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Descriptions of the Plant Types

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APPENDIX A Descriptions of the plant types The plant life forms employed in the model are listed, with examples, in the main text (Table 2). They are described in this appendix in more detail, including environmental relations, physiognomic characters, prototypic and other characteristic taxa, and relevant literature. A list of the forms, with physiognomic characters, is included. Sources of vegetation data relevant to particular life forms are cited with the respective forms in the text of the appendix. General references, especially descriptions of regional vegetation, are listed by region at the end of the appendix. Plant form Plant size Leaf size Leaf (Stem) structure Trees (Broad-leaved) Evergreen I. Tropical Rainforest Trees (lowland. montane) tall, med. large-med. cor. 2. Tropical Evergreen Microphyll Trees medium small cor. 3. Tropical Evergreen Sclerophyll Trees med.-tall medium seier. 4. Temperate Broad-Evergreen Trees a. Warm-Temperate Evergreen med.-small med.-small seier. b. Mediterranean Evergreen med.-small small seier. c. Temperate Broad-Leaved Rainforest medium med.-Iarge scler. Deciduous 5. Raingreen Broad-Leaved Trees a. Monsoon mesomorphic (lowland. montane) medium med.-small mal. b. Woodland xeromorphic small-med. small mal. 6. Summergreen Broad-Leaved Trees a. typical-temperate mesophyllous medium medium mal. b. cool-summer microphyllous medium small mal. Trees (Narrow and needle-leaved) Evergreen 7. Tropical Linear-Leaved Trees tall-med. large cor. 8. Tropical Xeric Needle-Trees medium small-dwarf cor.-scler. 9. Temperate Rainforest Needle-Trees tall large-med. cor. 10. Temperate Needle-Leaved Trees a. Heliophilic Large-Needled medium large cor. b. Mediterranean med.-tall med.-dwarf cor.-scler. c. Typical Temperate medium medium cor. II. Boreal/ Montane Needle-Trees medium small cor.-scler. 133 Plant form Plant size Leaf size Leaf (Stem) structure Summergreen 12. Hydrophilic Summergreen Needle-Trees tall-med. large-med. mal.-eor. 13. Boreal Summergreen Needle-Trees medium medium mal.-cor. Small and dwarf trees 14. Tropical Broad-Evergreen Small Trees small med.-small cor. 15. Tropical Broad-Evergreen Dwarf-Trees dwarf large-med. cor. 16. Cloud-Forest Small Trees small small cor.-scler. 17. Temperate Broad-Evergreen Small Trees small small scler. 18. Broad-Raingreen Small Trees small small mal. 19. Broad-Summergreen Small Trees small small-med. mal. 20. Needle-Leaved Small Trees small dwarf cor.-scler. Rosette-trees (evergreen) 21. Palmiform Tuft-Trees medium large cor.-scler. Rosette-Treelets (evergreen) 22. Palmiform Tuft-Treelets small large-med. cor. -scler. 23. Tree Ferns small med.-small cor.-mal. 24. Tropical Alpine Tuft-Treelets small-dwarf large-med. cor. -scler. 25. Xeric Tuft-Treelets small-dwarf large-med. scler. Arborescents 26. Evergreen Arborescents med.-tall small scler. 27. Raingreen Thorn-Scrub medium small mal. 28. Summergreen Arborescents med.-small small mal. 29. Leafless Arborescents med.-small (lign.) Krummholz 30. Needle-Leaved Treeline Krummholz medium small-dwarf scler. Shrubs 31. Tropical Broad-Evergreen Shrubs med.-tall large-med. cor. 32. Temperate Broad-Evergreen Shrubs a. Mediterranean medium small scler. b. Typical Temperate medium small-med. scler. c. Broad-Ericoid (perhumid) med.-tall large scler.-cor. 33. Hot-Desert Evergreen Shrubs small small scler. 34. Leaf-Succulent Evergreen ShrubsjTreelets small-dwarf med.-small suce. 35. Cold-Winter Xeromorphic Shrubs small-dwarf small-dwarf pub.-mal. 36. Summergreen Broad-Leaved Shrubs a. mesomorphic medium med.-Iarge mal. b. xeromorphic med.-small small-med. mal.