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ADB RETA 5771 Poverty Reduction & Environmental Management in Remote Greater Mekong Subregion Watersheds Project (Phase I)

BIODIVERSITY/ECOTOURISM ASSESSMENTS

IN YUNNAN, CHINA

Special Report

By

Johanna Heinonen

Katariina Vainio-Mattila

Junior Biodiversity/ Ecotourism Experts

CONTENTS

1. Facts About Yunnan Province 3

2. Survey Methods 4

3. Human Impact 5

3.1 Cultivation 5

3.2 Wild animals as pests 5

3.3 Non-timber forest products 5

3.4 Hunting 6

3.5 Fishing 7

3.6 Domestic animals 7

4. Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve 9

4.1 Protected area level assessment 9

4.2 Population 9

4.3 Physical geography 9

4.4 Primary forest vegetation of Xishuangbanna 10

4.5 Secondary vegetation of Xishuangbanna 11 Page 2 of 16

4.6 Flora 11

4.7 Fauna 11

4.8 Divisions of the Xishuangbanna Reserve 12

5. Nabanhe Provincial Nature Reserve (261 km2) 18

6. Weiyuanjiang Provincial Nature Reserve (77 km2) 19

7. Banma Snow Mountain Reserve (255 km2) 20

8. Tianchi Provincial Nature Reserve (66 km2) 22

9. Summary 23

10. Acknowledgements 24

11. References 25

APPENDIX 1. Recorded bird species in the reserves

APPENDIX 2. Recorded mammal species in the reserves

1. Facts About Yunnan Province

Yunnan Province is located in southern China bordering Myanmar (Burma), Lao PDR and Viet Nam. It is the sixth largest province (covering 394,000 km 2) having a human population of about 40 million. About one third belong to ethnically non-Han groups, for example the Yi, Bai, Naxi, Hani and Dai. Compared with other provinces, Yunnan is geographically the most diverse with terrain ranging from tropical rainforest to Tibetan highlands. Elevations vary from about 6,000 metres (the highest peak is 6,740 in the northwest corner at 29 015’ N, 97 039’ E), to as low as 74 metres in the south (at the confluence of the Nanxi and Hong Rivers). Only about five per cent of Yunnan can be considered flat. To the north are the steep Dalou Mountains bordering the Sichuan basin, while the western part is dominated by the Hengduan Mountains. In addition to high peaks there are mile-deep river gorges, volcanoes and karst formations. The dominant surface rock is limestone.

Because of variations in elevation, climates vary from cold and snowy in the north to warm, subtropical in the south, but on average temperatures are mild year-round. Summer lasts from May to August and is generally warm throughout the region. Winter is short and cold north of Kunming, lasting from November to February. Yunnan is at the wetter end of the general southeastern gradient of increasing rainfall across China as a whole. There is a strong summer rainfall pattern: 85-90 per cent of annual rain falls between May and October, borne on the southwestern monsoon winds. The winter season, dominated by dry winds from the north and clear skies, has very few rainy days, while the tropical far-south remains warm and humid.

Four large rivers cross Yunnan—Lancang (Mekong), Salween, Red River and Yangzi. The Mekong flows on southwards through Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam to the South China Sea. The Salween flows through western Yunnan and Myanmar to the Andaman Sea. The Red River flows across southeast Yunnan and into Vietnam, ending in the Gulf of Tonkin. The Yangzi flows across northern areas and on eastwards into the East China Sea.

Because of the dense human occupation of Yunnan, only about 10 per cent of its area is covered by near- natural vegetation (Xiwen & Walker 1986). However, Yunnan still contains China’s greatest diversity of flora and fauna. There are 18,000 species of higher plants, which is more than half China’s total. It is particularly famous for its rhododendrons, azaleas, camellias, magnolias, primroses and orchids. Half of China’s known 1,700 vertebrate animal species inhabit the province. Eighty of the country’s endangered animals are found in Yunnan including Asian elephant, tiger and Yunnan snub-nosed monkey ( Rhinopithecus bieti ).

Long distances and mountainous landscape make travelling in Yunnan slow. The main roads are mostly Page 3 of 16

paved, but not al1. Due to landslides and erosion the roads have to be continuously repaired and rebuilt. It is relatively easy to get close to the reserves by local buses or by jeep; there is a road connection to all reserves although not to every village. During the rainy season some of the dirt roads to the villages are impassable, even by local two-wheeled tractor, which is the most used vehicle in rural areas. Jinghong (Xishuangbanna prefecture), Xiaguan (Dali prefecture) and Simao (Simao prefecture) can easily be reached by plane from Kunming. There are flights from Kunming to all of these cities. In the Lincang prefecture (western part of Yunnan) a new airport is under construction. Kunming, the capital of Yunnan, can be reached by plane from most of the big cities of China as well as from Hong Kong, Bangkok and Vientiane. The province is increasingly popular among travellers and visited by more than 700,000 foreign tourists annually.

2. Survey Methods

The fieldwork was done in co-operation with the Chinese counterparts, Prof. Hu (Professor of Zoology, Yunnan University) and Dr. Wang (PhD in Botany, Yunnan University). All the reserves visited (Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve, Nabanhe Provincial Nature Reserve, Weiyuanjiang Provincial Nature Reserve, Banma Snow Mountain Reserve and Tianchi Provincial Nature reserve) are located in watersheds of the Lancang River. Contrary to the original plan, Nangunhe State Nature Reserve was excluded from the survey because, according to officials of the Forestry Bureau of Lincang Prefecture, it does not belong to the Lancang watershed. Instead of Nanguohe, Banma Reserve was visited. Xishuangbanna was given high priority, and all of its five divisions were visited. In most of the reserves the surveys of vegetation, flora and fauna were carried out during one day. In Mengyang, the largest division of Xishuangbanna, three days were spent in the field, two days in the western and one day in the eastern part. The surveys were made with the assistance of local guides (mostly hunters) or forest police. Two or three villages located within or adjacent to each reserve were visited.

Local guides, especially hunters, were indispensable because of their great knowledge of the local fauna. In most cases, it is difficult to see large mammals, and over a short time quite impossible. Surveys of fauna were, therefore, mainly based on the knowledge of local people or footprints, traces and tracks identified by them. Birds were mostly identified from their calls (very few were seen) and they are listed in Appendix 1. Because of limited time, the survey of fauna concentrated on birds and large mammals, including the following mammalian orders; Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates), Carnivora (carnivores) and Primates (primates) (see Appendix 2.). There are also some species from other orders such as Proboscodea (elephants) and Pholidota (pangolins). The fauna of most of reserves visited had already been quite well surveyed, and the numbers of species known; but because the articles were written in Chinese, except for the scientific names, it is difficult to cite them.

3. Human Impact

3.1 Cultivation

Rice is the main crop in the wide valleys and basins with densest rural settlement. Wheat, rapeseed and beans are commonly grown as winter crops. At elevations up to 1,400 metres, sugar cane and bananas are grown in commercial quantities. Potatoes and peas are common crops in northern areas as well as at higher elevations. Walnuts ( Juglans regia ) are an important cash crop in Dali Prefecture. Tea and rubber are the most important, while tropical fruits, for example, macadamia nut (Macadamia integrifolia ; Proteaceae), Citrus spp., litchi ( Litchi chinensis; Sapindaceae), rambutan ( Nephelium lappaceum ; Sapindaceae), carambola ( Averrhoa carambola ; Oxalidaceae) and watermelon are less important cash crops in the south (Xishuangbanna Prefecture).

Terracing is widely used in cultivating steep terrain in Yunnan. However, in many areas of Xishuangbanna Province farmland recently cleared from the forest is not terraced. These areas are very prone to erosion. There is a law in China which prohibits cultivation on slopes steeper than 25 0 but, in some of the villages visited, a significant part (20-30 per cent) of the farmland lies on slopes steeper than that. The government has tried to restrict shifting cultivation (slash and burn). Clearing and burning of primary forest is absolutely forbidden, and in many cases farmers are no longer allowed to clear and cultivate fallows. Farming systems based on agroforestry are very rarely used. There have been some attempts to grow tea under rubber trees but, due to problems in labour division, farmers have not been enthusiastic.

