ACTA MESOAMERICANA Volume 10
Piene Robert Colas, Kai Delvendahl, Marcus Kuhnert, Annette Schubart ( editors)
The Sacred and the Profane
Architecture and Identity in the Maya Lowlands
3rd European Maya Conference University of Ham burg November 1998
VERLAG ANTON SAURWEIN The Cave as a Cosmogram: Function and Meaning of Maya Speleothem Use
Holley Moyes
Recent cave research has noted that there is a ubi Introduction quitous pattern of speleothem breakage and move The term speleothem is formall y defined as "any ment in caves utilized by the ancient Maya. Unfor secondary mineral deposit that is formed by water" tunately, no systematic study has been undertaken (Gary et al. 1972:679), and is a commonly used to provide data on the extent of speleothem ex generic term for stalagmites, stalagtites or other ploitation or on the variability in the contexts and simil ar cave formations. Although speleothem uses of lhe material. Without such data there is little usage by the ancient Maya appears to be ubiqui hope for understanding the meaning of the practice. tous, it has only been given sporadic attention by The Western Belize Regional Cave Project (WBRCP) archaeologists (Andrews 1970; Awe et al. 1997; conducted a formal spatial analysis at the site of Brady 1989; Bonor and Martinez 1995; MacLeod Actun Tunichil Muknal which involved piece and Pu leston 1978; McNatt 1996; Pendergast 1970; plotting artifacts (including speleothems), and re Reents 1980; Rissolo 1998). Recently, Brady has cording distributions and associations using Geo reported on the distribution and context of speleo graphical Information Systems (GIS). The analysis thems throughout the Maya area in both caves and found that speleothems not only functioned as surface sites, and has demonstrated their possible architectural components of such features as utility in linking surface finds to specific cave loca bridges and supports, but commonly accompanied tions (Brady et al. 1997). However, to date no offerings as well. Despite contextual differences, formal analysis has been undertaken to investi there exists a pervasive association of speleothem gate their speci fic function and meaning. use with a "special" or "sacred" meaning. By ex The Y L1catec term fo r speleothems is .xi.x h" amining groups of artifacts assoc iated with indi tunich or "drip-water stone" (Barrera Vasquez et a 1. vidual speleothem clusters, comparisons were made 1980: 946). This lexical evidence s Li ggests that th e wi th ico nograph ic representations in ord er to de Maya, were cognizant, at least empiricall y, of the termine specific meanings. This method of analysis process of speleothem for mati on . Water found in has revealed that th e Main Chamber of the cave caves, called Zuhuy Ha or "virgin water, was con was likely to have represented a physical manifesta sidered sacred and used in ritual throughout Meso tion of the Maya creation myth and that a ritual america during pre-hispanic times (AJ .O. Ander event condLlcted within th e chamber was related to son 1982: 82; Duran 1971: 13 1; Sahagun 1981: 141; the iconographic representations of the creation of Thompson 1959: 124-127.) It would be expected the world. that the element of transformation embodied in th e Holley Moye.
,. I EI PUor Spanish lookout• RIVER
YOkOI( • , j~ ,'", .", CohOI Pech. • X"al Conll Actun TunlcnJl (caya Y) Mulmo\ n :" Coho! j~ • Win No ' Q :~
I NegramQ" Borton Creek n AN ! • (lIPU). Pocblfun. :Xunontunlch Cave ~~=-______o:::::::::5_~~, o Actun Petz UPPl:::~IXUZEVi\UE'( o CAYO DISTRICT Che Chern He 8EIJZE Cove • archaeolog ical site
MOUNTAIN cave VACAPLATEAU PINERIDGE o Fig. 1. Map of {he up per Belize Valley showing loc3ti on of ACLun Tunichil Muknal
process of creating sto ne from dripping water The present siudy is an analysis of speleothem would imbue speleo[hems with special meani ng as use at Actun Tunichil Mukna l, a Late Classic Brady suggests (1997:725). Maya ceremoni al cave in Belize. By examining A fundamental idea concerning th e interprela speleothe m distribution and function within a ti on the archaeo logical data from caves, is that s in gle site, nuances of meaning may be establ is h artifact assemblages are an express ion of ancient ed by viewing th ese artifacts from both global and Maya rilLlal and reflec t religious symbolism. In local perspecti ves. Overall global trend of spe leo discussing the use of the Direct Historical them deposition will be analyzed as well as localiz Approach in the analysis of Preclassic iconogra ed usage of unique deposits. phy, H.B. Nicholson suggests [hat rather th an 10 To faci litate th e storage and analysis of these simply consider isolated e lements as symbo li cally large amollnts of specific data, th e use of complex meaningful. we may reac h bett er unders tandings compute r programs has increas ingly become a by evaluating clusters of el ements (1976: 173). necessity (Renfrew & Zubrow 1994). Geographical Cave archaeologi sts in [he past have had a tenden Info rmation Systems (GIS) offer the fl exibility cy to focus o n particular objects in th eir search for needed for the di splay, storage, and analysis of the symbolism and meaning of data. A more fruit the archaeological data, and are ll seful in the identi ful approach to the interpretation of th e arc haeo ficatio n of patterning as demonstrated by Zubrow logical record would be to evaluate interrelation ( 1994: \07-1 8). Data di splay becomes a powerful ships of groups of ele ments. Clearly. this approach tool in the analysis and the recognitio n of patterning is highly dependent on careful provenience all ow within large areas and complex contextual features in g arti fa cts 10 be evalu ated at a variety of levels since global patterning becomes mo re easily recog of distribution on a continuum from global to nizable and observations that were not obvious in local. the fi eld beco me qllite obvious on the screen.