-cor. 37. Needle-Leaved Evergreen Shrubs med.-small dwarf scler. Dwarf-shrubs 38. Mediterranean Dwarf-Shrubs dwarf small-dwarf pub.-mal. 39. Temperate Evergreen Dwarf-Shrubs dwarf small-dwarf scler.-cor. 40. Summergreen Tundra Dwarf-Shrubs dwarf small mal. 41. Xeric Dwarf-Shrubs dwarf dwarf, - mal., (Jign.) Cushion-shrubs 42. Perhumid Evergreen Cushion-Shrubs dwarf small-dwarf scler. 43. Xeric Cushion-Shrubs dwarf dwarf, - mal., scler., (Jign.) 134 Plant form Plant size Leaf size Leaf (Stem) structure Rosette-shrubs (evergreen) 44. Mesic Rosette-Shrubs medium large cor.-scler. 45. Xeric Rosette-Shrubs small med.-Iarge scler.-succ. Stern-succulents (evergreen) 46. Arborescent Stem-Succulents tall (succ.) 47. Typical Stem-Succulents med.-small (succ.) 48. Bush Stem-Succulents med.-small (succ.) Graminoids 49. Arborescent Grasses tall large mal. 50. Tall Cane-Grasses tall-med. med.-Iarge mal. 51. Typical Tall Grasses medium medium mal. 52. Short Sward-Grasses small small mal. 53. Short Bunch-Grasses small small mal. 54. Tall Tussock-Grasses medium med.-Iarge mal. 55. Short Tussock-Grasses small small-med. mal. 56. Sc1erophyllous Grasses small medium scler. 57. Desert Grasses dwarf small mal. Forbs 58. Tropical Evergreen Forbs tall-dwarf large-med. cor.-scler. 59. Temperate Evergreen Forbs med.-dwarf med.-small scler. 60. Raingreen Forbs med.-dwarf large-small mal. 61. Summergreen Forbs med.-dwarf large-small mal. 62. Succulent Forbs small-dwarf med.-small succ. Undifferentiated small herbs 63. Xeric Cushion-Herbs small-dwarf small maL-cor. 64. Ephemeral Dry-Desert Herbs small-dwarf small mal. 65. Summergreen Cold-Desert Herbs dwarf small mal. 66. Raingreen Cold-Desert Herbs dwarf small mal. Vines and lianas 67. Tropical Broad-Evergreen Lianas tall large-med. cor. 68. Broad-Evergreen Vines med.-small large-small cor.-scler. 69. Broad-Raingreen Vines med.-dwarf large-small mal. 70. Broad-Summergreen Vines med.-dwarf large-small mal. Ferns 71. Evergreen Ferns med.-small med.-small cor. 72. Summergreen Ferns med.-small med.-small mal.-cor. Epiphytes (evergreen) 73. Tropical Broad-Evergreen Epiphytes large-med. large-med. cor. 74. Narrow-Leaved Epiphytes med.-small small cor. 75. Broad-Wintergreen Epiphytes medium medium cor. Thallophytes (poikilohydrous) 76. Mat-Forming Thallophytes med.-Iarge med.-small maL-cor. 77. Xeric Thallophytes small-dwarf small-dwarf cor.-crust. cor. = coriaceous scler. = sclerophyllous pub. = pubescent mal. = malacophyllous succ. = succulent lign. = ligneous crust. = crustose 135 Trees Formations which do not present at least a seasonally closed canopy are called (open) wood­ True trees (as opposed to rosette-trees) are tall lands and generally have better developed, more woody phanerophytes with a single main stem diverse understoreys. The term rainforest generally (trunk) and usually well developed lateral branches refers to closed, mesic evergreen forests which also forming a more or less characteristic crown. Typical have at least one closed understorey. branching and crown forms may range from multi­ stemmed 'overgrown bushes' (treated separately below) through typically 'dendritic' (see de Broad-leaved trees Laubenfels 1975) to the highly monopodial colum­ nar or umbrella-like growth forms of most conifers. Broad-leaved trees have leaves which are generally Trees can grow to over 100 m in height, but heights of at least microphyll size and are produced in order of 10-30 m are typical. Trees shorter than 5-10 m to make maximum use of at least seasonally may be called treelets, and certain scrubby but very favorable growing conditions. Where evergreen, tree-like forms of 1-5 m may be called dwarf-trees these trees are often dominants. Where leaves are (e.g. 