3.2 Wild animals as pests

Despite high hunting pressure, Indian muntjac ( Muntiacus muntjak ), wild boar ( Sus scrofa ) and sambar (Cervus unicolor ) are common pests in cultivated land. In many areas, black bear ( Selenarctos thibetanus ), Page 4 of 16

macaques ( Macaca sp. ), squirrels and rats also eat crops. In Mengyang and Shangyong reserves elephants have occasionally destroyed crops, corn in particular. Wild cats (family Felidae) have killing chickens and, in some cases, leopards have killed cattle. It is possible to get compensation for crop losses but it rarely covers the total value of the lost crop. For instance, farmers living within the Mengyang reserve were only reimbursed a tenth of the value of their lost corn.

3.3 Non-timber forest products

Non-timber forest products have a significant role in the daily life of rural Yunnan. Wild plants are collected for food: for example, the stem and inflorescence of wild banana ( Musa wilsonii ), starch of toddy palm ( Caryota urens ), flowers of Thunbergia grandiflora (Acanthaceae), young leaves of Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae), Ficus auriculata (Moraceae), Crassocephalum crepidioides (Compositae) and Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae), as well as young shoots of ferns ( Callipteris esculata, Pteridium aquilinum var. latiusculum ) and cycads ( Cycas spp.).

Wild species with edible fruits include Phyllanthus emblica (Euphorbiaceae), Castanopsis sp. (Fagaceae), Dialium indum (Leguminosae) and 'Galilu' Spondias pinnata (Anacardiaceae), which is used as a condiment particularly among the Dai people. Wild yams ( Dioscorea spp.) are eaten as famine food. Many of these products are also for sale in markets. 10 to 20 (occasionally as many as 80) species of edible wild plants and five to 20 species of mushrooms are commonly collected and eaten, mushrooms mainly during the rainy season.

There are more than a hundred species of bamboo which are used in numerous ways; for example, as construction poles, thatching, fencing, kitchen utensils, basketry, handicrafts ( Dinochloa puberula ), etc. Shoots of several bamboos are pickled; the taste of Pleioblastus sp. was reported to be delicious. Sale of bamboo shoots is an important source of income for many villages, though they sell for only five yuan/kg.

Wild trees and herbs are commonly used as source of local medicines. Some 20-50 species, occasionally as many as 100 species, are recognised and used. Laggera pterodonta (Compositae) is used for sore throats. Amomum villosum (Zingiberaceae) is one of the most important medicinal plants. It is widely cultivated as a cash crop in the tropical, seasonal rainforests of Xishuangbanna. The price of Amomum seeds is 50 yuan/kg (1998). Several other species of medicinal plants are collected for sale; for example, a small ground orchid Anoectochilus roxburghii (Orchidaceae) with distinctly coloured velvety leaves. The price of this species is 150 yuan/kg.

Silk cotton tree ( Bombax ceiba , Bombacaceae) yields ovary hairs (kapok), which are used to fill mattresses and pillows. Resin is tapped from pines: Pinus kesiya var. langbianensis is the most important resin producing pine species in Yunnan. Leaves of palms, especially Livinstona saribus (Palmae) are commonly used together with bamboo for making roofs in Xishuangbanna. Timber from Schima wallichii (Theaceae) is highly appreciated as construction poles and has been extensively used in building the spacious wooden houses of some ethnic minorities (Dai in particular). Nowadays, there is a lack of this high-quality timber, and new houses are often made of bricks. Firewood is collected in the fallow or patch of village-owned forest, and in some cases also in the reserve. The estimated consumption of fuelwood varies from one tonne to as much as 10 tonnes/household/year.

3.4 Hunting

Hunting has played an important role among many ethnic minorities of Yunnan. Before settling down, hunting was one of the main sources of food and income. Among some groups their livelihoods were almost totally based on hunting. Animal meat, bones and organs have been used as food and medicine. Catching wild animals for pets is less common but monkeys, especially rhesus monkey ( Macaca mulatta ), and some birds like hwamei ( Garrulux canorus ) are caught for that purpose.

Guns have been the most common and effective way to hunt. To limit hunting, the government of Yunnan Province decided to confiscate guns from all the villages nearby the reserves. Confiscation began in June 1998, and by April 1999 all guns should have been relinquished. This means that hunting should decrease considerably but from the villagers' viewpoint it means less food, medicine and income from wild animals. Hunting by traps, bows and arrows or by use of bird lime (a sticky liquid spread on branches to which perching birds will adhere) is clearly less efficient and time consuming but it continues. In earlier times gas was used to kill birds in efficiently; a small group of hunters could kill more than 100 birds in the course of a morning.

Hunting pressure in the forests close to the villages has varied from practically no hunting to very high hunting pressure. The number of hunted species has also varied from only a few to almost all animals. The most Page 5 of 16

hunted mammals have been Indian muntjac, sambar and wild boar. In the area with the highest hunting pressure more than 100 Indian muntjacs were killed during a year by one hunter. Bamboo rats and squirrels are the most important small mammals. Hunting small cats (genera Felis and Prionailurus ) is not common, and hunting monkeys or bigger cats like leopards is rare. After 1990, no elephants have been killed in the areas visited, and only a few were killed before that (in the 1980s). The strict punishments might be one reason for decreased hunting—the death sentence can be invoked for killing a tiger or elephant.

Red jungle fowl ( Gallus gallus ) and silver pheasant ( Lophura nycthemera ) are among the most hunted bird species in all the reserves visited. After these come other pheasants ( Phasianidae sp.) and pigeons (Columbidae sp). Hunting birds by traps, bird lime or bows and arrows is much more difficult than by guns.

3.5 Fishing

Fishing has not played so important role as hunting. However, in most of the villages people go to fish in nearby rivers when they have time. In three villages there was no fishing at all because of over-fishing (fishermen from outside the village had used electricity), too strong a current or pollution with pesticides. In most cases the rivers are quite small (at least during dry seasons) and fishes are also small. The most important fishing methods are nets and electricity. No explosives are used and in only one village, in earlier times, had people used poisons extracted from plants. Poisoning is a very effective method as it kills all the fish within a few days. Most of the fish taken are eaten in the villages. Fishing pressure is quite low and does not seem to affect terrestrial wildlife.

3.6 Domestic animals

Animal meat is an important part of daily diet. Nowadays, when hunting has considerably decreased, domestic animals have become more important as source of protein and income. In all the villages visited, families have a few pigs and several chickens. In some villages there are also ducks, turkeys or goats. Some villages have cattle kept for meat but not for milk. Milk is not used because most Chinese lack the lactase breaking enzymes. Chickens and pigs are normally kept nearby the houses but pigs especially may run far from the village looking for food.

There are water buffaloes in almost every village. They are used for ploughing and other agricultural activities. Buffaloes, cattle and goats graze mostly in the fallow but sometimes also in the forest (and in the reserves). Epidemic diseases among pigs and chickens are quite common, and it is difficult to get medicines. Especially in remote villages people do not give medicines to animals although they are quite cheap.

4. Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve

Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve was established in 1958 with the object of protecting local tropical forests, rare plants and animals. Although the reserve covers less than 0.2 per cent of the total land area of China, there are more than 4,000 species of higher plants (12 per cent of China’s total flora), of which about 1,000 can be utilised by man. There are well over 600 species of vertebrates, of which 100 are under special protection. The area thus has one of the greatest diversities of species in China and is of great importance to the maintenance of regional biodiversity.

4.1 Protected area level assessment

Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve is designated by the State Council, and placed under IUCN management category IV. The Yunnan Department of Forestry is the agency responsible for the reserve. It also gives technical support concerning plantations and improving living conditions. The long-term German project ('Tropical Ecosystem Management') has just started in Xishuangbanna (Mangao and Mengla) and in Nabanhe reserves. It mostly provides technical support and training courses. The Management Bureau as well as the Research Institute of the reserve is located in Jinghong. In addition, there are five management stations (one in each division) and seven forest police stations (one in each division, with the exception of Mengyang and Mengla reserves, which have two). These stations are principally located in the towns nearest to the reserves. The Management Bureau has a total staff of 234 (1998) including 32 forest police and 34 technical persons. In addition, local manpower is recruited from villages within or adjacent to the reserves.

