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Home , Battle of Lake Erie, Battle of the Thames, Edward Pakenham, Fort Detroit, Fort Michilimackinac, Fort Mims massacre

The Capture of 1812 by R. Taylor

On July 11th 1812, 2,500 American troops under General Hull reached the and camped at . At on the Canadian side of the river were 100 British regulars, 300 and 150 Indians led by .

Hull crossed the Detroit and made his headquarters in a Canadian farm house. He issued a proclamation, which was printed for distribution among Canadians. It began:

INHABITANTS OF

After thirty years of peace and prosperity, the have been driven to arms. The injuries and aggressions, the insults and indignities of Great Britain have once more left no alternative but manly resistance or unconditional submission. The army under my command has invaded your country. The standard of the union now waves over the territory of Canada. To the peaceful and unoffending inhabitants it brings neither danger nor difficulty. I come to find enemies, not to make them; I come to protect not to injure you ... I have a force which will break down all opposition, and that force is but the vanguard of a much greater. If, contrary to your own interest, and the just expectations of my country, you should take part in the approaching contest, you will be considered and treated as enemies, and the horrors and calamities of war will stalk you ...

General Hull was so preoccupied with his attempts to terrify Canadians with printed words that he neglected to protect American forts on Lake . As a result, a small force of British and Indians captured Fort , while other Indians seized Fort Dearborn (Chicago).

After these small but strategic victories, the Indians took such courage that small bands of them hurried northward from the and Rivers to join Tecumseh on the Canadian frontier. Within a short time, the great Indian commander had more than six hundred braves ready and eager for battle.

Hull waited uneasily as Indians swarmed across the border and as Canadian militiamen rallied to the defense of their land. The general became increasingly nervous at the thought of facing an enemy force of British regulars, sharpshooting backwoodsmen and hundreds of angry Indians. His nervousness finally gave way to near panic. On August 11th, he ordered his army to retreat across the river to Detroit.

Two days after the withdrawal of the Americans, General arrived at Amherstburg, where he held an immediate conference with his officers and with Tecumseh.

After a brief consideration of the border situation, Brock decided to cross the river and make a direct attack on Fort Detroit. Pleased with this firm and courageous decision, Tecumseh pointed at the British general and shouted " Ho! Here is a man!"

On August 16th, 1812, British regulars, Canadian militiamen and Indians advanced on Detroit as the guns of Amherstburg threw shells across the water. The site of the advancing redcoats and the sound of the shrill, wild Indian war whoops caused an uneasy stir among the Americans. General Hull's own forces still out numbered those of the approaching enemy, but he did not know this. Feeling the situation within in the fort hopeless, he ran up a white flag and quickly agreed to surrender.

Once the surrender is accomplished, Hull emerges from his catatonic state like a man coming out of an anaesthetic. Scarcely able to speak or act that morning, he is now both lucid and serene. "I have done what my conscience directed," he declares. "I have saved Detroit and the Territory from the horrors of an Indian massacre." He knows that his country will censure him (though he cannot yet comprehend the magnitude of that censure).

In addition to an easy victory, the daring invaders captured valuable goods, including thirty three cannon, a large quantity of stores and equipment, a number of horses and a newly built sailing ship. As a token of appreciation of Tecumseh's part in the affair, Brock slipped off his own red military sash and wrapped it about the chief's waist. In quick response, Tecumseh removed his beaded sash and handed it over to the general. General Brock returned to Niagara fearing the next threat of an American attack would be there.

The Battle of

Commander Robert Barclay, the one armed senior British naval officer on Lake Erie, inspects his little flotilla with some pride. Although it was undermanned and the quality of the seamen was suspect, he felt they could give a good account of themselves against the Americans.

