University of Nova Gorica Laboratory for Environmental Research Vipavska 13, POB 301 5001 Nova Gorica,

Project: Transeconet

IDENTITIES AND STRATEGIES – RAISING AWARNESS WP6.1 Report Perception of Landscape Changes

Authors: Gregor Torkar and Romina Rodela

Nova Gorica, 2011

Abstract: This report aims to map out local peoples’ perception of landscape changes in the Pomurje region. To this end it reports on the historical and recent perception of landscape change, on the main processes driving landscape changes, but also it reports on people perceptions about Pomurje as a cross-border area, and on knowledge people have about the ecological networks. Qualitative data informs us that a combination of geomorphologic, socioeconomic, cultural, and historic factors have shaped the Pomurje landscape and have influenced land use patterns in the region. As from respondents’ narratives the emergence of agricultural modernization and policy trends, present in the country after the World War II, appear to have most influenced the landscape and the rural lifestyle in Pomurje. Of a particular relevance are the impacts that the state border (its closure/openness) had on local development dynamics.

Key words: ecological networks, perception of landscape change, landscape, Pomurje region

Povzetek: V poro čilu predstavljamo, kako lokalni prebivalci Pomurske regije zaznavajo spremembe v kulturni krajini. V poro čilu poro čamo o njihovem zaznavanju preteklega in današnjega stanja v krajini ter o glavnih dejavnikih, ki spreminjajo krajino. V poro čilu tudi predstavljamo, kako ljudje zaznavajo Pomurje v povezavi s čezmejnimi obmo čji, ter njihovo poznavanje in razumevanje ekoloških mrež. Pridobljeni kvalitativni podatki kažejo na kombinacijo geomorfoloških, socioekonomskih, kulturnih in zgodovinskih dejavnikov, ki so oblikovali krajino v Pomurju in vplivali na vzorce rabe prostora v regiji. Iz pri čevanj intervjuvancev ugotavljamo, da sta modernizacija kmetijstva in politi čne razmere po drugi svetovni vojni najbolj vplivale na trenutno podobo krajine in življenjske razmere v Pomurju. Posebej zanimivi so obsežni vplivi zaprtosti/odprtosti državnih meja na dinamike lokalnega razvoja.

Klju čne besede: ekološke mreže, percepcija spremeb pokrajine, kulturna krajina, Pomurje

This document reports on the research activities undertaken by the University of Nova Gorica (PP 14) for the Workpackage 6: Identities and Strategies, under the TransEcoNet project. The TransEcoNet project is implemented through the CENTRAL EUROPE Programme and co-financed by the ERDF.

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Table of Contents

1.INTRODUCTION...... 5

1.1. RESEARCH AREA : POMURJE REGION ...... 5

2. METHODOLOGY...... 9

2.1. QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 9

2.2. SAMPLING ...... 9

3. SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS WITH DISCUSSION ...... 13

3.1. PRESENT STATE AND IMPACTS ON THE LANDSCAPE...... 13 3.1.1. The unique characteristics of the landscape making it different from the surrounding landscapes...... 13 3.1.2. The prides, the precious component of the landscape ...... 15 3.1.3. The existing landscape degradations, negative landscape elements and influences ...... 16 3.1.4. The urban parks and cemeteries in the area...... 16 3.1.5. The gardens in the area...... 17 3.1.6. Major landscape elements, which have positive or negative impact on the nature ...... 18 3.1.7. Environmental problems in the area...... 19 3.1.8. The concept of ecological networks ...... 20

3.2. FORMER STATE AND CHANGES OF THE LANDSCAPE ...... 20 3.2.1. Tales, stories, myths connected to the landscape...... 21 3.2.2. Traditions, having the message of the respect and protection of nature/landscape ...... 22 3.2.3. Main changes in the agriculture ...... 22 3.2.4. Changes in the forest and the forestry ...... 24 3.2.5 Changes in fishing and hunting...... 24 3.2.6. Changes in the tourism ...... 25 3.2.7 Changes in the traffic and infrastructure of the area...... 25 3.2.8. Changes in the character of the settlements and buildings ...... 27 3.2.9. Changes in the industrial activities ...... 28

