomplish with the language. Halliday (Herrell & Jordan, 2004) has recognized seven purposes or functions of using a language. Instrumental, the use of

16 language for things to happen; regulatory, the use of language to control situations or behaviors of others; representation, the use of language in order to communicate facts or knowledge; interactional, the use of language to communicate with others; personal, the use of language to express feelings; heuristic, the use of language to obtain knowledge; and imaginative, the use of language to create stories or play.

Williams and Snipper (Yawkey & Prewitt-Diaz, 1990) have identified three kinds of literacy that ESL students need to develop in the second language: functional, cultural, and critical literacy. Functional literacy refers to the ability to read and write everyday written materials such as newspapers, shopping lists, and signs, which are familiar to the students.

Children need to develop vocabulary and expressions that they are going to find in their family life. Cultural literacy deals with learning behaviors that identify the new society in which the students are living, necessary for the children to adapt to their new environment and understand those texts or stories that relate to the culture. Without experiencing some cultural characteristics, the learner would not understand the meaning of the reading materials. Critical literacy is a higher thinking ability since it refers to the ability to understand the message the author intends to transmit to the readers. In some cases the message can imply a position in favor or against the society or political aspects of a country. Knowing the social and political situation of the new country would be necessary to help ESL students understand the real message of the texts they read.

Herrel and Jordan (2004) have included different features to support second language teachers in meeting their challenge. They have introduced the first part of this book with basic principles of teaching and assessing English learners. Then they have taken into account the previous principles and have made simple lesson plans effective for second language learners.

They finally have given teachers strategies to build vocabulary and fluency as well as comprehension.

This literature review has summarized the conceptual frameworks and empirical analysis used to understand the concepts of cultural competence and of teaching and learning a second language. It has illustrated the importance of being culturally competent in order to become an active member in a global society. This is specifically important in a classroom with students of different cultures. This literature has also illustrated the differences that instructors may confront when teaching students from various cultures and the implications that exist when teaching second language learners. Finally, this has demonstrated essential characteristics of teaching and learning a second language.

METHODOLOGY

The research methodology used for this study was a mixed-methods research design, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis. Integrating this two methods provided the study with new insights, consistency of some findings, and detailed results.

The quantitative investigation was conducted with intercultural sensitivity and cultural awareness surveys, with qualitative investigation relying on survey qualitative responses in addition to one- to one interviews.

Site Selection and Description

For this study a mid sized mid-west university (21,000 students’ total) was the site selected. According to the office of Institutional research, 96.7% of the student population are

United States citizens and 3.3% are international students. Furthermore, in the Fall 2007, international students pursuing a degree at this university represented 81 different nations. As a result of this cultural diversity the university offers an ESL service program in the English department for this population. English classes are provided to international students at both undergraduate and graduate levels. In the ESL program, reading, writing, speaking, and listening classes are offered to support the effort of the international students and assist them in the transition to the university community. The academic program is complemented by extracurricular activities that focus on developing cross-cultural competencies with respect to

American culture. This includes films, a Cross Cultural Connection Program (for conversational practice with individuals from various cultures), and a Family English program where support is provided to family members of international students or international visitors to assist them in surviving in the new environment. The goal of these extracurricular activities is to bridge the

19 gap in cultural understanding and to ease the period of adjustment (both with language and culture) that these students have to make in order to be successful in their studies.

Participants

For the purpose of this research, a convenience sample of current international students taking ESL classes was selected as well as instructors in the ESL program and non-ESL instructors in other programs offered in this mid sized mid-west university in the United States.

The convenience sample was the most appropriate to represent the population of international students, ESL instructors, and non-ESL instructors in this university. The non-ESL instructors selected for this project included instructors from the Math and Statistic department, Accounting, and Education, as a result of the high number of international students involved in their programs. A total of 112 participants were included in the study (77 students and 35 instructors).

Of the 112 participants of the study 62 were male and 35 were female. Twenty seven participants were from the United States while 84 were from a different country.

Within the instructor sample, 7 of the 35 were instructors in the ESL program with the remaining 28 as non-ESL instructors. Thirteen of the total number of instructors were female and

9 were male. Twenty-seven instructors were from the United States and 8 were from other countries: Cyprus, Czechoslovakia, China, India, Mexico, Russia, and Austria. Six of the instructors were teaching only at the graduate level and 7 only at the undergraduate level.

Twenty-two instructors were teaching both graduate and undergraduate level students.

In terms of the students, the 77 participants were taking ESL classes by the time of the study. Twenty-two were female and 53 were male. The countries represented by the students’ participants were the following: Albania, Bangladesh, Canada, China, France, Germany, Ghana,

Greece, Guyana, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Korea, Puerto Rico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka,

Tanzania, Uzbekistan. No country analysis could be done do to unbalance in the number of the participants representing each of the countries. There were 40 graduate students and 36 undergraduates. Thirteen of the students who answered the survey were in accounting while an additional 13 were in computer science. In terms of their length of stay in the United States, 13 of the students were in the United States for 24 months, while 29 were here for less than a year.

A total of 5 students were in this country for 3 years.

All the participants in the study were given the opportunity to participate in the interviews. Therefore, the interviews were conducted with a sub-sample of 19 participants (12 teachers, 7 students) from the total sample of 112 participants. Participants in the interviews represented the following countries: Austria, China, India, Puerto Rico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, and the United States. Of the instructors who were interviewed, 6 were male and 6 female.

Within the interviewed student group 5 were male and 2 were female. Besides note taking, all interviews were audio taped and transcribed.