The "Detroit" was without her proper guns and there was little prospect of them arriving quickly. She was designed to carry sixteen 24 pound and four long 12 pounders. It was decided to split up the ordinance among the ships to arm her. The guns taken from the floating batteries were replaced by guns from Fort Maiden. The task of shifting the guns was not an easy one. The barrel of a long twelve weighed almost two tons and it's carriage just under half of that. For hours work crews strained with block and tackle to sway the guns aboard ship and to place them. When all was completed Barclay reviewed the ships under his command. They were: the "Detroit" of which he took personal command; the "Queen Charlotte" commanded by Commander Robert Finnis; the "Lady Prevost" Lieutenant Edward Buchan commanding; the "General Hunter" commanded by George Bignell; and the "Little Belt" commanded by John Campbell. In total Barclay could muster six vessels with thirty‐five guns and twenty‐eight carronades. The crews of the squadron totaled four hundred and forty. Despite the preparations that were made, there were some nagging problems. The guns fired by means of a flintlock similar to those used on a musket. However, the flintlocks in the Lake Erie squadron were so old and decrepit that the gun captains were forced to trigger their guns by firing a pistol at the vent. This greatly reduced the rate of fire.

The American squadron commanded by Master Commandant Oliver Hazzard Perry consisted of the "Lawrence" commanded by Perry himself; the "Niagara"; the "Caledonia"; the "Ariel"; the "Somers"; the "Scorpion"; the "Porcupine" , the "Tigeress" and the "Trippe". Unlike Barclay more than half of Perry's crews were from the eastern seaboard and many had combat experience. There were even some veterans from the "Constitution" that was refitting at . The Americans boasted nine ships with crews totaling five hundred and thirty‐two men.

Barclay waited for his expected reinforcements but when none arrived he gave orders to weigh anchor at 3:00 p.m. on the 9th of September, a Thursday. They sailed away from Amherstburg in search of the Americans. At dawn the next day a hail from the masthead shook the sleep from everyone's eyes, "Deck there, enemy in sight." Barclay steadied his glass with his good arm and watched the American squadron fighting it's way out of its anchorage at Put‐in‐Bay. One thing was in his favor at least, the wind was blowing lightly from the southwest giving him the weather gauge, that is, his ships would be between the wind and the enemy.

They were still five kilometres apart at 10 a.m. when the fitful breeze died away. To Barclay's chargrin it immediately returned but this time from the southeast. The enemy now had the weather gauge. At 11:45 a bugle sounded aboard the "Detroit" and the entire British line broke into songs and cheering. The was about to get underway. Barclay ordered the gunner to try a ranging shot and one of the "Detroit's" long 24 pounders belched fire and smoke. The round shot fell short. A second was seen to strike the Lawrence on the forward bulwark and Barclay could picture the flying splinters raking the deck. The "Lawrence" began to close with the "Detroit" but the British gunnery was taking a terrible toll. Not only was the "Detroit" hammering away at the "Lawrence" but Master's Mate John Campbell had his "Chippawa" firing his tiny 9 pounder at her as well.

Elsewhere the "Queen Charlotte" was having problems. The "Niagara" and the "Caledonia" were engaging her at a distance and she could not bring her guns to bear. To compound matters, in the early minutes of the battle a round shot killed Commander Finnis leaving Barclay without his most experienced captain. Lieutenant Thomas Stokoe who took over command also fell with a splinter wound. Command devolved to Lieutenant Robert Irvine. By 2:30 p.m. the "Detroit" had reduced the "Lawrence" to a floating hulk and Perry was seen leaving her. He transfered his flag to the "Niagara", which had escaped serious damage to that point. As soon as Perry was clear, the "Lawrence" struck her colors. Perry took command of the "Niagara" and bore down on the "Detroit" to engage her with his carronades. Barclay watched the oncoming with much apprehension. The "Detroit" was in a bad way and the enemy almost unmarked. Then a blast of canister struck him in the back tearing his shoulder blade. Command of the ship fell to his second lieutenant, George Inglis.

The "Niagara" pounded the "Detroit" with her carronades and Inglis ordered the bow of the ship be brought across the wind bringing the starboard battery into action. A shuttering crash brought cries of alarm from the battle weary crew. The "Detroit" had collided with the "Queen Charlotte" entangling their rigging. The two ships lay wallowing helplessly. The "Niagara" crossed her bow and raked her stern to stern. The Niagara broke the British line pounding the British ships from both starboard and larboard batteries. The deck of the "Lady Prevost" was empty except for the tragic figure of her commander, Lieutenant Edward Buchan who was hanging over the rail screaming in agony from a terrible wound. Perry saw this and ordered his larboard battery to cease firing. The "Queen Charlotte" struck her colors as the "Detroit" broke free from their embrace. Inglis tried to get his ship under control but to no avail. Since the had been nailed to the stump of the mast Inglis ordered that a white flag be waved as a sign of surrender. The Battle of Lake Erie was over.