4.2 Population

There are 112 villages within or adjacent to the reserve, of which the total human population is 18,867 (data from 1994). Xishuangbanna Reserve is inhabited by more than 10 different ethnic groups including Dai, Hani, Bulang, Lahu, Yao, Yi, Aini and Kuchong, with Dai making up the majority. Page 6 of 16

4.3 Physical geography

The reserve is located in the Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, between 99°56’-101°50’E, and 21 ° 08’-22°36’N. It consists of five divisions: Mengyan g, Menglun, Mengla, Shangyong and Mangao (see the map attached), which cover an area of about 2,400 km 2 in total (more than 10 per cent of the area of the Xishuangbanna Prefecture). Each division is zoned into core area(s) and buffer zones.

The climate of Xishuangbanna is dominated by southwest monsoon with high rainfall from May to October and low rainfall from November to April, so there is a well-defined division of wet and dry seasons. The mean annual temperature in Jinghong County, the capital of Xishuangbanna, is 21.7° C; the mean temperature during the coldest month (January) is 15.5° C. Annu al precipitation is 1,221 mm, but more than 85 per cent falls during the rainy season. The minimum monthly rainfall is 9.4 mm (in February).

The Lancang River with more than 20 tributaries (the upper course of the Mekong) flows through the area, resulting in many river valleys and small basins. The main tributaries are the Luosuo, Nanla, Liusha and Nanlaa Rivers. The terrain of Xishuangbanna stands higher in the east, north and west than in the middle, tilting gradually from north to south. The valleys vary in depth from 500 to 1,000 metres. The highest elevation is 2,429 and the lowest 475 metres.

4.4 Primary forest vegetation of Xishuangbanna

Tropical rainforests are principally distributed in the tropical wet lowlands of the world, where the temperature of the coldest month is over 18°C and the mean rain fall for the driest month is more than 50 mm. As a result of being dominated by a monsoon climate, however, rainforests in continental Southeast Asia can show pronounced seasonal trends. Some tree species are partially deciduous in the dry season; in China areas where this occurs are referred to as tropical seasonal rainforests . In comparison with typical rainforest zones, Xishuangbanna is cooler and has lower rainfall, but there are 100 foggy days in the dry season, which increase air humidity and compensate for shortage of rainfall (Zhang & Cao, 1995).

There are five primary forest vegetation types in Xishuangbanna: tropical seasonal (monsoon) forest, tropical montane rainforest, subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest, monsoon forest over limestone and monsoon forest on riverbanks. The first four forest types form the principal framework of natural forest vegetation, whereas monsoon forest on riverbanks has been cleared or influenced by intense human activities. Among the first four vegetation types, tropical seasonal rainforest and evergreen broad-leaved forest occupy relatively large areas—the latter accounting for 80 per cent of the total forest area. Tropical montane rainforest and monsoon forest over limestone are very scattered. The primary forests have been greatly disturbed by man during the last 30 years.

4.5 Secondary vegetation of Xishuangbanna

The tropical forests of Xishuangbanna have been reduced from 60 per cent of the area in the early 1950s to only 32 per cent at present. Since 1950s, there have been three major periods of deforestation, the first one in the 1950s, the second in the early 1970s, and the last in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Si-yu, 1990.) Deforestation of this area was mainly caused by establishment of farmlands for permanent or shifting cultivation and plantations of rubber or tropical fruit trees, as well as collection of firewood and demand for timber by the local inhabitants. Some of the cultivated areas have been abandoned after short-term utilisation, and different secondary plant communities have developed. Some communities with good water supplies and good soils can recover naturally if there is no further severe damage over a long period, but some cannot because of repeated clearance and burning. The main secondary vegetation types are secondary deciduous monsoon forest, secondary savannah woodland, bamboo forest, secondary grassland and Chromolaena odoratum community (Zhang & Cao, 1995).

4.6 Flora

Xishuangbanna lies at the transitional zone between the floras of Malaya, Indo-Himalaya, and South China and therefore harbours a large number of plant species.The tropical features of Xishuangbanna’s flora are quite distinct. Such tropical families as Dipterocarpaceae, Myristicaceae, Tetramelaceae, Annonaceae and Dilleniaceae, and genera such as Ficus, Artocarpus, Antiaris and Dysoxylum are represented. About 60 per cent of the species of Xishuangbanna’s flora also occur in Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Myanmar and India. There are 153 endemic, 31 relict and 133 rare species growing in Xishuangbanna, of which 110 are endangered or vulnerable. In addition, 28 wild types of cultivated plant species and their relatives occur. Some of these may prove to have significant value in genetic research and breeding. More than 1,000 species are economically important: about 500 are medicinal plants. More than 100 trees are fast growing or produce high-quality timber. Page 7 of 16

More than 100 species yield oil, 10 species ( Calamus spp.) yield rattan, and many species are aromatic or yield resin, tannins or gum (Shou-qing, 1988).

4.7 Fauna

Because of the wide variety of habitats there is high bird and mammal diversity in Xishuangbanna. In total there are 427 bird species and sub-species, with 301 residents and over 100 summer migrants. This is 40 per cent of all bird species in China. Almost 80 of these species are on IUCN's threatened species list, including raptors such as greater spotted eagle ( Aquila clanga ), rufous-necked hornbill ( Aceros nipalensis ) and green peafowl ( Pavo muticus ). The avifauna of the area is predominantly Oriental, showing only two per cent Palearctic affinity.

The mammal fauna of Xishuangbanna resembles that of the Southeast Asian tropical zone. There are 102 species, which is 22 per cent of all the mammal species of China, and 42 per cent of Yunnan. The best-known species of the area are Asian elephant, tiger, leopard, Indian bison or gaur ( Bos gaurus ) and several primates such as black gibbon ( Hylobates concolor), Phayre’s leaf monkey ( Presbytis phayrei ), slow loris ( Nycticebus coucang ) and four macaque species ( Macaque arctoides, M. assamensis, M. mulatta and M. nemestrina ). There are approximately 250-300 elephants in Xishuangbanna. The following rare or endangered species can be found in all divisions of the Xishuangbanna reserves; Indian bison, leopard, Asian black bear, Chinese pangolin ( Manis pentadactyla ) and slow loris.

4.8 Divisions of the Xishuangbanna Reserve

4.8.1. Mengyang Reserve (998 km 2)

Mengyang is the largest division of Xishuangbanna, located 43 km north of Jinghong. The western boundary of the reserve follows the Lancang River, whereas the eastern follows the Xiaoheijiang River (tributary of Luosuo). Elevations vary from about 500 to 1,800 metres. The reserve is divided in buffer zones (in the southwest and central parts) and core areas, both being of approximately equal sizes. Any bus travelling north from Jinghong passes the reserve. The nearest town to the reserve is Mengyang, where Chinese tourists stop to see a banyan tree ( Ficus benghalensis ) shaped like an elephant. In the part of the reserve called Sanchahe there already exist facilities for tourists, including a restaurant, canopy treehouses, cable car, elephant performances, etc. About 200,000-300,000 tourists (mainly Chinese) visit the area each year. Nearby villages derive no benefit from tourism.

The main primary vegetation types in the reserve are subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest and tropical monsoon forest. There are bamboo forests (for example, Dendrocalamus membranaceus ) particularly on the west banks of the Lancang River below 1,000 metres. Open forests and shrub lands are extensive along the southeastern boundary. Tree species of special interest include Pometia tomentosa (Sapindaceae), Terminalia myriocarpa (Combretaceae), Cleistanthus sumantranus (Euphorbiaceae), Semecarpus reticulata (Anacardiaceae) and Sladenia celastrifolia (Theaceae). The two first-named are regarded as threatened species.

There are 283 bird species, which is the highest number for all the divisions of Xishuangbanna (although in Mengla there were almost as many). But, during the three-day survey, only a small fraction were seen or heard (see Appendix 1.). The significant species inhabiting the reserve include green peafowl, which is vulnerable under IUCN's threat classification, and the large-sized hornbill species great hornbill ( Buceros bicornis ).