Data Sources

All participants completed the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (Chen & Starosta, 2000) and the Student Cultural Awareness Inventory (SCAI), which was developed by the author. The two instruments were chosen because they were the most appropriate for the purpose of this study. Along with the survey a letter of consent was sent to all participants. (See Appendix A for letter of consent). Part A of the entire survey consisted of demographics that addressed participants’ background: nationality, length of time in the USA, number of students (if instructor), level (if undergraduate or undergraduate), major/department, and gender were asked to respond. In the teachers survey a question about whether instructors worked in the ESL program was added.

Part B included the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale by Chen and Starosta (2000) as a result of its effectiveness in measuring cultural awareness. Chen and Starosta have shown this instrument to be a valid and reliable measure of intercultural sensitivity with a Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of .86 (Chen & Starosta). This Scale consists of 24 items using a five-point

Likert scale to respond to each item: 5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 2 = disagree, and 1 = strongly disagree. Summing the responses yields a cultural sensitivity score ranging from 24 as the lowest and 120 as the highest. Higher scores of this measure are suggestive of being more intercultural sensitive. The 24 items in the scale are divided into: (a) Interaction

Engagement, (b) Respect for Cultural Differences, (c) Interaction Confidence, (d) Interaction

Enjoyment, (e) Interaction Attentiveness.

Part C of the survey consisted of the Student Cultural Awareness Inventory (SCAI)

(Nieto, 2008), which included twelve additional items related to cultural sensitivity in educational settings. Challenges international students face while pursuing their degree in the

United States, and challenges teachers face while teaching international students in this university were identified. Other questions related to second language acquisition and the relative importance of having different teaching practices when working with international students were also included to identify attitudes, and practices. (See Appendix B for teachers’ survey and Appendix C for students’ survey).

The survey was sent to the targeted instructors and students through campus mail. As a way to ensure the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, a pilot testing was sent to a sample of university students and several instructors to help make some notations and corrections. The pilot testing was then edited and the surveys were distributed to the entire group of participants.

In addition to the survey completion, voluntary participants (19), who signed the letter of consent to participate in the interviews, were interviewed as a means of getting more detailed responses on the questions found in the survey. In these interviews, participants were asked to identify the challenges international students and teachers teaching them face while pursuing a degree in the United States and how these challenges could be accommodated. Interviewees were also asked whether they believed different teaching practices were necessary when teaching ESL students as compared to non-ESL students. Finally, they were asked if they thought international students were affected by differences between the US school system and their own.

Data Analysis

Demographic data, the items from the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale, and the results from the Student Cultural Awareness Inventory (SCAI) were entered into SPSS for analysis.

Frequencies and cross-tabulation were run to provide more information about the distribution of the variables. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used in part B (the Intercultural Sensitivity

Scale) of the survey to evaluate differences between teachers and students, gender, and B total results. Moreover, Mann-Whitney U Test was conducted, as a result of the unequal distribution of the sample size (7 ESL, 28 non-ESL), to the five sub-scales of the Intercultural Sensitivity

Scale to investigate whether ESL instructors had a higher level of cultural competence than regular instructors. Finally, a Pearson’s r was conducted to investigate statistical correlation between the intercultural sensitivity scale and the questions in part C of the survey (SCAI).

RESULTS

Levels of Intercultural Sensitivity

The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between cultural competence and the teaching and learning of international students. This was investigated with the use of the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (Chan & Starosta, 2000), and the Student Cultural

Awareness Inventory (SCAI). Through quantitative analyses, the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale

(Part B of the survey in Appendix B and C) revealed that instructors in this university reported a higher level of intercultural sensitivity than international students at the same institution. The data was subjected to an analysis of variance (ANOVA) and it showed a statistically significant difference between teachers and students on their level of intercultural sensitivity with teachers scoring higher (M = 101.20, SD = 8.00) than students (M = 92.70, SD = 9.70) [F (1,110) =

20.50, p < .001].

In order to investigate whether ESL instructors have a higher level of cultural competence than non-ESL instructors a Mann-Whitney U Test was conducted as a result of the unequal distribution of the sample size (7 ESL, 28 non-ESL). This analysis was conducted with part B of the survey (Intercultural Sensitivity Scale) and was divided into five subscales as suggested by Chen and Starosta (2000). The five subscales are: (a) Interaction Engagement, (b)

Respect for Cultural Differences, (c) Interaction Confidence, (d) Interaction Enjoyment, and (e)

Interaction Attentiveness. The Mann-Whitney U Test revealed a significant difference between

ESL instructors and non-ESL instructors only in the area of interaction engagement (U = 20.50, p = .001). The area of interaction engagement includes the following six items from the scale: enjoying interacting with people from different cultures; waiting before forming an impression of the other; being open minded with people from different cultures; giving positive responses to a

24 culturally different counterpart during interaction; not avoiding situations where they have to deal with culturally distinct people; and showing their understanding through verbal or nonverbal cues to the culturally distinct person.

In order to examine gender differences, an ANOVA comparing all males and females of the entire sample was conducted and revealed a statistically significant difference between the two groups on their level of intercultural sensitivity with females scoring higher (M = 99.14, SD

= 9.50) than males (M=92.90, SD = 10.06) [F (1,95) = 8.95, p = .004]. As is evident in Table 1

(see appendix C), mean scores for each sub-sample’s males and females differ with female teachers scoring higher on the same scale (M=105.69, SD = 7.16) than male teachers (M=100.22,

SD = 5.87) and female students (M = 95.27, SD = 8.64) scoring higher than male students (M =

91.66, SD = 10.13). Nonetheless, a two-way ANOVA, investigating the interaction between gender and student/instructor did not detect a statistically significant interaction difference [F

(1,93) = .163, p = .687].