Barclay tendered his sword, but Perry refused it telling all the British officers to keep their weapons as a sign of their gallant fight. Control of Lake Erie now passed to the Americans with grave consequences for the forces at Amherstburg.

The Battle of Thame's River ... October 5th 1813

Picture this if you will, a man races into Amherstburg on a horse, he dismounts and runs into General Henry Proctor's headquarters. Soon afterwards news spreads that the Lake Erie Squadron is no more. Confusion and concern starts for family and friends of the squadron who all try to get information on their loved ones. But in fact there was no other information available at this time and they would all be in for a long wait to find out what happened to Barclay's command.

As British fortunes went on the Niagara Frontier the situation at Detroit had become very serious, Proctor had enjoyed successes at first against the Americans, but, there was the problem of getting supplies and it was wearing down his resolve. Added to his supply problems was (future President of the United States) who had just arrived with a very large force. Harrison's arrival forced General Proctor to pull his troops back to the river at Detroit. The defeat of the British Lake Erie Squadron made the situation grave. American control of the lake made the supply problem much, much worse. General Proctor was nothing like General Brock at all, He had no bold plan to change this situation around. Against the protests of the great Chief Tecumseh, Proctor planned to withdraw to the western part of . To abandon the Detroit Frontier was to abandon the Western Indians who had fought beside the British since the beginning of the war.

On 27 September, Proctor evacuated Detroit and Amherstburg and began the long march up the toward far off Burlington. Along with the British troops was the disillusioned Tecumseh and one thousand warriors. Tecumseh was furious, and he pleaded with General Proctor to make a stand at Matthew Dolson's farm and then again at McGregor's Creek, but Proctor would have none of it. The column pushed on mile after mile, with the British morale dropping with every step. The wagons were moving slowly even know the enemy was in rapid pursuit. It was obvious Proctor was losing control of his small army. Proctor spent almost all of his time with his family leaving the day‐to‐day command of the army to Lieutenant Augustus Warburton. The rearguard failed to destroy the bridges after they had crossed them and only the presence of mind of the Indians kept the bridge at McGregor's Creek from falling into enemy hands.

The Shawnee warriors just managed to dismantle the bridge at McGregor's Creek when their scout reported American cavalry approaching. Tecumseh placed his men in the woods along the creek bank and waited as the American patrol cautiously moved up to the other side. The troopers started into the creek, Tecumseh waited until the lead horse was three quarters the way across and most of the troop was in the water. Then the bushes erupted in a wall of fire sending the men and horses reeling. The Americans raced up the far bank in full retreat leaving the screams and thrashing of wounded horses and dying men to mark the effectiveness of the warriors volley. The warriors held their ground for an hour or so until the main American force came up and formed up for a charge to carry the Indian position. As they waded across the creek the Indians fired one more volley and disappeared into the woods.

Tecumseh sat by the fire with Oshawna who led the and Chippewa warriors. Oshawna deferred to the Shawnee Chief as the leader of the Indian forces because of the great respect that all the western tribe had for him. With them was William Caldwell who had been a captain in Butler's Rangers and had settled in Essex County after the American Revolution. He now commanded the Western Rangers sometimes called Caldwell's Rangers. Caldwell fought along side the Indians because he had a great deal of respect for Tecumseh. Tecumseh considered General Proctor to be a coward, and reasoned that he would have no choice but to stand and fight the Americans at or near the Moravian Mission because the Americans would be so close to them. He discussed with his two friends the tactics that they would use in the battle that was sure to come.