138 I he Lave as a Losmogram
Setting entrance and ll, e Main Chamber. II is a large ledge ACIUIl T unichil Muknal, (Cave of Ihe Stone Se approximately 10 meters above the slrcam measur pulcher), is a Maya Ca ve in the Cayo districi of in g 5x 15 melers thai can accommodate 10-12 Weslern Belize, Central America. Localed near people in close condilions. Ceramics in this area Teakeltle village, it is siluated on a Iributary of date to the Lale Classic, Spanish Lookoul phase Roaring Creek (Fig. 1). It was discovered by a geo (A.D. 700-900), based on cross daling wi th morphologist, Dr. Thomas Miller (Miller 1989, Gifford's Barton Ramie colleclion (Gifford 1976). 1990) and a map of the cave system was produced The Main Chamber was the most extensive and in 1989. Subsequently, the cave was visited by a intensively ulilized area of Maya ritual, and its British speleological expedilion (Marochov & secluded localion lefl it undislurbed by looters. Williams 1989, 1991).1t is currently under investi Located 500 meters from the cave enlrance where a N galion by the Western Belize Cave Project high level passage splils off from the main passage A (WBRCP) under Ihe direclion of Dr. Jaime Awe. way, it measures approximately 183 meters in Actun Tunicbil Muknal is a large cave system length, 35 melers at its widesl point and S meters at and may be described as a "wei," since flowing ils narrowest. The tOlal area of the chamber is ap through Ihe approximately 5 km. of cave passage proximately 4,450 square melers. Much of Ihe is a perennial stream that culminates in a deep chamber's floor consists of a series of travertine blue pool. Cultural remains in Actun Tunicbil dams formed by the precipilation of calcium Muknal are fOllnd in four major loci: the Main carbonate during waler evaporalion. These dams, Entrance, the Sinkhole Entrance, the "Stelae" 10-40 cm. deep, create a honeycomb of gaur pools ,deolhem Chamber and Ihe Main Chamber (Fig.2). SpeJeo Ihat descend gradually toward the eastem entrance : Classic them usage occurs in both Ihe "Stelae" Chamber of Ihe chamber. Although no flooding was wit xamllling and the Main Chamber. nessed during investigations of the chamber in within a The area that we refer 10 as lhe "Stelae" Chamber 1993 or 1996, a torrential rain in 1997 caused Ihe ,slablish is located approx im ately midway belween Ihe cave chamber to flood. Natural drainage began almost lobal and ,fspeleo s localiz
of Ihcse ACTUN TUNICHIL MUKNAL J:artheslMaya comp le x (Cave 01 the Slone Sepulchre) analaclll'om ~coll1e a Cayo District. Belize .CA. ,raphical "ibilil y
. ysis of N _identi o 500 A ilubrow O"lIlnal e~pl o' a u on MltIe, 91 al 1!'85 E~\ent!e d QMeSeS '988 oS. Bel l ~e ::9 Original Sutve ybV B ~ 'I ze 'a9 E~p~;l< I !()I1
~ IW
~~ VOtd 1;\aln ClJamber EnlranClJ o:,~ '11 :- ., ·. ---==~ · ~.~:-:.-:..~~~Uo m Fig. 2. Map of Actun Tunichil Muknal cave system (after Mil!er 1990:36).