Among the 59 mammal species several are endangered or rare. In addition to the significant species inhabiting all the Xishuangbanna reserves there are Asian elephant, tiger and clouded leopard in Mengyang reserve. All are on IUCN's threatened species list. There are also four primates with two macaques ( Macaca mulatta and M. assamensis ), slow loris and Phayre’s leaf monkey.

There has been high hunting pressure especially on Indian muntjac, sambar and wild boar. Silver pheasant and red jungle fowl have been the most hunted birds. Now that there are no guns, hunting has considerably decreased and is done mostly by trapping. Villagers fish in the nearby rivers in the both visited villages. Only small fishes are caught by electricity and by net.

There is significant human activity including 45 villages within or adjacent to the reserve with an estimate of 700 inhabitants representing several ethnic groups. Two villages were visited.

Xinlongshan (mixed population, mainly Jinuo minority; 126 inhabitants) Page 8 of 16

Located in the eastern side of the reserve by the Nanding River (tributary of Luosuo). The mountain road is hardly passable by any means other than local two-wheeled tractor. It takes five to six hours from Mengyang town to reach the village. There are electricity (since 1994) and piped water in the village. The total amount of land is 1.4 hectares per person. Given favourable weather conditions, it is possible to grow two crops of rice per year. The main sources of income are Amomum villosum cultivation and rubber trees. According to the head of the village, a tunnel from the nearby river will be built by a GTZ project, which will increases the area suitable for paddy rice. The nearest primary school is a three-hour walk from the village.

Jiangbianzai (Yi-minority, 148 inhabitants)

Located in the western side of the reserve, where the Mengyang enters the Lancang River, 36 km from Mengyang town. It takes 4-5 hours along a dirt road by tractor but less by jeep. On the other hand, the village can be reached by boat along the Lancang River (35 kilometres from Jinhong). From there it is less than a one-kilometre walk from river to village. There is no electricity or piped water. Water comes along bamboo pipes from a natural reservoir above the village but getting enough water during the dry season (4-5 months a year) is problematic. Paddies (0.1 hectare per person) produce one crop of rice each year. Main sources of income are Amomum seeds, bamboo and corn. There is a primary school but providing for only the two first years of schooling. Thereafter children go to boarding school, an hour away by tractor. There are no healthcare services, and malaria was reported to be common during the rainy season. There are plans to build a dam 30 kilometres southwards in Lancang River. If this goes ahead, the village will be inundated.

4.8.2. Mangao Reserve (ca. 73 km 2)

This reserve is situated in the westernmost part of Xishuangbanna and is easily accessible from the nearest town, Menghai, by bus or jeep. It is a two and a half hours by bus from Jinghong. The highest peak (Shidaimao) stands at 1,700 metres. There are seven villages within or adjacent to the reserve. A viewing tower is available for public use, such as for bird watching.

The main forest types in the reserve are subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest, tropical monsoon forest in the southernmost part, patches of montane tropical forest and coniferous forest dominated by single species, Pinus kesiya var. langbianensis . There are shrublands and open forests along the boundary.

The total number of bird species is 242, but during the one-day survey only 10 were spotted. The reserve harbours significant species like green peafowl and greater spotted eagle, both of which are on IUCN's threatened list. There are 61 recorded mammal species in the reserve. In addition to Indian bison and leopard, there are clouded leopard ( Neofelis nebulosa ), Asiatic golden cat ( Catopuma temminckii ), wolf ( Canis lupus ) and macaques ( Macaque arctoide and M. mulatta ). All are threatened species.

Hunting continues by bows and arrows and by traps in Mangao. Besides the Indian muntjac and wild boar, masked palm civet ( Paguma larvata ) and pheasants are among the most hunted species. Near the reserve there are fishponds, where most of the fishing is practised. One small river was poisoned because of the widespread use of pesticides in cultivation, and there are no fish now.

Three villages were visited.

Mangun (Dai minority, 580 inhabitants)

Located by the road to Menga, eight kilometres from Menghai town, on the boundary of the reserve near a small river (a tributary of the Liusha). There are electricity and piped water. The main cash crops are sugar cane and tea. There are also cattle (more than 60 head), which are sold for extra income. There is a primary school and a Buddhist temple.

Wengnan (Dai minority, 400 inhabitants)

Located by the road to Menga 10 kilometres from Menghai town, close to the reserve. There are electricity (since 1982) and piped water (since 1981). There is 0.1 hectare of paddy per person. The main cash crops are sugar cane and tea. Rice is sold occasionally. There is no primary school but a Buddhist temple and temple school are in the village. Two persons are responsible for simple healthcare. Page 9 of 16

Nasai (Lahu minority, 220 inhabitants, established 1979)

Located by the road to Menga, nine kilometres from Menghai town, close to the reserve. There are electricity (1984) and piped water (1986). There is 0.1 hectare of paddy per person although not enough for all households. The main cash crops are sugar cane and tea. The distance to the nearest school and health services is one and a half kilometres. Only 10 per cent of the inhabitants are literate.

4.8.3. Menglun Reserve (106 km 2)

Located 80 kilometres east of Jinghong in the catchment of the Luosuo River, around Menglun town, which can be reached from Jinghong by an approximately two-hours' bus ride. The major attraction of Menglun is the Tropical Botanical Garden (993 hectares), where over 2,000 species of tropical plants have been introduced. The Ex Situ Conservation Site (90 hectares), which was established in 1974 by the garden and contains some 200 rare and endangered plant species, was visited. Another tourist attraction is the Green Stone Forest. The latter is a patch of monsoon forest over limestone, with paved paths. There are some individual Tetrameles nudiflora (Tetramelaceae), with huge buttresses and strangler figs, which are of special interest to tourists. They grow to 40 metres tall, occur typically in limestone forests and are regarded as threatened. The Site lies along the road to Mengla, roughly five kilometres from Menglun. It was recently opened for tourists and has 50- 100 visitors a day, mostly Chinese.

The Menglun Reserve is divided to three separate parts; western area, Wangzishan and limestone area, the latter including the Green Stone Forest. The main vegetation types are tropical monsoon forest, monsoon forest over limestone and subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest.

Menglun reserve has the lowest number of bird species (230) of all the Xishuangbanna reserves. However, during a one-day survey, one of the highest numbers of bird species out of all reserves visited was recorded. The most interesting bird species are Indian pied hornbill ( Antracocercus coronatus ) and black stork ( Ciconia nigra ). The number of recorded mammals (53) is least of all the divisions but, because of the presence of gaur, tiger, leopard and the highest number of primate species, it still has high significance.

There was a very high hunting pressure before guns were confiscated. Almost all bird and mammal species were hunted, except elephants and gaur, and focused on Indian muntjac, wild boar and pheasants. Monkeys were also caught for food and as pets. Hunting continues by trapping. Fishing is practised using electricity or by draining sections of the rivers.

There are seven villages within or adjacent to the reserve. Two were visited; Bakaxiaozhai and Medeng.

Bakaxiaozhai (Jinuo minority, 265 inhabitants, established 1970)

Located on the boundary of the western part of the reserve, six kilometres from Menglun. There are electricity (1970s) and piped water (1985). There are 2.6 hectares of paddy per village but four hectares were lost to floods in 1995. A third of the families experience food shortages for half the year. The main cash crops are rubber trees, Amomum and passion fruits. The nearest primary school and health care services are nine kilometres away; and healthcare services are available in Menglun.

Medeng (Aini minority, 350 inhabitants, established 1972)

Located on the boundary of the western part of the reserve, 10 km from Menglun. There are electricity (1994) and piped water (1998). There are 10 hectares of paddy per village. Average income is 450 yuan/person/year, which is below the official poverty line. The main cash crops are rubber trees and passion fruits. The reserve staff have negative attitudes towards Amomum cultivation. Primary school and healthcare services are available in the village.