The next morning the British regulars formed up for battle. It was easy to see that the long retreat had taken the fight out of them. The ground they were holding had a swamp on the right and a river on the left, it looked like an excellent defensive position. Tecumseh immediately directed his warriors and the Rangers into the swamp to affect a flank attack to the Americans as they advanced. The American cavalry charged, and despite the flanking fire of the Indians, carried the British line. Tecumseh was amazed as he watched the British fire two volleys and then surrender. Tecumseh rallied his warriors and fought on, his voice could be heard over the gunfire encouraging his warriors to fight on.

William Caldwell threw his musket hitting a Kentuckian who was running at him flush in the face. Like most of the Indians he had run out of ammunition and followed their example of resorting to the hatchet and knife. Caldwell looked over and saw Tecumseh directing some of his warriors to a critical point in the battle. Tecumseh was determined to erase the disgrace of the British surrender. Tecumseh and Caldwell's eyes met, Tecumseh moved his arm revealing a gaping chest wound. He stumbled slightly and Caldwell signaled to two of the chief’s warriors who rushed to his side. They carried Tecumseh deep into the swamp with the rest of the warriors following. The American victory at the was complete.

HISTORICAL NOTES: Proctor was court martialled for his conduct in the retreat from the Detroit Frontier. He was reprimanded and suspended from rank and pay for six months. Tecumseh died of his wounds and his warriors buried him in a secret grave somewhere in the swamp in which he had fought so bravely.

Battle of Horseshoe Bend

In 1811, Shawnee military leader Tecumseh visited the southeastern tribes hoping to encourage them to return to their ancient traditions as well as drive the Americans from their ancestral lands. Many individuals in the Upper Creek Towns responded favorably to Tecumseh. When war broke out between the United States and Great Britain in 1812, a few Creek warriors joined Tecumseh and the British in fighting the Americans. The in turn brought on the of 1813–14 (also known as the Creek ), a struggle between Creeks in both the Upper and Lower towns friendly to the United States and a faction in the Upper Towns called the , hostile towards the Americans. Many scholars believe that the Red Sticks took their name from their red‐painted war clubs.

On July 27, 1813, a small force of Militia ambushed a party of Red Sticks returning from Pensacola with Spanish ammunition and supplies at Burnt Corn Creek. One month later, on August 30, the Red Sticks retaliated by killing 250 Creek and American settlers at Fort Mims, a stockade just north of Mobile, . The , as it came to be known, turned the Creek Civil War into a larger conflict, with U.S. forces from , , and the Mississippi Territory launching a three‐pronged assault into Creek territory. The governor of Tennessee appointed , a prominent state politician and militia officer, to lead a portion of the state's militia into Creek country. Jackson fought a slow and difficult campaign south along the . In March 1814, reinforced by regular soldiers of the Thirty‐ninth United States Infantry, Jackson left the Coosa with a force of 3,300 men, including 500 Cherokee and 100 Lower Creek warriors allied to the United States. He intended to attack a Red Stick refuge and defensive position in the Horseshoe Bend of the Tallapoosa River.

On March 26, Jackson's army camped six miles northwest of Horseshoe Bend. , a respected war leader from the town of Okfuskee, waited at the bend with 1,000 Red Stick warriors and at least 350 women and children. Beginning in December 1813, people from six Upper Creek towns—Newyaucau, Oakfuskee, Oakchaya, Eufaula, Fishponds, and Hillabee—had gathered at Horseshoe Bend for protection. At the toe of the bend, they built a temporary village, which they called Tohopeka, consisting of about 300 log houses. Across the narrow neck of the bend they constructed a log‐and‐dirt barricade nearly 400 yards long. In this fortified place, the Red Sticks hoped to defeat an attacking army or at least delay the attackers while the women, children, and older men escaped down river.

At 6:30 on the morning of March 27, Jackson divided his army. He ordered General John Coffee's force of 700 mounted riflemen and 600 allied warriors to cross the Tallapoosa about two and one half miles downriver from Tohopeka and surround the village. The 2,000 remaining men, led by Jackson, marched directly for the neck of the horseshoe and the barricade. Jackson knew that it would be difficult to attack the imposing barricade. He chose the Thirty‐ninth Infantry, the most disciplined and best trained of his soldiers, to lead the assault. Before sending them forward, he determined to blow a hole in the wall with his cannon. The bombardment began at 10:30 a.m. For two hours the guns fired iron shot at the barricade protecting the Red Sticks, who waited and shouted at the army to meet them in hand‐to‐hand combat. Perhaps a third of the 1,000 warriors defending the barricade possessed a musket or rifle.