Understanding the Challenges of Teaching

In order to explore the challenges that instructors face while teaching international students, a correlational analysis was conducted to examine whether teachers and students’ total scores on their Intercultural Sensitivity Scale were related to particular items pertaining to instructional practices on the developed Student Cultural Awareness Inventory (SCAI). (See

Appendix D for table).

Teachers’ Perceptions

When analyzing the teachers’ responses to the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale and the

SCAI, three significant results were found. The first significant correlation was found between item C7 of the SCAI (It is important for teachers to understand the challenges of getting a

25 degree in a second language) and the total Intercultural Sensitivity score (r = .529, p = .002, n =

33). This moderate positive relationship reveals that instructors with higher levels of intercultural sensitivity are more likely to understand the challenge of seeking a degree in a foreign language.

The following are some of the comments in this respect: “Their difficulties lie mainly in adjusting to the American style of writing and adjusting to the American English”; “learning a new onset of English, all the colloquialisms, and idioms take a long time. And then there are dialects as well. So even if you learn British English…your ear needs to get accustomed to it”;

“many times international students come with really excellent reading skills, but because

American faculty and American education is so English heavy, sometimes the lectures, the spoken word, becomes a little bit of a challenge.”

The second significant correlation was found between item C8 of the SCAI (I think it is essential for teachers to help international students to feel welcome in this culture) and the total

Intercultural Sensitivity score (r = .518, p = .002, n = 34). This moderate positive relationship exemplifies that instructors with higher levels of intercultural sensitivity are more likely to help international students to feel accepted as they are encountering the American culture. In this regard, one professor indicated that teachers should probably be “vulnerable and open with the students. [The teachers should] not act like they have all the answers.”

Another instructor commented that it is important “to be more considerate to people in general, maybe try to talk with them because a lot of international students will not tell you about the problems they experience. Teachers have more responsibility to approach them and ask them about their difficulties, including their difficulties understanding the language.” Yet another instructor thought, “Education is really the key. Both the students learning about how the culture is here, but also the teacher learning about what are the kinds of things that students need.” In

26 other words, teachers are aware of the fact that there are differences between cultures but that they can be overcome through an acceptance and understanding of each others culture.

Another way for teachers to make students feel welcome in the American culture is by establishing relationships and showing that they care about them. It is fundamental for the teacher to be interested in their student’s background. One instructor, for example indicated that:

When I have a student in my class, I develop an interest in where they are from, what

they are thinking, what their philosophies are, and their ways of life. Then I listen to the

news and I happen to hear a certain country mentioned. If I know somebody from there,

automatically that becomes interesting to me. What happens there, is not longer a

faraway place, which I have no connection with... So it’s that personal engagement that

helps a great deal…learning what you can about how languages work, how different

cultures may think differently and being aware of generalizations that they make do not

always hold true. This is what matters.

Furthermore, the third significant correlation was found between item C9 of the SCAI (It is important to focus on creating an engaging environment when teaching ESL students) and the total Intercultural Sensitivity score (r = .389, p = .023, n = 34). This moderate positive relationship indicates that instructors who demonstrate higher levels of intercultural sensitivity are more likely to be aware of the need of creating an environment that facilitates international students’ feeling engaged in the class. It can be translated into saying that teachers need to use a variety of teaching methods in order to meet the needs of the different learning styles that are present in the diverse population; for example: overheads, handouts, group activities, or other activities involving technology to engage and provide opportunities for all the students in class to understand the subject taught.

Students’ Perceptions

When analyzing the students’ responses to the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale and the

SCAI, two significant results were found. The first significant correlation was found between item C8 of the SCAI (I think it is essential for teachers to help international students to feel welcomed in this culture) and the total intercultural Sensitivity score (r = .415, p < .001, n = 72).

This moderate positive relationship indicates that students who demonstrate a higher level of intercultural sensitivity are more likely to believe that teachers are an important component in helping students to feel comfortable in the American culture. In the students’ interviews and comments regarding this item, one male student from Russia qualified, “the ESL program personally helped me understand American culture very well. It prepared me not just for school but to enter the culture.” The same sense of welcoming was indicated by a female student from

China who thinks “professors really know how to prepare lectures for international students which helps me to feel comfortable in this culture.” International students appreciate when teachers show an interest in their culture and also being taught about the culture in the United

States. In this matter, students may feel accepted and welcome.

The second significant relationship found involved item C11 of the SCAI (It is vital for teachers to understand various cultures in order for them to be effective educators) and the total

Intercultural Sensitivity score (r = .397, p = .001, n = 72). This moderate positive relationship illustrates that students who demonstrate higher levels of intercultural sensitivity are more likely to think that teaching international students requires the instructors to have knowledge of the students’ cultures. If teachers know about their students cultures then they realize the differences or similarities among the cultures, and from that point they can help their international students to be successful with their experience as college students in the United States. Exemplifying this

28 student opinion, one instructor suggested: “Teachers can take the time to investigate and to understand their international student’s culture better…it does not take a semester.” Another instructor explained: “I respect the way people behave in a similar way to how I respect their values and their culture.” Another instructor commented: “I’ve read many books about different cultures and the way academic expectations in those cultures may differ from academic expectations in this culture. But they are all generalizations ultimately.” She added that what really functions “is to work with the individuals and get to know them.”

Therefore, teachers need to research their students’ cultures to broaden their perspective and participate in professional development regarding cultural diversity and cultural competence.