139 HolleyMoyes
ACTUN TUNICHIL MUKNAL - Main Chamber immediately, but standing pools pcrsisted for up to threc weeks. It is highly likely that the chamber has been flooded on and off since ancient times, Angel's Room which would account for the thick calcite buildup. For purposes of description and field use, the Main Chamber was divided into the following areas: 1) the Creek, 2) Boot Hill, 3) the Burial Chamber, 4) the Ransom Chamber, 5) the Cathe Cathedral dral,7) the Angel's Room, 6) the West Wall, and 8) the Crystal Sepulcher. 11,e highest artifact con centrations occurred in three areas, Boot Hill, the Burial Chamber, and the West Wall. (Fig. 3) Ce ramics represent about 76% of the entire artifact assemblage and date to the same Late Classic time period as th ose located in the "Stela" Chamber.
Methodology Artifacts in the Main Chamber were individually point-plotted and maps were later digitized onto a Burial Chamber Geographic Information System (GIS). A total of 1408 items were recorded of which 116 or 12% were speleothems. Although this overall artifact count is inflated by ritual breakage, by combining fragments into discreet identifiable objects, the count can be reduced to 438. This data set, used for the statistical global analyses, includes the 116 speleothem artifacts. Speleothem use at Actun Tunichil Muknal is striking in the variety of func tions noted and the extent of their use. Within this single si te, speleothems were used as architectural elements, raw material for worked artifacts, hearth stones and frequently, as accompaniments to other • 3 Speleothem Cluster Stalagmi1ic Columns .. offerings. ~ HumanRemains [ill]] Breakdown To evaluate the spatial relationship of speleo th ems to the artifact assemblage, preliminary analy _BOUlders Flowstone ses were undertaken using G1S. By directing the
Walls program to surround each speleothem by a radius
Table 1. Distribution of artifacts in relation to speleo thems by increasing radii. Scale 1:, ,855 N=438 Fig 3. Map 01 Actun Tuoicl1il Muknal, Main Chamber. Ci rc les Di stance .5 m 1.0 m 1.5 m 2.0 m indic 31e are as of high artifact concemration. Black sq uare Artifacts 183 233 260 297 represents centrally localed 3 spele oLhem clu ste r. Percent of total 41% 53% 59% 68%
140 TheCave as a Cosmogram
Table 2. GIS correlation of speleothems to artifacts by class using.5 meter radius. Classes with increase from p to expected values highlighted lber nes, Class Total # of art. %byclass Total # in.5m %byclass By class N=438 N=438 radius N=183 N=183 up. the .laos 205 57% 32 18% 'ling Bowls 41 g% 9 5% 2% "rial Dishes 18 4% 3 Shoe pots .5% 0 0 lthe 2 Vases 2 .5 1 .5% and Whislles 5 1% 2 1% con Manos & Met. 8 2% 3 2% • the Celts 3 .6% 0 0 .5% Ce Quartzite 2 .5% Pyrile 2 .5% 1 .5% ifact Monument 1 .2% 0 0 time Slate 5 1 % 0 0 Obsidian 3 .7% 2 1% Ornaments 5 1 % 4 2% Faunal 22 5 % 11 60/0 Speleothems 114 26% 99 54% Jally lto a correlations of speleothems with obsidian, faunal al of of a specified size. the total number of artifacts 129'0 occurring within those radii were determined remains and other speleothems (Table 3). These :ifact (Table I). The dala set representing th e entire as findings were quite similar to the GIS preliminary in ing semblage of 1408 artifacts wa s used in this test. analys is. , the 1h:~re was a dramatic increase in the percentage of the total artifact assemblage accounted for as Table 3. Local density coefficients of speleoth ems the radills was increased incrementally. At the and other arti fact classes with neighborhood radius 1.5 meter radius, over half of the data set was of.5 m. associated with speleothems . This indicates a high N=438 Artifact Class LOEN Coefficient association of speleothems with other artifacts. for .5 meter By grouping 723 artifacts present within that Neighborhood Radius radius by class. it wa s possible to determine per J3Is 17.81 celli ages of artifact classes represented (Table 2). Bowls 25.97 Dishes 28. 17 Atlhc .5 meter radius, indicating close association, Shoe-shaped pots 0 resulis show a percentage in crease of speleothems Vases 25.35 with each other. faunal remains, ornaments, and Whistles 20.28 obsi di an blades. In order to test these preliminary Manos & Metates 50.71 Celts 0 resuli s, a stati stical analysi s was carried out using Quartzite 50.71 J Loc"1 Den sity analysis (LDEN). Pyrite 0 LDEN produces a global measure of artifact Monument 0 class associations by computing interpoint distances Slate 0 Ornaments 50.71 a( specified radii and comparing them to expected Obsidian 304.24 vailies (Kintigh 1990: 177-178). Results of LDEN Faunal Remains 170.56 at the .5 meter radius produced the hi ghest statistical Speleothems 115.65