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3.2.10. Nature conservation activity in the area ...... 28 3.2.11. The landscape affected changes in the future...... 29 3.2.12. The ideal landscape...... 30

3.3. COMPARISON OF THE SITUATION ON THE BOTH SIDE OF THE STATE BORDER ...... 30 3.3.1. Common landscape elements and differences;...... 31 3.3.2. The border-line and the effect of the border on the landscape changes...... 32

4. CONCLUSIONS...... 34

LIST OF FIGURES...... 35

LIST OF TABLES ...... 36

REFERENCES...... 37

APPENDIX I: VPRAŠALNIK (QUESTIONNAIRE IN )...... 39

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1.Introduction

This report is a deliverable submitted by the University of Nova Gorica under the Work package 6 titled ’Identities and strategies – raising awareness’ that is part of the international project TransEcoNet (Transnational Ecological Networks in Central Europe). The overall focus of the Work package 6.1 is to map out the relationship people have with their environment in a chosen geographical area. It is assumed that this knowledge can help us in understanding landscape use-patterns and support in devising more relevant policy measures. In this regard, the focus here is on ‘peoples’ perception of landscape changes’ and it is suggested that this type of qualitative data can be particularly useful for understanding of socio-economic/historic/cultural factors driving landscape changes.

1.1. Research area

The chosen research area is the Pomurje region which has a total of 119.537 inhabitants spread out within 27 municipalities (Table 1, for further data). It is the most north-eastern region in the country characterized by a substantial portion of lowland and a continental climate (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Pomurska region (red) Figure 2. and Lower divided by Mura River

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Table 1: Pomurska statistical region (SORS, 2010: 36) Area, km 2 , 31. 12. 2008 1.337 Population, 31. 12. 2008 119.537 Density of population, 31. 12. 2008 89,4 Number of live births, 2008 1.058 Number of deaths, 2008 1.337 Natural increase, 2008 .-279 Number of pupils, 2008/2009 1) 9.101 Number of upper secondary school pupils, 2008/2009 1) 4.960 Number of tertiary students, 2008/2009 2) 5.551 Number of tertiary graduates, 2008 2) 833 Number of persons in employment, 2008 43.464 Number of persons in paid employment, 2008 36.005 Number of self-employed persons, 2008 7.459 Number of registered unemployed persons, 2008 6.733 Average monthly gross earning by statistical region of residence, total, 1.204 2008 - for men 1.258 - for women 1.140 Number of enterprises, 2008 6.702 Turnover of enterprises, mio EUR, 2008 2.680 Number of agricultural holdings, 2007 9.794 Utilised agricultural area, ha, 2007 65.498 Number of tourist arrivals, 2008 214.356

Through the history the political borders in Pomurje were changing. From the 9th Century until the end of the First World War (1918) the Prekmurje (the area of Pomurje on the left side of the river Mura) was under Hungarian political and public spheres (Figure 2). The Ku čnica River was the delineation of the political boundary with as was the Mura River toward the south. With the establishment of the Styria-Hungarian border in the 11th and 12th centuries these two rivers defined the state border. Prekmurje was divided into upper Prekmurje with its centre of Murska Sobota in the Parish of Zelezno and lower Prekmurje with within the Parish of Zala as its centre (Štih and Simoniti 2009; Borak et al. 2006).

Following the Hungarian Communist revolution in 1919 which was suppressed by France, Great Britain and neighboring countries a Peace Conference held in Paris determined the transfer of the territory inhabited by Slovenes and Croats within Hungary, the Prekmurje region, under the administration of the Zagreb government

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Prekmurje was united with the Country of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (SHS) and later renamed the in 1929 (Fujs, 2008). The borders in the region remained the same until 1990s when Slovenia and became independent countries; formerly they were republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia that was established after World War II. Olas and Kert (1994) wrote how the bordering processes that took place over the past 100 years affected the Prekmurje region and influenced on local economy, property rights, religion and languages used locally. They highlighted that these bordering processes led to land abandonment, depopulation and outmigration.