Students equally understood the importance of instructors’ culturally understanding. In this respect a male student from China explained “an educator is meant to teach students from a universal viewpoint and not from a limited viewpoint that has not been expanded beyond one country.” Supporting this idea, a female student from Puerto Rico advised, “Teachers should be trained on different cultures and have a more broad perspective about international students’ cultures.”

Understanding the Challenges of Learning

In order to investigate the challenges that students face while pursuing a college degree in the United States, a correlational analysis was conducted to examine whether teachers’ and students’ total scores on their Intercultural Sensitivity Scale were related to particular items on the developed Student Cultural awareness Inventory (SCAI).

Teachers’ Perceptions

An analysis of the instructor’s survey results revealed a total of two items from the SCAI that were significantly correlated with their Intercultural Sensitivity Scale total score. First, a

29 moderate positive relationship was found between item C3 of the SCAI (International students encounter cultural challenges on a daily basis in the United States while pursuing a college degree) and the total Intercultural Sensitivity Scale score (r = .384, p = .025, n = 34) indicating that instructors who demonstrate higher levels of cultural sensitivity are more likely to be aware of international students’ daily challenges.

Supporting qualitative evidence of the above relationship was found in supplementary comments written on the bottom of the surveys, in addition to information volunteered during interviews. For instance, instructors commented that cultural factors such as the academic expectations and academic culture in America, the distinct value systems, the sense of time that varies from one culture to another, and the interpersonal space amongst people are ever present on a daily basis when studying in a different culture. For example, one teacher analyzed

American culture by stating, “I think one of the things many international students struggle with is the extreme emphasis on individualism here in the States…Many places are much more accustomed to collective and group identity.” Another instructor similarly recognized differences between “academic expectations and academic culture …because many foreign, international universities may have different kinds of academic guidelines on norms, and values, and behaviors than here.”

The second significant relationship was between item C4 of the SCAI (International students come across language challenges on a daily basis in the United States while pursuing a college degree) and the total Intercultural Sensitivity score (r = .445, p = .008, n = 34). This moderate positive relationship illustrates that those instructors who demonstrate higher levels of intercultural sensitivity are more likely to be conscious of students’ language challenges. This relationship was also supported by qualitative comments in the interviews, where participants

30 agreed that language is a major challenge that international students encounter in the United

States. One instructor summarized the issue, by analyzing the connection between language and cultural expression with:

To be able to feel that you are a complete person in the other language takes a long time.

You feel so partial, so fragmented, when you don’t have words, because you are creating

your reality through your words. And if you don’t have the words then your reality is

partial. I know many students, in their languages, are beautiful writers, they are so

intelligent, so smart, and I know they have words, a wide range of vocabulary, and even

in English. Sometimes they have more vocabulary at hand than the Americans. Still I see

their frustration when they are trying to say something and they just don’t know how,

don’t have the word, the expression, to get their ideas across.

Likewise, a participating male student from China similarly elaborated on the difficulties of studying in a second language by stating: “No matter how long you have been learning

English, it would always be a challenge.” For this student, “to listen to a lecture in English, to read a book in English, is the biggest challenge.”

Students’ Perceptions

In contrast to instructors, an analysis of the students’ survey results revealed that one item from the SCAI was significantly correlationed with the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale total score.

This significant relationship was found between item C5 of the SCAI (I meet gender challenges on a daily basis in the United States while pursuing a college degree) and the total Intercultural

Sensitivity score (r = -.307, p = .009, n = 72). This result indicates students who have higher intercultural sensitivity are less likely to experience challenges based on gender while pursuing a college degree in the United States. One comment by a male student from Saudi Arabia may

31 illustrate this factor: “I cannot sit with a woman and talk publicly in Saudi Arabia. I got used to that here.” This is a reflection of a difference between the American and this student’s culture.

When comparing the students’ quantitative results with the instructors, it is notable that unlike the results for instructors, the correlational results for students did not show significant relationship between SCAI items C3 (I encounter cultural challenges on a daily basis in the

United States while pursuing a college degree) and C4 (I come across language challenges on a daily basis in the United States while pursuing a college degree) with the total Intercultural

Sensitivity score. Perhaps, this is a reflection of cultural competence in this university that makes international students feel comfortable and a part of an accepting community. In contrast, teachers and students were similar in regard to the direction and strength of the correlation between item C8 of the SCAI (I think it is essential for teachers to help international students to feel welcome in this culture) and the total Intercultural Sensitivity score. In essence, instructors are a main factor in the students’ sense of welcoming and acceptance in this college community.

DISCUSSION

This study has investigated cultural competence and its influence on the teaching and learning of international students at a mid-sized mid-west university. The hypothesis predicting a higher cultural competence by college instructors than ESL students was demonstrated. The hypothesis speculating a higher cultural competence for ESL instructors than for non-ESL instructors was proven correct in only the one sub-category of analysis: interaction engagement, according to the results in the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale. The hypothesis that gender is not an influential variable was not confirmed, with gender revealing itself to be an influential characteristic for the population as a whole. While the hypothesis regarding the challenges instructors face in instructing international students was supported, the hypothesis concerning the challenges international students face while pursuing a college degree in the United States was not statistically proven by either the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale nor the Student Cultural

Awareness Inventory. Nevertheless, qualitative analysis revealed that both instructors and students agreed in the interviews that language and culture are major factors that might influence challenges for teachers and students.

The study revealed that teachers at this university possess higher intercultural sensitivity than students. This is a positive result since it shows that teachers are making an effort to expand their knowledge on cultural competence. Equally important is the revelation that cultural competence influences the communication and understanding of both teachers and international students. Despite the fact miscommunication may lead to conflicts between teachers and international students, such conflicts may be resolved through the understanding that all cultures are equally important. By being able to learn about and adapt to various ways of viewing the world, the individual has the opportunity to develop more cultural competence, which enhances

33 his/her development. Moreover, this cultural richness in the classroom allows the instruction to become a gateway to the reality of the global community.