Meanwhile, across the river from Tohopeka, three of Coffee's Cherokee warriors slipped into the river and swam to canoes lying on the opposite bank. Using the stolen canoes, the Cherokee and Lower Creek warriors crossed the river in increasing numbers, attacking and burning Tohopeka from the rear. At 12:30 p.m., Jackson launched his attack, after seeing smoke rising above the treetops and hearing gunshots. Drummers signaled the advance, and with bayonets fixed, the regulars swept forward. After a few minutes of brutal fighting, the Red Sticks fell back to the interior of the bend. They fought desperately but were outgunned and vastly outnumbered. Many tried to escape into the river, but Coffee's men shot them before they reached the opposite bank. The fighting raged nearly six hours before darkness fell and ended the battle.

More than 800 Red Stick warriors died that day, with 557 counted on the battlefield and an estimated 300 shot in the river. Of Jackson's troops, 49 were killed and 154 wounded. The 350 Upper Creek women and children became prisoners of the Cherokee and Lower Creek warriors. Chief Menawa was wounded seven times but escaped the slaughter. By his own account he lay among the dead until nightfall and then crawled to the river, climbed into a canoe, and disappeared into the darkness.

The Battle of Horseshoe Bend effectively ended the Creek War of 1813–14 and made Andrew Jackson a national hero. He was made a general in the U.S. Army. A few months after Horseshoe Bend, on August 9, 1814, Andrew Jackson and a gathering of Creek chiefs signed the officially ending the Creek War and ceding nearly 23 million acres of Creek land to the United States. Thousands of American settlers poured into this vast area, with much of the land becoming the state of Alabama in 1819. Today, the battlefield is preserved by the as Horseshoe Bend National Military Park, near Dadeville, Alabama.

The Battle of Washington D.C.

By 1814 the defenders of Canada had repelled five separate American invasions, but they were running low on reinforcements and supplies to withstand the American assaults. Governor General Prevost of Canada devised plans for his first full scale invasion of the United States. He would personally lead the main invasion force south from Montreal down the Richelieu River and into , if he could destroy the American naval facilities there he would turn his attention to control of the and the which the British had promised to the Indian people as a future country.

The key to controlling the lakes was the American naval base at Sackets Harbor, and that is where President felt most vulnerable. While the United States government was concentrating on the defenses hundreds of miles away on its northern border it neglected matters closer to home. In the late summer of 1814 a British fleet was sent into to make a diversionary attack against Washington D.C. and Baltimore.

When the lead British ships appeared in Chesapeake Bay in August 1814 the Americans had no idea where they were headed or what their intentions were. In the American capitol there was a curious lack of alarm when word arrived that the British invasion force had come ashore. At the new Congress building there was no serious worry that the capitol of the United States might be attacked. At the White house there was little concern, the leaders of the United States had been assured by the Secretary of War that there was no danger. Mr. Madison rode to the front to watch the upcoming battle, he sent a note to his wife: "My dearest I have passed among the troops who are in high spirits and make a good appearance. The reports as to the enemy has varied from hour to hour, the last and probably best information is that they are not very strong and are without and of coarse they are not in a condition to strike at Washington."

The British soon got word that the only troops standing between them and Washington were militia units. The main British force moved into a Washington suburb and after a brief battle the militia units broke and ran, in the words of one American observer: "They ran like sheep being chased by dogs".

Several hunderd U.S. sailors came ashore to fight but they could not stop the British advance for very long. The military problems of Mr. Madison and his cabinet faced on the Canadian frontier were now being repeated at the door of the nations capitol. Once the battle had commenced Mr. Madison and the Secretaries of War and State decided it would be better to withdraw to a position in the rear. Ahead of the President word shot back to Washington that all was not well. The British invasion force was now clearly in on the capitol.