The biggest town and administrative, economical and cultural centre of the region is Murska Sobota with 14.000 inhabitants. The second biggest town with approximately 3.400 inhabitants is Lendava, which is a central town of Hungarian minority in Slovenia. Because of the fertile soil, favourable position and soothed relief this land was settled already in prehistoric time, which means that human use of land have a long tradition (Bakan 2006).

The region has always seen the presence of different ethnic groups and religions. Throughout history in the Pomurje region different religions as well as ethnic groups managed to co-exist peacefully. Today, the region is home to Roman Catholics, Evangelists, Baptists, Kalvinists and Pentecostals. Besides, the region hosts two minority groups, the Roma and the Hungarian minority. Respondents told us that in several villages there is more than one cemetery e.g. Roman Catholics and Protestants. In the past there was also a strong Jewish community. In the 1921, 250 Jews lived in Lendava and 175 in Murska Sobota, but during the World War II many were deported did not returned. Today, this community is small and approximately 200 Jews live in the whole of Slovenia (Kodre, 2005).

Since Pomurska region borders with Austria, Hungary and Croatia, this had, and still has, an important influence as for instance there is a substantial presence of daily migrant workers to Austria. More recently – after the Schengen borders were opened at the end of 2007, also daily migrants from Hungary.

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Lowland and continental climate provides good conditions for agricultural production such as field crops farming and mixed cropping. The region is characterized by a number of natural features, such as lakes, the Mura river, thermal springs, wine trails and a soft rural landscape that contribute to its tourist recognition. On the west and northwest the region borders with Austria, on the northeast and the east it borders on Hungary and on the southeast it borders on Croatia. The northern hilly part of the region is called Gori čko and the southern lowland is consisted out of Ravensko, Dolinsko and Dolgovaško-Ledavske gorice. An important novelty in the region is the designation in 2003 of a protected area in Gori čko - the Gori čko Landscape Park.

The region, however, lags behind on a number of development indicators. For instance it has a low GDP per capita (EUR 11,160 in 2007) and the highest rate of registered unemployment in the country (in 2008 almost twice higher than the national average). The unfavorable economic situation is accompanied by unfavorable population trends. Pomurska region had the highest negative annual population growth rate (-4.0‰) in 2008, a decrease that is mainly due to high mortality and low fertility. According to data on the total fertility rate, on average, only 1.27 children per one woman aged between 15 and 49 years were born. Also, migration to other wealthier Slovenian region is an on-going trend. (SORS, 2010)

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2. Methodology

2.1. Questionnaire

The aim was to explore people’s perception, getting closer to their opinion and thinking about the landscape, environment. For data collection we devised a semi- structured interview guide and a field-work protocol. Colleagues form University of West Hungary (Konkoly-Gyuró Éva, Bacsárdi Valéria, Balázs Pál, Király Géza) prepared a questionnaire which has three main parts: the first and the second is about the present and former state of the landscape, changes in the landscape and the third part asks about the situation and perception of landscape in the cross- border area.

By compose the questions they followed several rules, aimed at being practicable in each project region. Before finalizing the questionnaire they have taken a test- questioning to realize the small mistakes. After that they finished the interview-guide and field-work protocol which contains beside the questionnaire (Slovene translation of the questionnaire is in Appendix I) other useful documents: data sheet, check list, glossary and a guide for summarizing the recorded data.

2.2. Sampling

The sampling method was snowballing with quota fulfillment as the criteria for closure. Interviews were conducted with respondents from different stakeholder groups as are: farmers, teachers, craft entrepreneurs, public sector, protected area authority and tourism sector.

We conducted 34 face-to-face interviews with the local inhabitants (i.e. residents) who came from 26 settlements within the Prekmurje area, one was from Veržej in Prlekija (Low Styria) and one was from Gornji Senik (Orseg in Hungary). Interviews

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were conducted in April and in October 2010. Interviews lasted from 45 min to 2h, upon previous permission these were tape-recorded and later summarized in tables.