The previously discussed iceberg metaphor by Ruhly may assist our analysis of cultural richness (Harris & Moran, 1987). This metaphor clearly exemplifies that the understanding of the formal and the informal levels of culture may be extremely important in cultural competence.

In every social situation with people from distinct cultures, the understanding of the rationales for habits, assumptions, values, and judgments may implicate the shaping of new attitudes about the other. Ideologies that reside under the water line (the informal) may show two different perspectives in a social relationship. The only way to get through them is by knowing more about the other’s culture. As Diller and Moule (2005) acknowledge, this may be hard work, but it would be rewarding for teachers and students.

ESL instructors were found to have more cross-cultural competence in aspects related to interaction engagement with culturally distinct counterparts. This is probably due to the fact that

ESL instructors have knowledge of working with international students. A further possible contributing factor may be their daily interaction with international students. Such knowledge may have been acquired through the study of different cultures and the appreciation of the cultural richness which international students bring to the classroom. In their professional education as ESL instructors, they most likely have worked toward overcoming some of their prejudices about others’ cultures. This may make them more competent to interact with culturally different counterparts. Cultural competence of non-ESL instructors could be developed through integration with other cultures. This can be attained through the international exchange of teaching experiences, and professional development regarding cultural diversity and cultural competence. It is equally important for the university to promote programs related to the learning

34 of sensitive cultural practices through the study of different cultures. Essential also is the internationalization of the curriculum. Having this new focus, American students may also acquire a different perspective of the world.

The finding that teachers believe culture and language to be the major challenges faced by international students while interacting together in a classroom is vital in addressing language and culture in a sensitive fashion in order to stimulate understanding and promote educational success. Strategies to engage the international student in the classroom include: understanding that students may produce errors in their written or oral way of communicating; welcoming them to share their experience or knowledge in the classroom; and creating a closer connection with them through the research of their culture and language. Being open to situations that may occur in the interaction between teachers and students is a starting point to developing cultural competence.

These findings are related to what students perceived as crucial to understanding the challenges of teaching. Students who demonstrate higher levels of intercultural sensitivity are more likely to believe that teachers need to help international students to feel welcomed in this culture, and also to understand various cultures so that they can be effective educators.

International students appreciate their instructors’ interest in them and their culture. Therefore, part of the international students’ success in college is developed in the class environment. A greater understanding of the students’ culture may create a comprehensible dialogue between the students and the instructors. Having teachers who can create a comfortable atmosphere in the classroom will also help increase the international students’ levels of intercultural sensitivity.

From a Vygotskian perspective, this discussion about the relationship between learning and the social environment exemplifies the socio-cultural context in which learning takes place,

35 and this includes language. These results provide further evidence that discussions of

Vygotskian theory should not be limited to young children (as so much of the literature tends to do). In this case, second language learners have a greater chance to academically succeed in higher education if their instructors are culturally competent to understand their students’ strengths and challenges. When instructors and international students are able to generate a common language, their teaching and learning experience will expand and so too their levels of cultural competence. If the instructor can understand the students’ culture, the instructor will have a deeper understanding of the student’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) and thus will have more opportunities to assist international students in their development. In other words, the process of scaffolding would be more successful, so real learning is possible.

Similarly, Krashen’s (1982) acquisition-learning hypothesis can also be utilized to assist in an analysis of this project’s results. First, Krashen’s comprehensible input, similar to

Vygotsky’s ZPD, assists in understanding how teachers can facilitate their international students’ experience in the classroom by providing relevant background knowledge and content. Teachers should provide their international students with different strategies such as the explanation of ideas in different ways, the use of cooperative work, the integration of activities and questions that lead to discussions, and the encouragement of them to participate. A way for students to achieve a higher second language competence could be by means of understanding the American classroom culture and adapting their previous cultural experience to the new one. As for the teacher, this is not easy but it is a social process that can be acquired through teacher and student collaboration. Students can enhance their knowledge of English by asking for clarification and participating in the activities proposed by their teachers.

Moreover, Krashen’s concept of the affective filter plays a large part in the teaching of international students. Teachers who are culturally competent know that language may be a challenge in the students’ process of learning in the college environment and that a less stressful environment may enhance the chances of the student to succeed. Consequently, teachers need to become conscious that their students’ motivation and self-confidence will increase with their teachers’ understanding of their challenges and strengths.

Differences in the instructors and the students’ responses may be due to the fact that the instructors participating in the study are more aware of the fact that cultural understanding is needed in order to improve the social relationship that exist in the classroom. It could be that instructors are more aware of the fact that social experiences influence learning. Nevertheless, it may also indicate that students are studying in this culture because they want to experience it and learn from it. Therefore, students are open to interact with this culture in order to expand their knowledge and their life experiences.

With regard to the generalization of the study the results of this study may be applicable to other mid-size universities in the mid-west areas of the United States similar to the one in the study in terms of community settings. However, the results could vary if replicable studies were done in larger universities or a major city in the United States where the contextual and cultural demographics surrounding the university would vary, influencing participants’ attitudes toward international and ESL students.

Limitations of the Study

While a convenience sample is not desirable for scientific replicable research, it was necessary for this research because a desirable sample necessitated international students whose first language was not English. Consequently, ESL classes provided a necessary venue from

37 which to draw a sample. While this may have limited to sample to particular disciplines, necessitating ESL classes more than others, it proved to be the most expedient method for finding ESL international students.