141 HolleyMoyes
Of the 11 faunal remains located by the GIS 1992:452). and others with large testicles (Kerr lOa program within a .5 meter radius of speleothems. 1997 :8 35). Blaffer (1972:55-73) provides a area 9 were bat bone. LDEN anal ysis also showed a lengthy disc uss ion of Mesoamerican bat symbo beea hi gh correlati on between obsidian and faunal re li sm and mea ning. and although much of thi s is mains suggesting a three-way correlation between quite speculative, she does point ou t that in th e do'" bat bone. obsidian , and speleothems. In order to Codex Fejerva ry-Mayer, the Codex Vaticanus, and been ex plain thi s very high correlation , a closer exami the Codex Borgia, the bat demon is illustrated hold crevi nation was made of the data using GIS. Located in ing seve red human heads or extracted hea l1s. She no re the Burial Chamber was a small fl oor-le vel niche concludes th at bats were associated with sacrifice, measuring no more than 50cm. in height , contain darkness, blood, eroticism, terminat ion of a time ing a cluster of arti facts that included 6 scatters of periods, and fertility. In tv bat bone, 9 speleothems, 2 obsidian flake s, a small mnl~ claw of unknown species, a shell bead. 4 potsherds. Architectural Elements fo unl and a carbon scatter. The obsid ian flakes assoc iated There are two instances in which spe leothems are break with thi s ni che rep resents the majority of obsidi an used as architectural elements. The first is found in found within the Main Chamber. Statistical analy the 'Stelae' Chamber. Directly in the center of this of po sis showed that th e association between faun al re high leve l alcove is a conglomeration of a number of ch: mains. obsidi an. and speleothems was not acci broken speleothems used as supports for tw o ve r munl( dental. ticaily erected slate shafts. These stel ae-like shafts tured Al th ough bats are a common denizen of caves, are both modified. The first has a series of nine tifa c~ it should be noted that, in the three- month fi eld scallops carved into its edges resembling a sting season of 1997, only twi ce were bats observed in ray spine and the second is hewn to a point resem tubul, the Main Ch amber. There were no large guano bling an obsidian blood-letter (Awe et al. 1996:2). Hondl deposits and no nesting areas, which tend to be It is notewo rth y that no drip fo rmations natu rocated high on ceiling s, we re located. All bat rally occur in the chamber so that the speleothem bone was mapped, and it was unlikely th at 6 of the supports were necessaril y brought from anot her Spele( 14 bat bone scatters recorded would ha ve naturall y area. Since there are few accessi ble speleo thems in occurred in th e same small floor ni che. th e tunnel system, it is likely th at these were reo Although obsidian flakes and blades found in moved from the Main Chamber where formations ritual context are commonly assoc iated with blood are numerous. This suggests that speleothems were letting, little information has been compiled on bat a construction materi al of choice not convenience. sacrifice. Brady ( 1989: 125-126) reported th at at si nce it wo uld have been eas ier to use rock fr om the Naj Tunich, two bat skeletons , one of which was nea rby stream bed or brou ght from the entrance. It lacki ng the skull , were fo und associated with seems likely that the utili za ti on of speleothems, in stalagmitic altars. He suggests that the context at this case, has imbued th e construction with