Hence, our sample consists of 34 interviews with a good gender balance: 18 females (53%) and 16 males (47%). Age classes are presented in Figure 3.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79

Figure 3: Age Class Histogram

All of the respondents have lived in this region for all of their life with the exception of eight respondents who have moved from one village to another within this region, and of further two who have lived aboard (work). The interviewees are from towns/villages (number of interviews): (2), (1), (2), Cankova (2), Črenšovci (2), Gornja Bistrica (2), Ižakovci (2), Korovci (2), (2), Bakovci (1), Bodonci (1), (1), (1), Gornji Senik (1), Gornji Petrovci (1), Grad (1), Murska Sobota (1), Hodoš (1), Kuzma (1), Lipa (1), (1), Radovci (1), (1), Strehovci (1), Turniš če (1) and Veržej (1). Figure 4 is representing the map of towns and villages where the interviews were conducted (small symbols of houses represent the locations of the interviews) and in Figure 5 are detailed information about their current occupation.

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Figure 4: Map of the interviewes’ home towns and vilages in Pomurje region

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pensioner 1 1 1 farmer 1 student 1 seller 1 11 geographer

1 gardner transport expert 1 waiter 1 miller carpenter 1 landscape architect 1 forester 1 housewife economist 2 5 priest 2 cleaner 2 agronomist

Figure 5: Current occupation of respondents

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3. Summary of the results with discussion

3.1. Present state and impacts on the landscape

3.1.1. The unique characteristics of the landscape making it different from the surrounding landscapes The majority of the respondents emphasized some cultural and natural characteristic of the landscape. Respondents mentioned different cultural monuments of historical and religion value , such as Ple čnik church in Bogojina, church in Selo (Figure 5), crosses and other religion signs. They also mentioned traditional Pannonia houses covered with straw , wells, water mills (Figure 7), wooden ferries (Figure 8) and traditional crafts, such as milling, pottery (Figure 9) and weaving. Some of the respondents mentioned also farm and thermal tourism, Otok Ljubezni (Island of love) – a popular tourist place with wooden ferry and mill on the Mura River, and Ocean Orchid – greenhouse with orchids for tourists.

They think that multiculturalism is also unique and influencing on the landscape. Throughout the history different religions and ethic groups managed to live together. Today, the region is home to Roman Catholics, Evangelists, Baptists, Kalvinists and Pentecostals. Besides, the region hosts two minority groups, the Roma and the Hungarian minority. In the neighbouring region of Porabje (HU) there is a Slovenian minority, while the Hungarian minority in Slovenia is located in the municipality of Lendava, Hodoš, Šalovci, and Dobrovnik. Respondents told us that in several villages there is more than one cemetery e.g. Roman Catholics and Protestants. In the past there was also a strong Jewish community. In the 1921, 250 Jews lived in Lendava and 175 in Murska Sobota, but during the World War II many were deported did not returned. Today, this community is small and approximately 200 Jews live in the whole of Slovenia (Kodre, 2005).

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Figure 6: Church in Selo Figure 7: Water mill on the river Mura

Among natural characteristics mentioned by respondents are hills and plains as two most dominant natural characteristics of the landscape mosaic in Pomurje. There are substantial differences between the northern and the southern part of Pomurje for what concerns landscape patterns. Most of our respondents have highlighted such differences and pointed to what they regard as being the underlying driving forces contributing to it. Hence, in a first stance the geomorphology of the two areas has contributed to different land-use patterns.

In the south the region is characterized by a lowland with fertile soil, access to water and the possibility to cultivate sizable field surfaces . This region, and the lowland in particular, has been and still is subject to agricultural production. In the past this involved potatoes, pumpkins, wheat, millet, corn and buckwheat used for food production, while more recently there is a growing interest for crops such as rapeseed used in the energy sector (biodiesel). In the past flax was also commonly used for textile products. On the other hand, in the north the hilly landscape (Gori čko) has attracted a different kind of land-use. Here it is common to find orchards, pastureland, community-owned forest, fields of pumpkins and recently also vineyards.

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Figure 8: Ferry on Mura River Figure 9: Pottery tradition

3.1.2. The prides, the precious component of the landscape Respondents are proud of the look of the landscape along the river Mura and the hills of Gori čko. Those living along the river Mura mentioned the natural beauties of the river, such as riparian forest and backwaters. The respondents living along the river Mura and river Kučnica mentioned the wild daffodils ( Narcissus poeticus ) as a symbol of unspoilt nature. The people of hilly Goričko like the undulation of the landscape, mosaic of crops and they are proud of old trees – chestnuts and oaks. They appreciate the consistency and openness of people and places arranged in harmony with nature . They value the preservation of traditions and cultural patterns related to food, music, crafts...