In the case of the instructors, a sampling bias may have influenced the results as a consequence of the self-selection process. Specific departments in this university were selected in accordance with the number of international students in their programs. The instructors who chose to participate in the survey may have done so because of their inclination to already regard cross-cultural competence as important. Consequently, while we may never know, their intrinsic positive attitudes toward cultural competence may have encouraged their participation.

However, other instructors, not interested in cross-cultural attitudes, may have chosen not to participate. For that reason, it is possible to assume that there may be a chance of bias in the faculty participants’ responses.

Finally, the gender imbalance with a total of 62 male and 35 female could be another limitation of the study. The gender imbalance will have limited the variety of statistical analysis carried out. As a result, some gender analysis was possible; however, with a larger and more balanced sample, additional gender trends may be found in comparing cultural competence of students and instructors.

Future Studies

While this study includes several limitations, it has begun a significant dialogue regarding the importance of cultural competence and mutual understanding between college instructors and international students. The results found in this study may be a starting point for additional research, with alternative methods investigating these questions. For instance, an online survey may encourage a larger group of student and instructor participation. Replicating

38 these mixed-methods yet longitudinally, could track changes in cultural awareness and competence for the international students from entrance into the university to graduation. This could be an effective means for revealing how cultural competence of international students develops during their college experience in the United States.

Furthermore, as a result of the outcomes of this study, further research should be conducted that compares the levels of intercultural sensitivity between ESL instructors and ESL students, as well as a comparison of intercultural sensitivity between international students who are taking ESL classes and those who are not. This latter comparison may assist in understanding the influence that ESL classes may have beyond language instruction, and most importantly on cultural understanding. Besides, as it was notable to find that gender did not represent a major challenge for international students; for further research, it could be one interesting avenue to examine if the same results will replicate in other university settings, and if gender and cultural competence are prevalent in different societies. It could be hypothesized that gender is not an issue in other states or universities in the United States because the American culture offers equal opportunities for males and females in different levels of the society.

Nevertheless, if the study is done in another country, results may vary depending on the different values given to gender issues in each individual culture; gender may be a sensitive topic in some societies and therefore it can represent a challenge for individuals in those cultures.

Further research should also investigate whether international students’ higher levels of cultural competence would provide him/her with bring with it less stress and thus increase their academic achievement. Results could reveal that there is not a connection between cultural competence and academic achievement since academic performance may depend on each individual’s interest for the subjects studied. The opposite could be that higher levels of cultural

39 competence could include motivation and low anxiety levels for the student to work towards academic achievement. As a result of these possibilities, steps toward improving the cultural competence of instructors and students should be investigated in order for international students to be successful in their experience while living and pursuing a college degree in the United

States.

CONCLUSION

This study provides evidence that instructors and international students in this university agree that college instructors’ cultural competence is essential to making international students feel welcomed and comfortable while studying in the United States. Instructors and students agree that this is an important factor to make their relationship in the classroom more meaningful. It is also a representation of the willingness of both instructors and students to learn about each other’s culture.

The data also suggests that the instructors who participated in the study are aware of the cultural capital international students bring to their classes and also of the importance of supporting them to achieve their goals at the university. Consequently, it appears that instructors’ cultural competence may be one of the most significant elements to creating a global cultural consciousness in institutions of higher learning. Everyone is influenced in the process: instructors’ cultural competence increases with continued contact with international students; international students are influenced by their instructors’ cultural competence; and American students accumulate valuable global cultural capital and cultural competence through their experience in a culturally diverse university.

In order to assist in community and intercultural relationships, investigations of human development cross-culturally may be a means to alleviate the gaps among cultures and to ultimately unite the community. As educators, it is important to acquire cross-cultural competence since this is the key to enhancing relationships within the global community.

Promoting the reality that there are various cultural perspectives and understanding and accepting them, lead individuals to position their own culture as one of a number of equally valuable world views. According to Rogoff (2003), “experience with several cultural

41 communities also may provide cognitive and social flexibility and the potential for new syntheses of cultural ways” (p. 331). For that reason, by being promoters of intercultural understanding educators are supporting the development of practices that respect diversity and that direct the path towards a real common global community.

REFERENCES

Altshuler, L., Sussman, N., & Kachur, E. (2003). Assessing changes in intercultural

Sensitivity among physician trainees using the intercultural development

inventory. International Journal of Intercultural relations. 27, 387-401.

Bollin, G. (2007). Preparing teachers for Hispanic immigrant children: a service learning

approach. Journal of Latinos and Education. 6 (2), 177-189.

Chen, G., & Starosta, W. (2000). The development and validation of the Intercultural Sensitivity

Scale. Presented at the Annual Meeting of national Communication Association.

Seattle, WA.

Diller, J., & Moule, J. (2005). Cultural Competence. Book News, Inc. Portland.

Gay, G. (2000). Culturally Responsive Teaching: Theory, Research, and Practice. Teachers

College Press. New York.

Hammer, M., Bennet, M., & Wiseman, R. (2003). Measuring intercultural sensitivity:

the intercultural development inventory. International Journal of Intercultural

Relations. 27, 421-443.

Harris, P., & Moran, R. (1987). Managing Cultural Differences. Gulf Publishing

Company. Book division. Houston, Texas.

Herrel, A., & Jordan, M. (2004). Fifty Strategies for Teaching Language Learners.

Merril/Prentice Hall. Columbus, OH.

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Pergamon.

Oxford.

Kumaravadivelu, B. (2008). Cultural Globalization and Language Education. Yale

University Press. London.

Nieto, C. (2008). Student Cultural Awareness Inventory. Developed for Master Thesis at

Bowling Green State University.