special Naj Tunich offers conclusive evidence of bat sac mea mng. rifice (personal co mmunication 1999). The seco nd example als o suggests that speleo In th e Popol Vuh (Tedlock 1985125-I26) th e th ems served more than just a utilitarian fonctio ni n Hero Twins were forced by the Lords of Xibalba to architectural contexts. This construct ion, located in undergo a tri al in th e House of Bats, during which , the deepest area of the Main Chamber is referred10 Fig. 4. Hunapu was decapitated by a demon baL IIIustra as th e Speleothem ··Bridge." At least 48 broken tion s on Maya vases depic t some bats with crossed speleo th ems (these we re not included with the 116 bones in-fi xed on spread wings (Kerr 1997:789; speleothems used in previous analyses), are pl3ced
142 The Cave as a Cosmogram
(Kerr in a crevice between boulders at the edge of a large thems, a large sherd and a rock. Although Ihese Jes a ~rea of breakdown. It is referred to il as a "bridge" types of configurations have funclional value, in Imbo because il mUSI be crossed to gain access to Ihe certain instances their meaning becomes an expres his is easiesl, and indeed only route over Ihe break sion of cosmological ideals. ,n Ihe down . However, Ihe function appears to have Recenl work by Friedel el a!. (1993: 68-93) has S, and been mainly to demarcale the route, since Ihe suggesled hearths are salient fealures in Maya cos hold crevice only measures 30 cm. wide and provides mology, particularly Ihe 3-Stone-Hearth in the •. She no real obstacle. 4 Ahau 8 Kumk'u crealion event of 3114 B.C. cifice, More recenlly, Taube (1998) draws an analogy lime Carved Speleothems between Maya household archilecture and Ihe con In Iwo instances speleothems were used as raw figuration of temples as "god houses" whose roofs material to create ornaments. The first is a bead, are supported by four posts and whose center is found cached in a crevice in a remote area of the 3-stone hearth that represents both a place of IS are breakdown. The second is a carved object found on creation (Taube 1998: 464), and axi s mundi con nd in a small nat altar-like feature along wilh a fragment necting the sky, earth, and underworld (Taube f Ihis of polished pyrite, a sherd and some small pieces 1998: 430). Taube's proposes that Ihis hearth sym mber of charcoal. Reents-Budet suggests (personal com bolism is replicated in radial stairway pyramids. f ver munication , 1997) that the artifact may be a frac cache vessels, censors, and three-legged allars ,hafts tured labret, worn on the lower lip. Speleothem ar (Taube 1998: 439-440). He associates a cluster of mne lifacts appear to be somewhat rare and Brady er iconographic elements with this symbolism: cen ,ling "I. were able to produce only one example of a trality,jaguars, fire, and water (1998: 431-440) . se m lubular speleothem bead and that is from Northern Caves are widely accepted as functioning as Honduras (1997: 731). houses of deities, particularly rain gods (Thompson 1970: 267-268; Guiteras-Holmes 1961: 153.281; Hearths Holland 1963: 93; Nash 1970: 141; Toor 1947:473; Speleothems were also used in the construction of Reina 1966: 181-182), as well as ancestral spirils hearths . In one example, a concentration of charcoal (LaFarge 1947: 127-8; Nash 1970: 19,45; Vogt is surrounded in a circular fashion by two speleo- 1970: 6; Thompson 1970: 314, 316). Andrea SlOne
. . ~ ;' -!J .,' . ' 0 . • •. ..• " ~~" " . '~~.. . '" : c d
9
Fig. 4. Lt!fl: Photograph of (he 3 speleothem cluster localt!d in (he Burial Chamber- - Right: Epigraphic depictions of the ~-S(One Hearth : a) the green hearlh slOne place , Quirigua: b) Ihe Seibal emblem glyph, Tablet 4 of hieroglyphic stairway. Seibal; c) three smoking hearlh sLones, MonumerH 74. TOflina : d) one of a series of smoking heanhslones on headdress or nder. detail of recently excavated SIeJa, Tonina; e) three stones with burning wood , Naranjo Stela 30; f} smoking sk y hearlh sLOneS with glyphs for Tikal Paddlers . S(cla 16. Copan : g) smoking hearthstoncs with sky ahau glypb, Stela I. Salinas de los Nueve Cerros (Taube 1998:431).