Figure 10. Daffodils near Veržej (http://www.donbosko.si/verzej/node/15086) Figure 11. Oak ( Quercus petraea ) in Trdkova is marking the crossroads

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3.1.3. The existing landscape degradations, negative landscape elements and influences What they saw as the most threatening to the landscape is land abandonment . Agricultural land is left to overgrow. Land abandonment goes hand in hand with an ageing farming population and with a lack of interest for farming among the young. It is also associated with high unemployment and low incomes, so people, especially young, move to larger centers. Older respondents are often disappointed that their children are not interested to stay on the farm and cultivate the land. They think the main reason is that the work is to tiring for young, therefore they rather look for the job in the cities.

The respondents also disliked pollution of rivers and streams, illegal dumps and general low environmental awareness in the region . Respondents were not proud of intensive farming, requiring the use of crop pesticide and fertilizers . They noticed also negative changes in the local societies. They think that people are less and less prepared to cooperate with each other, increasingly present is their passivity and materialism.

3.1.4. The urban parks and cemeteries in the area Respondents are very proud of urban parks and old trees (chestnuts, oak and poplar trees) that are protected as natural heritage. Majority of respondents mentioned that in many of the villages still have two separated cemeteries for Evangelists and Roman Catholics. Respondents also report that in some villages only Evangelist or Roman Catholic cemetery exists and deceased are moved to another village to be berried.

Respondent (32 years old) explained that in “Bodonci separated cemeteries existed until 1925…, but after that they formed only one cemetery for all.” The same respondent also gave as an old article from the newspaper written by the priest in 1940s where it was described in detail how to take care of the cemetery, which should be planted and how wide should be the path in the cemetery. The plants

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mentioned were Common boxwood ( Buxus sempervirens) and Weeping willow ( Salix babylonica ).

Figure 12: Common boxwood ( Buxus sempervirens) Figure 13: Weeping willow ( Salix babylonica ) in front of the cemetery in Hodoš

3.1.5. The gardens in the area Respondents reported having small vegetable gardens with herbs and flowers where they grow plats frequently needed in the kitchen. Each garden had a fence, because of the domestic and wild animals. The fence was built of wood or weaved from wicker , but nowadays they mostly use iron fences. Houses are also surrounded by orchards. Respondents see less and less traditional gardens in the villages, because more and more people buy vegetables and fruits in shops. The gardens are more used for flowers, nowadays. Lawns are also common around the housed that have not been typical in the past.

This was noticed also by Kuštor (2006). She wrote that nowadays a traditional fenced gardens and meadow orchards are less frequently surrounding the houses in Gori čko then in the past. They are replaced with asphalt or concrete and regularly cut lawns. Surrounding of the house in becoming the same as the indoor - it is in order, monotonous and carefully protected before the natural disorder.

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3.1.6. Major landscape elements, which have positive or negative impact on the nature The majority of respondents emphasized negative impacts on the nature. They mentioned regulations of watercourses, gravel holes and abandonment of small farms as the most negative impacts on the nature . “Many rivers and streams were regulated and river banks are regularly mowed” and this is considered as negative impact on the nature by respondent (30 years old). A problem of land abandonment in Gori čko was well captured in the answer of agronomist (48 years old) who explained that today “ Gori čko (area) is almost without cows. Farmers mow grasslands because of agri-subsidies. They became a utility service that prevents overgrowth of farmland. I know that 97% of all farming in this area is just a utility service. Farmers kept their tractors and mulches. They sold the rest of the equipment. They do this only because it is paid and worth doing at the moment.”