Ormrod, J. (1995). Educational Psychology: Principles and Applications. Prentice Hall.

Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

Pai, Y., Adler, S., & Shadiow, L. (2006). Cultural Foundations of Education. Prentice

Hall. Upper Saddle River, N.J.

Peng, S. (2006). A comparative perspective of intercultural sensitivity between college students

and multinational employees in China. Multicultural Perspectives. 8 (3), 38-45.

Rogoff, B. (2003). The Cultural Nature of Human Development. Oxford University

Press. New York.

Rundstrom, T. (2005). Exploring the impact of study abroad on students’ intercultural

communication skills: adaptability and sensitivity. Journal of Studies in

International Education. 9 (4), 356-371.

Segall, M., Dasen, P., Berry, J., & Poortinga, Y. (1999). Human Behavior in Global

Perspective. Allyn and Bacon. Needham Heights, MA.

Sheets, R., & Gay, G. (1996, May). Student perceptions of disciplinary conflict in ethnically

diverse classrooms. NASSP Bulletin.

Sileo, T., & Prater, M. (1998). Creating classroom environments that address the linguistic

and cultural background of students with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education.

19 (6), 323-337.

Subbiondo, J. (2005). Benjamin Lee Whorf’s theory of language, culture, and

consciousness: a critique of western science. Language and Communication.

25, 149-159.

Viramontez, R., & Ibrahim, A. (2004). Thinking critically, choosing politically II:

multicultural education and cultural ecological systems in a pluralistic society.

Inquiry. 24 (1 & 2), 5-7.

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological

Processes. Harvard University Press. Cambridge.

Wardhaugh, R. (2002). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Blackwell. Malden, MA.

Weinstein, C., Tomlinson-Clarke, S., & Curran, M. (2004). Toward a conception of

culturally responsive classroom management. Journal of Teacher Education.

55 (1), 25-38.

Wink, J., & Putney, L. (2002). A Vision of Vygotsky. Allyn and Bacon. Boston.

Woolfolk, A. (2005). Educational Psychology. Pearson. Boston.

Wright, D. (2000). Culture as information and culture as affective process: a comparative

study. Foreign Language Annals. 33 (3), 330-341.

Yawkey, T., & Prewitt-Diaz, J. (1990). Early childhood: Theories, Research, and

Implications for Bilingual Education. Office of Bilingual Education and Minority

Languages Affairs (ED). Washington DC.

APPENDIX A Consent Letter

November 6, 2007

Dear Student:

I wish to extend this invitation to be part of a master’s thesis project studying cultural competence and second language acquisition at Bowling Green State University. This research project is designed to study the effects of cultural competence on the teaching and learning process at BGSU. This study will compare attitudes towards cultural competence between English as Second Language (ESL) teachers in the English department at BGSU with other instructors on campus. Cultural competence is the ability to relate with and understand people from other cultures. The results of this study should better inform educators about the importance of cultural competence and therefore benefit international students and the community at Bowling Green State University.

Your participation in this study is completely voluntary and will require very little time from you. If you wish to participate in this project, please complete the attached short survey (36 questions), which includes attitudinal statements related to cultural competence and second language acquisition. When completed, please return it to your ESL instructor.

In addition to surveys, a sub-sample of willing participants will be interviewed in order to expand on their opinions regarding cultural competence. This interview will take approximately 20 minutes and will be conducted at the convenience of the interviewee. The only individual who will have access to the interviewee’s name and number will be myself, the researcher. Moreover, the interviews will be audio taped for the purpose of accurate transcription. Only the interviewer (myself) will have access to these recordings. All the recordings will be destroyed after the research project is completed. If you wish to participate in interviews, please sign the bottom portion of this letter and also return it to the instructor, but do not attach it to your survey.

Your participation in this study is completely confidential. All surveys are given a number, not your name, for data analysis. Likewise, information collected from interviews will also be completely confidential. Your name will never appear in any written documents, papers, or reports written from this research. All of the information provided by you will remain confidential and your identity will not be revealed. Your participation or non- participation in the study will have no impact on grades, class standing or relationship with instructors.

If you have any questions or comments about this study, you can contact me, Claudia Nieto, at my e-mail at [email protected]. Also, if you have any questions about the conduct of this study or your rights as a research participant, you may contact the Chair of Bowling Green State University’s Human Subjects Review Board at (419) 372-7716 or [email protected].

Sincerely,

Claudia Nieto, Master of Art Student in Cross Cultural and International Education.

I wish to volunteer for a short interview for this research projects.

Name: ______E-mail address: ______

November 6, 2007

Dear Instructor:

Sincerely,

Claudia Nieto, Master of Art Student in Cross Cultural and International Education. I wish to volunteer for a short interview for this research projects.

Name: ______E-mail address: ______

APPENDIX B Intercultural Sensitivity Scale Teacher Survey Part A: Instructor Information In what department do you teach? ______What level do you teach? Graduate____ Undergraduate____ Are you an ESL instructor? Yes____ No____ Approximately how many students do you teach each semester? ______Were you born in the United States? Yes____ No____ If no, where were you born? ______My Gender: Male_____ Female_____

Part B: Use the following key to circle the appropriate letters. SA: If you strongly agree with the statement. A: If you agree. U: If you are uncertain. D: If you disagree. SD: If you strongly disagree.