The 25th of August 1814, the British approached the heart of Washington, march down Constitution Avenue bearing a flag of truce and demand a surrender. Suddenly from a house window the flag of truce is fired upon. The British troops rushed into the house where the shots had been fired from, and put all who were found in the house to the sword and then reduced the house to ashes. They went onto burn and destroy every building connected to the government. While Washington burned, the president and his cabinet became fugitives fleeing westward deep into the hills of . At the White House Mrs. Madison was persuaded to leave also, and soon after the British troops arrived. When these British soldiers who had been sent to destroy the President's house entered they found a dinner that had been made for about forty people. They ate every bit of food and drank every bottle of wine, then started to destroy the White House.

The Battle of Fort McHenry

Early September, shortly after their success in Washington, Britain decided to follow up with an attack on Baltimore. This city was an attractive target because it was a large commercial center and an important base for privateers.

Colonel Arthur Brook took command of the , and continued their march to Baltimore. After getting within sight of the cities defenses decided to turn back because they could not lure the Americans out from their defensive works. Meanwhile Cochrane had brought up his bomb and rocket ships to attack Fort McHenry. Major George Armistead stood with 1000 men to defend the fort. Cochrane wanted to silence the guns of the fort so that he could bring in the smaller ships and then weaken the American lines.

The British bombardment of Fort McHenry began at 5:00 a.m. on the morning of September 13th 1814, a young lawyer named watched the red glare of the British rockets, the bombs bursting in air over the Fort and wrote a poem about the "Star Spangled Banner" that was still flying over the fort after a siege of three days and nights.

The British gave up the siege and retreated, the Americans had held out, it was a bracing victory and an account of it in Key's poem would become their National Anthem.

Despite the defense of Baltimore, the British were satisfied with their diversionary raids, especially the D.C. In Canada, Governor General Prevost proclaimed that the burning of the proud American capitol was a just retribution for similar treatment given many Canadian towns by American troops earlier in the war.

The Battle of

There was no way of stopping the British troops from mounting this last scheduled offensive. It had begun on 10 December with the landing of men from Vice‐Admiral Cochrane's fleet on the east side of the some distance from it's mouth. The goal was to capture New Orleans, with its storehouses, and to close the mouth of the Mississippi River to American traffic.

Had the British advance guard of 1,600 troops pushed forward with determination along it's left bank on 23 December for the last seven miles New Orleans could have been taken because Major‐General Andrew Jackson had not set up any defenses yet.

By the time that Major‐General Sir caught up with the British troops he had been sent to command the American troops and local negro slaves had built defenses.

The defenses were elaborate, a breastwork of sugar barrels and earth behind a wide empty ditch, which stretched between the river and an impassable swamp. The American commander placed most of his men behind these defenses, with four guns and a battery on the right providing support fire.

The British commander was now in a difficult situation, the heavy guns brought from the British ships were unable to breach the American breastworks. Instead of giving up and leaving he decided to make a strong feint against the American position. He had 6,000 British regulars and about 1,000 negros from the West India .

On January 8th 1815, Colonel William Thornton crossed the river with 1,500 regulars and moved up the west side to outflank the American position. Thornton's men did push away 800 militia and sieze the naval guns, and advanced far enough up river to be behind the American position. But they were way behind schedule, and an attack by the rest of the British army had met with disaster. The British columns were hammered by American artillery as they tried to move through a ditch made muddy by a recent rain.

Major‐General Sir Edward Pakenham was killed by a piece of grapeshot; Major‐General Samuel Gibbs was mortally wounded and Major‐General John Keane was seriously wounded. More than 2,000 British had been killed or wounded and several hundred more were captured. The American loss was eight killed and 13 wounded.

Jackson's victory had saved New Orleans, the Battle however is fought after the official treaty is signed in Paris. News is too slow in reaching the opposing armies to tell them it is over. The accidental linking of the peace treaty with Jackson's victory at New Orleans convinced many Americans that the war had ended in triumph. The Hartford Convention was discredited, and a surging nationalism swept the country in the postwar years.

By the end of the century, many American children have never heard of the War of 1812. By the 1960's, it is reduced to a folk song, the song is entitled "The " it was written by a man named Jimmy Driftwood. The song was recorded and made famous in 1959 by Johny Horton.