4.8.4. Mengla Reserve (900 km 2)

Located in the southeast of Xishuangbanna prefecture, 170 kilometres from Jinghong (five hours by bus). The main rivers are the Nanla and Huiganghe, both being tributaries of the Lancang. The reserve is divided into eastern ( Yaoqu ) and western ( Mengban ) parts. There are 46 villages within or adjacent to the reserve. The chief tourist attraction of Mengla is the Bepeng Aerial Skyway Park, located 20 kilometres north from Mengla town (45 minutes by bus). It has canopy walks, paved paths, a restaurant and some cottages for overnight Page 10 of 16

accommodation along the Nanla River.

The main forest types in the reserve are subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest and tropical monsoon forest. According to the vegetation type map of Xishuangbanna, there are patches of tropical rainforest in the northwestern part of the reserve, which were not visited. There are extensive areas of open forests and shrub land along the boundaries, particularly in the eastern part. Species of special interest include Parashorea chinensis (Dipterocarpaceae), an emergent tree up to 60 metres tall, Castanopsis mekongensis (Fagaceae), Podocarpus imbricatus (Podocarpaceae) and a tree-fern Cyathea spinulosa (Cyatheaceae). All are rare species.

With 280 bird species Mengla is one of the most important bird reservoirs of Xishuangbanna. There are four hornbills including rufus-necked and great hornbill. The reserve harbours 78 mammal species and has the greatest diversity of mammal species of all the Xishuangbanna reserves. They include tiger, clouded leopard, bintarong ( Arctictis bintarong ), red panda ( Ailurus fulgens ), lesser mouse deer (Tragulus javanicus ), black gibbon and some other primates. Hunting has been practised in earlier times but not now. The river nearby one of the villages visited was almost emptied of fish a few years ago by electricity. Fishing in the other river is practised by netting.

Two villages were visited.

Huiganghe (Hani minority, 80 inhabitants, established 1976)

Located about 18 kilometres north of Mengla town, close to the Skyway Park on the eastern side of the Huiganghe River. A road to the village is under construction. There is no electricity or piped water. There is 0.3 hectare of paddy per family. The main source of income is bean cultivation. The distance to the nearest school and healthcare services is four kilometres.

Bubeng (Hani minority, 117 inhabitants, established 1970, administrative village)

Located 15 kilometres north of Mengla town along the road to the Mengban town. There are electricity (1990) and piped water (1995). There is 0.1 hectare of paddy per person. The main cash crops are rubber trees, sugar cane and Amomum . A primary school and healthcare services are available in the village.

4.8.5. Shangyong Reserve (305 km 2)

Located in the southernmost part of Xishuangbanna prefecture along the border with Lao. The main river of the reserve is the Nanman, a tributary of Nanla River. There is one village within and 13 others in adjacent areas. There is a deficiency of land and food in all these villages. They are inhabited by ethnic minorities: Kucong, Yao, Hani, Aini and Dai. Projects implemented by the local management bureau include introducing coffee and passion fruit plantations, handicrafts, improving social welfare and technical support.

The main forest types in the reserve are tropical monsoon forest and subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest. Additionally, there are bamboo forests along the eastern boundary. There are 246 bird species including four hornbills and several pheasant species as well as Lord Derby’s parakeet ( Psittacula derbiana ). There are 70 mammal species including Asian elephant, tiger, wild dog ( Cuon alpinus ), smooth-coated otter ( Lutra perspicillata ) and black gibbon. All species mentioned above are endangered or vulnerable under IUCN's threat classification. Hunting has decreased but is still practised by using birdlime. Butterflies are also collected. Fishing is practised by net and by draining sections of the river.

Three villages visited were located along the southeastern boundary of the reserve.

Balianzhai (Kuchong minority, 169 inhabitants, established 1987)

Located about 30 kilometres south of Mengla town. There is no electricity, but piped water exists (1994). The average income is 200 yuan/person/year, which is below the official poverty line. There are 8 hectares of paddy per village. The major cash crop is sugar cane, and there are also Amomum , rubber trees (too young to yield) and watermelons that have been recently planted. There is a primary school but no health service. There were signs of malnutrition among children in this village.

Longmen (mixed population; Hani, Dai and Yao minorities, 168 inhabitants, administrative village) Page 11 of 16

Located about 40 kilometres southwest of Mengla town. There are electricity (1992) and piped water (1986). There are 23 hectares of paddy per village. An estimate of average income for 1999 is 1,200 yuan/person/year. The main cash crops are sugar cane, rubber trees, Amomum , fruits and tea. There are primary and middle schools as well as healthcare services (a new clinic).

Pinghe (Yao minority, 83 inhabitants)

Located about 41 kilometres southwest of Mengla. There are electricity (1992) and piped water (1985). There are 8 hectares of paddy per village. Average income varies between 1,000-20,000 yuan/household/year. The major cash crop is sugar cane. The villagers have planted some Amomum recently, and there is a coffee-planting project. The village has rented out some land for orange cultivation (income 50,000 yuan). There are no school or healthcare services in the village but they are available in Longmen village, one kilometre away.

5. Nabanhe Provincial Nature Reserve (261 km 2)

Located in Xishuangbanna Prefecture, in the western side of Lancang River, by Naban River, about two hours drive by jeep. It lies northwest of Jinghong between 22°5’-22°16’N, and 100°34’-100°43’ E). The reserve was established in 1991 for protection of rainforests and wildlife. The responsible agency is the Yunnan Environment Protection Bureau. The total staff of the reserve comprises 30 (including six forest police and nine local patrollers). Twenty-eight cases of law breaking were recorded in 1998. There are five administrative villages and 33 nature villages within the reserve. The total human population is 5,200, and includes Han and five ethnic minorities (Dai, Aini, Lahu, Bulang and Yi). A GTZ project (mainly to provide technical support) has chosen four target villages in this reserve. Visitors used to number 20,000-30,000 a year but, due to bad road condition, there are very few nowadays.

The main forest types in the reserve are evergreen broad-leaved forest and tropical monsoon forest in humid valleys. The former is dominated by trees from family Fagaceae ( Lithocarpus spp., Castanopsis spp.) and Schima wallichii (Theaceae). The latter has tall emergent trees (up to 40 metres) with buttresses, epiphytes, lianas and a rich herbaceous layer (Araceae, Araliaceae, Costaceae, Zingiberaceae, Maranthaceae, Melastomataceae).

There are no exact data available on species numbers. According to a one-day survey, bird diversity of this reserve is not very high compared with the other reserves. However, a one-day survey is hardly sufficient to make conclusions about total diversity, and some rare or endangered birds may inhabit this area. The most important mammal species inhabiting the reserve are leopard, Asian black bear, macaques ( Macaca assamensis and M. mulatta ) and Phayre’s leaf monkey. Asian elephant pass by the reserve regularly. There has not been much hunting, even before guns were confiscated. However, trapping birds with bird lime continues. Fishing is practised by net and electricity.

There is a significant human impact in the reserve and extensive areas are covered by secondary vegetation or have been cleared for agricultural use. Shifting cultivation and clearance of fallow are forbidden. Fallows were once sources of firewood, so now there is a deficiency of firewood.

Two villages were visited.

Nuoyouxiazhai (Lahu-village; 19 households, 82 inhabitants)

Located within the reserve by the Naban River, at 920 metres elevation. There is electricity (1996), but no piped water. There is 0.13 hectare of paddy per household. The main sources of income are corn and watermelon cultivation but income is unsatisfactory. Occasionally pigs are sold for extra cash. The nearest school and simple healthcare services are five kilometres away.