143 HoUeyMoves
( 1995:35-36) argues that caves are thought to be though large areas of charcoal scatter are present the house of gods based on linguistic evidence along th e walJs of the chamber an y carbon ized where th e native term for cave translates as stone material located among the rimstone dams in the house. This evidence suggests that Taube's cos center wou ld have been either washed away or cov mological model for the concept of th e temple as ered with f1 owstone. There is ho wever, some evi "God House" may apply to cave space as well. It dence of previous burning. The speleothem from al so agrees well with Las Casas who noted centu the top of the stack exhibits charring. ries ago that the Maya word for temple was also The evidence presen ted from the Burial Cham used for cave (c ited in Thompson 1959: 122). ber at Actun Tunic hil Muknal has suggested that Based on the presence of the iconographic ele hearths may have freqtlentl y carried significance ments delineated by Taube, ! propose that a cluster far beyond th eir si mple functi on as fire pits. This of three speleothems in the Main Chamber repre is suggested by the very importance of fi re within sents a 3-Stone-Hearth. M aya ritual. Cook (1 983: 139) notes that the This cluster was particul arly notable due to its Quiche frequently refer to rituals as burnings and odd configuration (Fig. 4). The three speleothems BunseH (1 959: 431) reports that M aya altars are are stacked one o n top of th e other two. It is the called "burning places." Data from Actun Tuni only instance within the Main Chamber th at this chi! Muknal suggests a ritual, whic h o n one level config urati o n occurs. This particul ar type of involved the re-enactment of the Maya creation clustering is noted by Taube in epigraphic re myth. The wet, dark cave provided an analogolls presentations of the 3-Stone Hearth (1998; 433). environmental counterpart to the world at th e be- Perhaps the most important ofTaube's elements is centrality. The clu ster of three speleothems was ACTUN TUNICHtL MUKNAL - Main Chamber fou nd in the Burial Chamber, large cathedral-like room located within the M ain Chamber. Not o nly is th e cluster central to the small er chamber in whi ch it is located, but also to the entire Main Chamber (see Fig. 3). There is a high degree of confidence that th e stones are in their original context because they have been firmly cemented to the fl oor with calcite caused by water evapo ration. If the stacked spe leothems were indeed in te nd ed to represent a 3-Sto ne-Hearth, one would expect to find, according to Taube ' s model, a number of other as sociated e lemen ts. One of these is th e jaguar. A close-up of the immedi ate area o 25 m illustrates the provenience of two felid bones, an ! innominate and a metatarsal, located in the Burial • 3 Speleothem Cluster ~ Pools Chamber, within five meters of the speleoth em + Bone iii Sla!agmiticColumns cluster (Fig. 5). These bones have been identified ~ Human Remains IlllIll Breakdown _ Boulders as closely following Panrhera Ol1ca or jaguar (Nor N Flowstone bert Stanchly, personal communication 1999). NWaliS Evidence of burning wo uld be expected in re Fig . 5. DeLail map or the Burial Chamber sho wi ng jaguar bones lationship to th e 3-SlOne-Hearth symbolism. AI- and 3 speleolhem c\usler.
144 The Caveas a Cosmogram
Acknowledgements ~sent ginning of creation when the sky was "lying I wou ld first like 10 thank the Social Science and down ." resting on the primodial sea and all was lized Humanities Research Counsel of Canada, whose grant 1 the dark. Artifactual evidence suggests a ritual event has funded the Western Belize Regional Cave Project.
CO\' that is related to the iconographic representations The project is und er the direction of Or Jaime Awe to evi of the creation of the world. The artifact distribution whom r am indebted for his contribuljo~ s. suggesli~ns, within the Burial Chamber represents a physical and generous support. Thanks also to the members of from the WBRCP and the many students who ass isted us. manifestation of that ancient cosmogram. The permit for the project was provided by the Belize ham Depanment of Arch
145 Holley Moyes
Blaffer, Sara C. Gifford, James C. 1972 The Black- man of Zin acantan . University of 1976 Prehistori c POllery Anal ys is of Barton Ramie Texas Press, Austin & London, in the Be li ze Valley. Memoirs of the Pea body Museum of Arc haeology and Ethno Bonor Vill arejo logy, Vol. 18. Harvard Uni v., Cambridge. 1989 Las Cuevas Mayas: Simbolismo y Ritual. Uni v, Complutense de Madrid, Madrid. Gui teras-Holmes, C. 196 1 Perils of the Soul. The Free Press of Glencoe, Brady, James Edward Inc" New York. 19 89 Investigation of Maya Ritu al Cave Use with Special Reference to Naj Tunich, Peten, Hamblin, Nancy L Guatemala. Ph.D, dissertation, Los Angeles: 1984 Anim al Use by the Cozumel Maya. The University of California, Uni ve rsit y of Ar izo na Press, Tu cson,
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146 The Cava as a Cosmogram
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