'campos cerrados' of Brazil, trunk-succulent produced anew seasonally, broadleaved trees can euphorbs of Africa). Some understorey trees taller dominate but may be outcompeted in marginal than 10 m, mainly in the tropics, may also be called areas (e.g. boreal mixed forests) by evergreen treelets in order to distinguish them from much sclerophyll trees better able to utilize a short taller canopy trees. growing season. Leaves produced seasonally often Trees may have broad, narrow (linear), or attain higher photosynthetic rates but are generally needle/ scale leaves, or may have no leaves at all softer (malacophyllous) than evergreen leaves and (e.g. Haloxylon ammodendron). Tree leaves may have less control over water loss. Deciduous trees be large to quite small and may be evergreen generally transpire freely during their growing (always present, without regard initially to actual seasons and evade drier conditions by shedding length of tenure), deciduous (summergreen or their leaves. Leaves produced for longer tenure raingreen), or semi-evergreen (persistent depending (generally one year for semi-evergreens and at least on degree of cold and/ or drought). one year for true evergreens) become harder and are Trees generally have well-developed under­ described as coriaceous (leathery, i.e. still pliable) ground root systems, but these may be deep in drier or sclerophyllous. Such leaves usually photosyn­ environments or quite shallow in environments thesize more slowly but control water loss better. with high water tables and permanently saturated General references: Kozlowski 1962, 1971; Gates soil (e.g. not more than 50 cm in many equatorial & Schmerll975; Kramer 1962; Larcher 1976; Levitt rainforests, necessitating the characteristic above­ 1972; Mooney 1974; Leathart 1977; Lieth 1974; ground buttressing). Trees generally have signifi­ Lieth & Whittaker 1975; Thoday 1931; Tranquillini cantly more standing biomass above ground than 1979; Cooper 1975; Elton & Meentemeyer 1979. below. Since trees generally have the largest transpiring surface area of any growth form, they 1. Tropical Rainforest Trees are the tall, evergreen are more important in wetter climates of the world. canopy-trees
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    Soltis et al—American Journal of Botany 98(4):704-730. 2011. – Data Supplement S2 – page 1 Soltis, Douglas E., Stephen A. Smith, Nico Cellinese, Kenneth J. Wurdack, David C. Tank, Samuel F. Brockington, Nancy F. Refulio-Rodriguez, Jay B. Walker, Michael J. Moore, Barbara S. Carlsward, Charles D. Bell, Maribeth Latvis, Sunny Crawley, Chelsea Black, Diaga Diouf, Zhenxiang Xi, Catherine A. Rushworth, Matthew A. Gitzendanner, Kenneth J. Sytsma, Yin-Long Qiu, Khidir W. Hilu, Charles C. Davis, Michael J. Sanderson, Reed S. Beaman, Richard G. Olmstead, Walter S. Judd, Michael J. Donoghue, and Pamela S. Soltis. Angiosperm phylogeny: 17 genes, 640 taxa. American Journal of Botany 98(4): 704-730. Appendix S2. The maximum likelihood majority-rule consensus from the 17-gene analysis shown as a phylogram with mtDNA included for Polyosma. Names of the orders and families follow APG III (2009); other names follow Cantino et al. (2007). Numbers above branches are bootstrap percentages. 67 Acalypha Spathiostemon 100 Ricinus 97 100 Dalechampia Lasiocroton 100 100 Conceveiba Homalanthus 96 Hura Euphorbia 88 Pimelodendron 100 Trigonostemon Euphorbiaceae Codiaeum (incl. Peraceae) 100 Croton Hevea Manihot 10083 Moultonianthus Suregada 98 81 Tetrorchidium Omphalea 100 Endospermum Neoscortechinia 100 98 Pera Clutia Pogonophora 99 Cespedesia Sauvagesia 99 Luxemburgia Ochna Ochnaceae 100 100 53 Quiina Touroulia Medusagyne Caryocar Caryocaraceae 100 Chrysobalanus 100 Atuna Chrysobalananaceae 100 100 Licania Hirtella 100 Euphronia Euphroniaceae 100 Dichapetalum 100