Mangdian (Dai-village with some Bulang-people; 223 inhabitants, administrative village)

Located within the reserve by the main road. There are electricity (1970) and piped water (1991. There are 15 hectares of paddy per village. Rubber trees (40 ha) are the most important source of income. Average income varies from 5000-10,000 yuan/household/year. There are a primary school and three clinics. All children go to school. There is a Buddhist temple in the village but only adult monks. Page 12 of 16

6. Weiyuanjiang Provincial Nature Reserve (77 km 2)

Located in Simao Prefecture, 61 kilometres south of Jinggu town, on the eastern side of Lancang River, by Weiyuanjiang River, close to the small town of Yizhi. It lies between 23°06’-23°17’N, and 100°31’-100° 35’E. It was established in 1984. The total number of staff of the management station (located in Yizhi) is 20 including two forest police and seven local patrollers. During the dry season January-June, patrolling has to be done daily as the dry coniferous forests are prone to forest fires. No serious law breaking has been recorded: only occasional tree felling and resin tapping. Although resin tapping is no longer legally allowed within the reserve, it continues to be practised and in a very unsustainable manner. There are three administrative villages and 14 nature villages adjacent to the reserve. One village was located within the reserve but was removed in 1992. Nowadays only one household has land within the reserve. There are three ethnic minorities, Yi, Dai and Bai living in these villages. The total number of inhabitants is not known. Wild animals destroy an average of 2,000 kilograms of corn each year, mainly in cultivation on boundary areas. There is a new paper-mill in Jinggu town. Tourists do not visit the reserve.

The main vegetation types in the reserve are pine forest ( Pinus kesiya var. langbianensis ) which is an endemic forest type in warm-hot habitats in southern Yunnan, mixed coniferous forest and evergreen broad-leaved forest on humid slopes. The highest peak is more than 2,000 metres, and the elevation in the lowest parts of the reserve is about 800 metres. There are no written data available on animal species of the Weiyuangjian reserve. Information is based on the survey and interviews with local informants. The most significant mammal species in the area are elephant and tiger, which regularly pass by the reserve. Among the other significant species inhabiting the reserve are clouded leopard ( Neofelis nebulosa ), Phayre's leaf monkey ( Presbytis phayrey ) and slow loris ( Nycticebus coucang ).

There are several large birds including the following raptors: northern goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis ), northern sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus ) and Eurasian kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus). Green peafowl occurs and so does Lord Derby's parakeet, which is one of the largest parakeets in China and is classified as a lower risk species in IUCN's threatened list. Hunting pressure was quite high before guns were confiscated, but nowadays there is none. In the nearby river there are many fish that are mostly caught by net.

Two villages were visited.

Yanshuiqing (Yi-village; 10 households, 47 inhabitants 1994)

Located about four kilometres from Yizhi town, some 100 metres from the boundary of the reserve, at 905 metres elevation. There are electricity (1996) and piped water (1994). There are 1.2 hectares of paddy per village, and six hectares per village of dry land cultivation (corn and buckwheat). Food shortages are experienced for from one to six months each year. A road to the village is under construction. The main income (about 8,000 yuan/village in 1994) comes from resin tapping (80 per cent) and sale of bamboo shoots. Mango cultivation was reported to suffer from insects, and there is no market for other fruits such as oranges and apples. There are 69 head of cattle in this village.

Shizhai (Dai-village; 51 households, 276 inhabitants, administrative village)

Located about 500 metres from Yizhi town across the Weiyuanjiang River. There are electricity (1974) and piped water (1987). There are 17 hectares of paddy per village, and less than 20 hectares per village of dry land cultivation. Average income is 300-400 yuan/person/year, which is below the official poverty line. The main income formerly came from resin tapping, up to 3 tonnes/month. Tapping is still practised in the reserve. Other cash crops are rubber trees, sugar cane and watermelons. Some families also grow vegetables for sale in the nearby Yizhi town, where there are a primary school and healthcare services are available.

7. Banma Snow Mountain Reserve (255 km 2)

A recently established county level reserve, which is located in Lincang Prefecture, 110 kilometres southwest of Lincang town, in the area of Shuangjiang, Genma and Lincang counties. It lies between 23°19’-23°48’ N and 99°40’-100°01’ E. Around Lincang town, land is cleared for agricultural uses especially for cultivating rapeseed Page 13 of 16

and sugar cane. There are also sugar and rapeseed oil refineries. Some hot springs nearby Lincang town could be tourist attractions. The reserve is divided into three parts, and one was visited in Shuangjiang County.

The reserve was established in 1998 for the protection of evergreen broad-leaved forests, endangered species, water resources and ecosystem conservation. It is situated in the watershed of Nanmeng and Mengmeng Rivers, which are tributaries of Xiaoheijiang (and Lancang) River. The Forestry Bureau of Lincang Prefecture is the responsible agency.

A management bureau with three management stations and three forest police stations is to be established, one of them in the nearby Mengku town. The total number of staff will be 20 including three forest police. In addition, local patrollers will be hired. In that part located in Shuangjiang County there are 58 nature villages adjacent to the reserve, with a total population of 18,689 inhabitants including Lahu, Wa, Bulang and Dai- minorities.

The reserve lies mostly above 2,000 metres, and the highest peak is 3,233. It is surrounded by heavily used and partly eroded slopes with low productive cultivation. The main vegetation type in the reserve is evergreen broad-leaved forest. According to the staff there are also some patches of tropical monsoon forest in humid valleys and Rhododendron -scrubs and bamboo thickets in higher altitudes. Endangered plant species include tree fern ( Cyathea spinulosa ), which thrives only in very moist sites, and Taxus yunnanensis . In the humid evergreen broad-leaved forest there are old oaks ( Quercus spp.) with huge trunks and canopy heights up to 30 metres, covered with epiphytes (Araceae, Orchidaceae, bryophytes and lichens). Other common tree genera are Castanopsis, Lithocarpus and Betula . The rich herbaceous layer includes many different ferns, orchids (Liparis sp.), Pilea spp. and several species of Begonium .

The survey of fauna is partly based on literature and partly on a one-day visit in the reserve. There is a wide diversity of raptor species including golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos daphnea ), Eurasian kestrel and northern goshawk. Examples of rare or endangered bird species are Mrs Hume's pheasant ( Syrmaticus humiae ) and mandarin duck ( Aix galericulata ). There are many primates including four macaques, black gibbon and slow loris. In addition, there are rare or endangered carnivores such as tiger, leopard, clouded leopard and wolf.

There is significant human impact, mainly felling of valuable timber (for example, Betula sp., wood used for guns), construction poles, firewood and NTFP-collection, as well as grazing by domestic animals (goats in particular). Pit sawing is still practised in the reserve. Protecting these remaining patches of forest is crucial, and there exists a plan to include all three parts of this reserve together with Daxue Mountain (Lingchan County) and Dachao Mountain (Yunxian County) Reserves in a proposed Lancang Jiang Provincial Nature Reserve.

Three villages were visited.

Banma (Han-village; 120 households, 500 inhabitants)

Located about seven kilometres northwest of Mengku town, at 1,600 metres elevation. There is electricity and piped water (since 1994). Due to high elevation and steep slopes the area is not suitable for rice, but there are 100 hectares of dry land cultivation; mainly corn, buckwheat and vegetables. Some households have food shortage for four to six months each year. Average income varies between 2500-3000 yuan/household/year. Tea is the most important cash crop (100 ha) although prices were reported to be low. Sugar cane yield is low at high elevations. Goats, pigs and chickens are sold for extra income. Income is used mainly for purchasing rice. There are 40 head of cattle and 60 goats in the village. There is a primary school for the first four years, as well as simple healthcare services. Almost all the people aged less than 40 are literate. Ninety-eight per cent of the children go to school. The villagers have plans to plant walnut trees, firewood (Fagaceae species) and timber ( Pinus armandii ), but loans would be needed.

Lizai (Han-village; 46 households, 210 inhabitants)

Located about five kilometres north of Banma village. There are five or six small hydropower generators, which produce electricity for some of the households. Piped water (since 1996) is also available but only for some families. The main crops are corn, wheat, buckwheat and rice. Half of the households have food shortages for two to three months a year. The average income varies 1000-5000 yuan/household/year. Tea is the most important cash crop (0.4 ha/household). However, the price of tea is low: only 1.4 yuan/kg for fresh leaves of 'spring tea', and 0.8 yuan for 'summer tea'. The villagers have planted 1,000 seedlings of walnut but they are too young to yield fruits. Pigs and chickens are sold for extra income. There are 30 head of cattle and 20 goats in Page 14 of 16

the village. Income is used mainly to purchase rice. There is a primary school for the first four years in the nearby Weizai village but no healthcare services. About half of the middle-aged people are literate. The informants did not know about the recently established reserve.