1. I enjoy interacting with people from different cultures. SA A U D SD 2. I think people from other cultures are narrow-minded. SA A U D SD 3. I am pretty sure of myself in interacting with people from different cultures. SA A U D SD 4. I find it very hard to talk in front of people from different cultures. SA A U D SD 5. I always know what to say when interacting with people from different SA A U D SD cultures. 6. I can be as sociable as I want to be when interacting with people from different SA A U D SD cultures. 7. I don’t like to be with people from different cultures. SA A U D SD 8. I respect the values of people from different cultures. SA A U D SD 9. I get upset easily when interacting with people from different cultures. SA A U D SD 10. I feel confident when interacting with people from different cultures. SA A U D SD 11. I tend to wait before forming an impression of culturally-distinct counterparts. SA A U D SD 12. I often get discouraged when I am with people from different cultures. SA A U D SD 13. I am open-minded to people from different cultures. SA A U D SD 14. I am very observant when interacting with people from different cultures. SA A U D SD 15. I often feel useless when interacting with people from different cultures. SA A U D SD 16. I respect the way people from different cultures behave. SA A U D SD 17. I try to obtain as much information as I can when interacting with people SA A U D SD from different cultures. 18. I would not accept the opinions of people from different cultures. SA A U D SD 19. I am sensitive to my culturally-distinct counterpart’s subtle meanings during SA A U D SD our interaction. 20. I think my culture is better than other cultures. SA A U D SD 21. I often give positive responses to my culturally different counterpart during SA A U D SD our interaction. 22. I avoid those situations where I will have to deal with culturally-distinct SA A U D SD persons. 23. I often show my culturally-distinct counterpart my understanding through SA A U D SD verbal or nonverbal cues. 24. I have a feeling of enjoyment towards differences between my culturally- SA A U D SD distinct counterpart and me. *Scale Citation: Chen, G., & Starosta, W. (2000). The development and validation of the intercultural sensitivity scale. Presented at the Annual Meeting of National Communication Association. Seattle, WA.

Part C: Student Cultural Awareness Inventory. Please circle the letters to the right that most appropriately answer how you feel about the statement. SA: If you strongly agree with the statement. A: If you agree. U: If you are uncertain. D: If you disagree. SD: If you strongly disagree.

1. I see international students as a population with privilege since they have the SA A U D SD opportunity to study in the United States. 2. International students face financial challenges on a daily basis in the United SA A U D SD States while pursuing a college degree. 3. International students encounter cultural challenges on a daily basis in the SA A U D SD United States while pursuing a college degree. 4. International students come across language challenges on a daily basis in the SA A U D SD United States while pursuing a college degree. 5. International students meet gender challenges on a daily basis in the United SA A U D SD States while pursuing a college degree. 6. International students face daily challenges in the United States that are SA A U D SD primarily related to racial or ethnic differences. 7. It is important for teachers to understand the challenges of getting a degree in a SA A U D SD second language. 8. I think it is essential for teachers to help international students to feel welcomed SA A U D SD in this culture. 9. It is important to focus on creating an engaging environment when teaching SA A U D SD ESL (English as a Second Language) students. 10. It is essential to have different teaching practices from US students when SA A U D SD teaching international students 11. It is vital for teachers to understand various cultures in order for them to be SA A U D SD effective educators. 12. Conflicts are likely to occur when teachers and students come from different SA A U D SD cultures. *Scale Developed by Claudia Nieto (2008). Developed for Master Thesis. Bowling Green State University.

Please use the following space to explain any of your responses:

APPENDIX C Intercultural Sensitivity Scale Student Survey

Part A: Student Information Where were you born? US____ Other____ If other, where?______How long have you been in the United States? _____ I am a: graduate student ____ an undergraduate student ____ What is your major? ______My gender: Male____ Female____

1. I see myself in a privileged position since I have the opportunity to study in the SA A U D SD United States. 2. I face financial challenges in order to pursue a college degree in the United SA A U D SD States. 3. I encounter cultural challenges on a daily basis in the United States while SA A U D SD pursuing a college degree. 4. I come across language challenges on a daily basis in the United States while SA A U D SD pursuing a college degree. 5. I meet gender challenges on a daily basis in the United States while pursuing a SA A U D SD college degree. 6. I face daily challenges in the United States that are primarily related to racial SA A U D SD or ethnic differences. 7. It is important for teachers to understand the challenges of getting a degree in a SA A U D SD second language. 8. I think it is essential for teachers to help international students to feel SA A U D SD welcomed in this culture. 9. English as Second Language (ESL) teachers are effective in creating an SA A U D SD engaging environment for international students. 10. Regular (non ESL) faculty are effective in creating an engaging environment SA A U D SD for international students. 11. It is vital for teachers to understand various cultures in order for them to be SA A U D SD effective educators. 12. Conflicts are likely to occur when teachers and students come from different SA A U D SD cultures. *Scale Developed by Claudia Nieto (2008). Developed for Master Thesis. Bowling Green State University.

Please use the following space to explain any of your responses:

APPENDIX D Table 1: Intercultural Sensitivity Scale: Analysis of variance

Group Mean Standard deviation Sample size

Female teachers 105.69 7.16 13

Male teachers 100.22 5.87 9

Female students 95.27 8.64 22

Male students 91.66 10.13 53

APPENDIX E

Tables of Correlations

Table D1: Teachers’ Correlations

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12

Pearson -.195 .251 .384 .445 .223 .212 .529 .518 .389 .231 .326 .247 correlation

Sig. .269 .153 .025 .008 .206 .230 .002 .002 .023 .188 .060 .165

(2-tailed)

Table D2: Students’ Correlations

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12

Pearson .221 .030 .186 .044 -.307 -.137 .202 .415 .204 .071 .397 -.086 correlation

Sig. .063 .800 .117 .717 .009 .251 .088 .001 .086 .552 .001 .473

(2-tailed)