Weizai (Lahu-village; 31 households, 127 inhabitants)

Located about 500 metres from Yizai village. There are no electricity or piped water. There are 9 hectares of paddy per village, and 13 hectares per village of dry land cultivation. The major cash crop is tea (14 hectares per village). The average income was reported to be only 50 yuan/person/year. This village is not the poorest of those adjacent to the reserve. There is a food shortage for more than six months of the year village. Only two households claimed to have sufficient food year round. Two families have planted some walnut seedlings. There is a primary school for the first four years, but no healthcare services. Two-thirds of the children do not go to school because costs are too high (120 yuan/year). The informant did not know about the recently established reserve.

8. Tianchi Provincial Nature Reserve (66 km 2)

Located in Dali Prefecture, on the eastern side of Lancang River between 25°50’-25°56’, and 99°15’-99° 19’. It is about two hours' drive from Yunlong town by jeep, while Yunlong is about 110 kilometres (a five-hour bus ride) northwest of Xiaguan town at the southern end of Erhai Lake. The reserve was established in 1984. The management stations and forest police station share one building, which is located in the reserve. The total number of staff in the management station is 27 including nine patrollers. In addition, there are three forest police. There are two villages within and 45 villages adjacent to the reserve. One village was moved out from the reserve in 1988. The total population in the reserve is 200 (Bai and Lisu ethnic minorities), but there are about 4,000 people living close to the reserve.

The reserve is situated around Lake Tianchi, which is 100 hectares in extent, and lies at 2,551 metres elevation. The highest peak in the reserve is Wangbaoshan (3,226 metres). The main forest types in the reserve are pine forests ( Pinus yunnanensis and P. armandii ) and evergreen broad-leaved forest in the more humid western part. There is a meadow (abandoned agricultural land) around the lake with primroses ( Primula spp.), Gentiana spp. and Potentilla sp. As many as 18 different species of Rhododendron can be found growing around the lake, and during the blooming time, March-April, the view is said to be very beautiful.

There are data available only on bird species. According to the survey carried out by Jingliang and Shijian (1991) there are 120 bird species or sub-species showing 60 per cent Oriental affinity. Because of the lake there are several waterfowl, including ducks, grebes and herons. Only one species, giant nuthatch ( Sitta magna ), is classed by IUCN as vulnerable. Information about mammals is based on local knowledge and a one-day survey. The most significant mammals are tiger and leopard, which pass by the reserve, and Yunnan snub-nosed monkey ( Rhinopithecus bieti ), which is one of the most threatened primate species of China. There is no hunting or fishing within the reserve but there may be some trapping on the border.

Steps are being taken to make Tianchi Reserve a tourist attraction, and a new hotel has been built close to the lake. There is a significant human impact in the reserve, mainly tree felling and grazing by domestic animals (cattle and horses in particular).

Two villages located in the northern part of the reserve were visited by the Chinese counterparts.

Bazidi (Lisu-village; 20 households, 150 inhabitants)

There is no road to this village. Only one family has electricity enough for light (simple hydropower), and there are simple water pipes made of bamboo in the village. The village has three hectares of cultivated land and 20 of fallow. The main crops are wheat, potatoes, buckwheat, corn and rapeseed. There are 100 head of cattle and 250 goats, which are the main sources of income. There is no food shortage in the village. Firewood consumption was estimated to be 5,000 tonnes/household/year. Only dead trees and branches may legally be cut in the reserve. The nearest primary school is two or three hours on foot, and one person is responsible for simple health care. The village headman acts as patroller in the reserve.

Juedi village has 11 households and 50 inhabitants from the Bai-minority. The amount of cultivated land was Page 15 of 16

reported to be uncertain.

9. Summary

Due to the limited opportunities to see the whole area of the reserves it is difficult to estimate the level of disturbance as well as the biological quality. The following reserves have potential for ecotourism considering the biodiversity and interesting amenities. The diversity of both flora and fauna is highest in Xishuangbanna. In Banma there are many rare or endangered animals and plants. In Tianchi there are especially many showy Rhododendron spp., beautiful scenery around the lake and abundant waterfowl. One of the most interesting animal species, Asian elephant, can be seen in Xishuangbanna's Mengyang and Shangyong reserves. And in Mengyang there are also especially many bird species. There are patches of tropical seasonal rainforests with high canopy trees, buttresses, lianas, epiphytes and rich herbaceous layer in all reserves of Xishuangbanna, and monsoon forest over limestone with steep terrain particularly in Menglun.

Xishuangbanna is the area with most visitors - Mengyang, Menglun and Mengla reserves in particular. There are some visitors to Mangao but very few in Shangyong, Banma and Weiyuanjiang reserves. Nabanhe used to be visited but due to bad roads and lack of facilities, most visitors go to Mengyang nowadays. Seasonal trends are apparent in even the most visited areas. There were hardly any tourists in Xishuangbanna in January, but by the end of February and particularly during the Dai-minority 'Water Splashing Festival' in April it is crowded. During the six weeks fieldwork, no western visitors were seen in the reserves. The Mengyang, Menglun, Mengla, and Tianchi reserves already have facilities for tourists including roads, nature trails, accommodation and restaurants. There are some paths in all the reserves, but guidance is needed. Information (maps, brochures) is rarely available in English or any other foreign language.

It seems that local communities have not derived much benefit from tourism in the reserves. For example, in Mengyang Reserve all the workers are from Jinghong and other nearby towns although in some cases villagers are hired for patrolling. There is very limited curio selling, and no selling of handicrafts made by minority people in connection with the reserves. The local communities have not received any economic benefit from the existence of the reserves. In most cases they have been obliged to give land to the reserve although they received land outside the reserve as compensation.

In all the areas there are picturesque and interesting minority villages. Xishuangbanna is the richest in ethnical minorities. In all the villages visited people were very hospitable and friendly and their attitude towards tourists seemed to be positive.

In some areas, rather than developing ecotourism it might be worthwhile considering developing multi-species plantations and diversified farming system. It seems that rubber tree plantations in Xishuangbanna have made a great contribution to the development of the local economy although at the expense of deforesting tropical seasonal rainforest. At present any expansion of monoculture rubber plantations is undesirable. Agroforestry systems play an important part in the reformation of shifting cultivation and monoculture plantations and their role in tropical agricultural practices should be enhanced.

10. Acknowledgements

We are very grateful to our Chinese counterparts, Professor Jiansheng Hu and Dr Chongyun Wang. Without Professor Hu’s valuable contacts, especially in Xishuangbanna, it would have been very difficult to carry out this survey. He was also responsible for identifying birds. Dr Wang’s knowledge of the local vegetation was a great help. He also acted as our interpreter. We are also thankful for the local forest officials and guides for all their help. Our thanks are also to Professor Jari Niemelä, who took part in planning the fieldwork and joined us at the beginning of our stay in Yunnan.

12. References

Jiangliang, W. & Shijian, Y. 1991 . A report of birds of the Tianchi lake natural protected region. Journal of Yunnan Normal University, 11(3). Page 16 of 16

Shou -qing, Z. 1988 . The Vulnerable and Endangered Plants of Xishuangbanna Prefecture, Yunnan Province, China. Arnoldia 48(2): 2-7.

Si-yu, Wang 1990 . Conservation and exploitation of tropical forests in China. Cathaya 2: 199-206.

Xiwen, L. & Walker, D. 1986 . The plant geography of Yunnan Province, southwest China. Journal of Biogeography 13: 367-397.

Zhang, J. & Cao, M. 1995 . Tropical Forest Vegetation of Xishuangbanna, SW China and its Secondary Changes, with Special Reference to some Problems in Local Nature Conservation. Biological Conservation 73: 229 -238. Page 1 of 5

Annexes 1: List of bird species recorded (seen or heard) in the reserves

IUCN classification: VU = Vulnerable and LR = Lower risk

Species IUCN Xinlongshan Jiangbianzai Mangun, Bakaxiaozhai, Huiganghe, Balanzhai, Nuyou, Yanshuiqing, Banma, Juedi, classification (Mengyang) (Mengyang) Wengnei, Medeng Bubong Longmen, Mangdian Shizhai Yizai, Bazidi Nasai (Menglung) (Mongla) Pinghe (Nabanhe) (Weijuanjian) Waizai (Tianchi) (Mangao) (Shangyong) (Banma) Podicipidae (grebes) Podiceps ruficollis (little grebe) Podiceps x cristatus (g reat crested grebe) Ardeidae (herons) Ardeola bacchus x (Chinese pond heron) Accipitridae (hawks, eagles) Accipiter gentilis x x (Northern goshawk) Accipiter nisus x (Northern sparrowhawk) Accipiter virgatus x

(Besra sparrowhawk) Falconidae (falcons) Falco x tinnunculus (Eurasian kestrel) Phasianidae (pheasants) Arborophila x* x rufogularis (rufous-throated hill partridge) Bambusicola x x x* x x fytchii (mountain bamboo partridge) Francolinus x pintadeanus (Chinese francolin) Gallus gallus x x* x* x* x x x x (red jungle fowl) Lophura x x* x* x* x x x nycthemera (silver pheasant) Pavo muticus VU x (green peafowl) Polyplectron x x bicalcaratum (gray peacock pheasant) Columbidae (doves, pigeons) Streptopelia x x x* x x chinensis (s potted dove) Streptopelia x x* orientalis (Oriental turtle dove) Treron apicauda x x (pin-tailed pigeon) Picidae x x (woodpeckers) Dendrocopus x x Page 2 of 5

major (greater spotted woodpecker) Dendrocopus x canicapillus (gray-capped woodpecker) Dryocopus x javensis (white-bellied woodpecker) Microptenus x brachyurus (rufous woodpecker) Picus chloropsis x x (lesser yellow- naped woodpecker) Picus canus x x x (gray-headed woodpecker) Bucerotidae (hornbills) Anthracoceros x coronatus (Indian pied hornbill) Capitonidae (barbets) Megalaima x virens (great barbet) Pycnonotidae x x (bulbuls) Pycnonotus x x aurigaster (y ellow-vented bulbul) Pycnonotus x atriceps (black-headed bulbul) Pycnonotus cafer x x x x x x (red-vented bulbul) Pycnonotus x jocosus (red- whiskered bulbul) Pycnonotus x x melanicterus (black-crested bulbul) Pycnonotus x x xanthorrhous (brown-brested bulbul) Irenidae (leafbirds) Chloropsis x hardwickey (orange-bellied leafbird) Dicruridae (drongos) Dicrurus x x x x macrocercus (black drongo) Dicrurus x parasideus (greater racket- tailed drongo) Sturnidae x (starlings, mynas) Sturnus contra x (Asian pied starling) Sturnus x malabaricus (chestnut-tailed starling) Page 3 of 5

Sturnus x nigricollis (black-collared starling) Acridotheras x x grandis (crested myna) Alcedinidae (kingfishers) Pelargopsis x capensis (stork-billed kingfisher) Corvidae x (crows, jays) Cissa x x x erythrorhyncha (red-billed magpie) Corvus x macrorhynchus (large billed crow) Dendrocitta x x formosae (gray treepie) Timaliidae x (babblers) Alcippe x poioicephala (brown-cheeked fulvetta) Alcippe x vinipectus (white-browed fulvetta) Garrulux canorus x x x* x x (hwamei) Garrulux x chinensis (black-throated laughingthrush) Garrulux x monileger (lesser necklaced laughingthrush) Garrulux x x pectoralis (greater necklaced laughingthrush) Garrulux x perspicillatus (spectacled laughingthrush) Minla x cyanuroptera (blue-winged siva) Pelorneum x ruficeps (puff-throated babbler) Pnoepyga pusilla x (pygmy wren babbler) Pomatorhinus x hypoleucos (large scimitar babbler) Pomatorhinus x ruficollis (streak-breasted scimitar babbler) Stachyris x ruficeps (rufous-capped babbler) Stachyris x chrysaea (golden babbler) Sylviidae (warblers) Page 4 of 5

Abroscus x x superciliaris (yellow-bellied warbler) Phylloscopus sp. x x Phylloscopus x x affinis (Tickell's leaf warbler) Phylloscopus x davisoni (white-tailed leaf warbler) Phylloscopus x x x x fuscatus (dusky warbler) Phylloscopus x x x x x x inornatus (inornate warbler) Phylloscopus x magrirostris (large-billed leaf warbler) Phylloscopus x tenellipes (pale-legged leaf warbler) Phylloscopus x x x trochiloides (greenish warbler) Prinia atrogularis x

(hill prinia) Hirundinidae (swallows) Hirundo rustica x (house swallow) Turdidae Luscinia calliope x x (Siberian rubythroat) Muscicapidae (flycatchers) Ficedula x westermanni (little pied flycatcher) Niltava sundara x x (rufous-bellied niltava) Campeghagidae (minivets) Pericrocotus x roseus (rosy minivet) Pericrocotus x x flammeus (scarlet minivet) Dicaeidae (flowerpeckers) Dicaeum x chrysorrheum (yellow-vented flowerpecker) Coraciidae (rollers) Eurystomus x x x orientalis (dollarbird) Laniidae (shrikes) Lanius schach x (long-tailed shrike) Lanius x tephronotus (gray-backed shrike) Psittacidae (parrots, Page 5 of 5

parakeets) Psittacula LR x* x derbiana (Lord Derby's parakeet) Motacillidae (wagtails) Motacilla alba x (white wagtail) Oriolidae (orioles) Oriolus chinensis x (black-naped oriole) Paridae (tits) x Parus major x (great tit) TOTAL 17 26 10 23 13 24 8 19 6 11

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Annex 2: List of Mammal species recorded in the reserves.

Based on local knowledge or footprints, tracks or trace seen IUCN classification: EN = Endangered, VU = Vulnerable, LR = Lower Risk and DD = Data Deficient

Species IUCN- Xinlongshan Jiangbianzai Mangun, Bakaxiaozhai, Huiganghe, Balanzhai, Nuyou, Yanshuiqing, Banma, Juedi, classificaion (Mengyang) (Mengyang) Wengnei, Medeng Bubong Longmen, Mangdian Shizhai Yizai, Bazidi Nasai (Menglung) (Mongla) Pinghe (Nabanhe) (Weijuanjian) Waizai (Tianchi) (Mangao) (Shangyong) (Banma) Primates Hylobates EN x x x concolor (black gibbon) Macaca mulatta LR x x x* x* x x x x x

(rhesus monkey) Macaca VU x x x nemestrina (pigtail macaque) Macaca VU x x x arctoides (stump-tailed macaque) Macaca VU x x x x assamensis (Assamese macaque) Nycticebus x x x x x x x x coucang (slow loris) Presbytis DD x x x x x x x phayrei (Phayre's leaf monkey) Rhinopithesus EN x bieti (Yunnan snub- nosed monkey) Pholidota Manis LR x x x x x x x x pentadactyla (Chinese pangolin) Carnivora Cuon alpinus VU x x x x (wild dog) Selenarctos VU x x x x x x thibetanus (Asiatic black bear) Ailurus fulgens EN x (red panda) Melogale x moschata (Chinese ferret badger) Lutra VU x perspicillata (smooth-coated otter) Viverra zibetha x x (oriental civet) Paradoxurus x hermaphroditus (common palm civet) Paguma larvata x* x

(masked palm civet) Arctictis x x x binturong (binturong) Felis chaus x x x (jungle cat) Catopuma LR x x x x temminckii (Asiatic golden cat) Felis x x x Page 2 of 2

bengalensis (leopard cat) Neofelis VU x x x x x nebolosa (clouded leopard) Panthera x x x x x x x x x pardus (leopard) Panthera tigris EN x x x x x x (tiger) Proboscidea Elaphas EN x x x x maximus (Asian elephant) Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates) Sus scrofa x x x* x* x x x x x x (wild boar) Muntiacus x x* x* x* x x x x x x muntjak (Indian muntjack) Cervus unicolor x x x x x x x

(sambar) Bos gaurus EN x x x (Indian bison, gaur) Capricornis VU x x x sumatraensis (mainland serow) TOTAL 14 19 14 14 15 17 10 8 15 8

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