Figure 14: Regulations on the streams Figure 15: Plan for regulations on river Ku čnica

Interesting was the thinking of the respondent living near river Mura. He pointed out some negative impacts of the degradation of landscapes. “Some people are cutting down hedges. As a consequence the wind and the floods are washing the soil away. Errors were also made by foresters who cleared an area of trees that were important as wind protection. In 1970s and 1980s farming cooperatives had money to consolidate the land and drain the water. Land consolidation is still going on in

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agriculture and they do not promote the conservation of nature. Fortunately healthy farmers logic is maintaining most of the hedges.” (farmer, 55 years old)

3.1.7. Environmental problems in the area

The majority of respondents report of low environmental awareness among local residents . As examples they mentioned illegal dumps and burning of plastics. They also emphasized the pollution caused by farming. This includes a heavy use of pesticides as well as extensive cultivation of monocultures. It occurred prevalently in the lowland with implications for the natural environment - degradation of landscape and groundwater pollution with nitrates and pesticides . The presence of nitrates in groundwater in lowland of Pomurje was over the acceptable limits (50 mg NO3/l) in 2008. The same applies to the sum of all pesticides in groundwater. In 2008 it exceeded the allowable 0.5 µg/l (Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia, 2010). The intensification of farming has led to the fact that nowadays the soil is over-fertilized and worked out, impregnated with pesticides, dried-up and over-cultivated (Bakan, 2006)

Respondents were unsatisfied with some farmers, behaving irresponsible and causing the death of bees that is occasionally happening in Pomurje region. They also see the negative consequences of groundwater pollution on the quality of drinking water. Locals cannot use anymore the water from dwells for drinking, because it is polluted with nitrates.

Respondent from Cankova noticed that the damming of the river Ledava in late 1970s had some negative environmental impacts. The river was dammed in order to prevent floods in Murska Sobota. The water in the artificial lake is now polluted and not very suitable for tourist development. Also, the lake influences on the local climate – it causes more fog in the area.

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3.1.8. The concept of ecological networks From the interview data it emerges that respondents have almost no information about Ecological networks (EN). Only five respondents mentioned of having heard before of this term. Some assumed that it is linked to nature protection others that it is linked to organic agriculture, but none was able to indicate what it means with precision. This suggests that there is a communication gap on the role and purpose of EN in the study region, which can be tackled with adequate awareness raising and communication activities.

3.2. Former state and changes of the landscape

In the second part of the survey the questions were asked about the former state and changes, about the changes in various sections and their effect on the landscape. First we asked our respondents to present the past landscape they can remember from the earliest period, to survey which time period are they talking about, how long period they see the changes in. The oldest can remember the time period after World War II (last 60-70 years). In general, the largest change in the landscape is a transition from extensive to intensive agriculture.

They also mentioned the differences in crop field patterns on both sides of the river Mura. We have to clarify here that Slovenia was part of the Austrio-Hungarian Monarchy and most of it territories followed the Austrian law (Austrian Empire) with exception of Pomurje as this area belonged to the Kingdom of Hungary and had to follow the Hungarian law. Hence, in Pomurje inheritance patters followed the Hungarian tradition which grants inheritance rights to all family members who inherit a proportional quota, while in the other part of Slovenia only one sun usually inherited the property. The side effect is that the land in Prekmurje got sliced in smaller and smaller units. In some cases the property is 300 meters long and less then 5 meters wide. “In the past people depended only on crop fields, because there were no jobs, no industry. They had big families and the land was very important to

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them which was their major source of income. In order to survive they divided the land to all family members.” (Respondent, 80 years old)

Respondents explained that part of the local population still follows this tradition and many are those farmers who have their small patches of land scattered across the northern part of the region in different villages. For example when the daughter gets married to someone living in the neighboring village and inherits land from her parents. People are abandoning the smaller farms and they are moving to larger centers where they work in factories.

Figure 16: Landscape mosaic near (Prekmurje) (DOF GURS 2006) Figure 17: Landscape mosaic near Veržej (Styria) (DOF GURS 2006)

3.2.1. Tales, stories, myths connected to the landscape Respondents couldn’t remember many stories or tales connected to the landscape. They reported about carnival traditions and the witches in the folk legends . They also told as different stories about the weather . An old farmer from Bogojina told as that the thunderstorm with hail always comes from the east over the hill (he pointed the hill). He also told as about the “ crossing against clouds ”. He explained that they believed that ringing a church bell (crossing) will disband the clouds in the sky and prevent the villagers of thunderstorms with hail. Another respondent told as about the man who lived in their village and was able to predict the weather. The villagers were

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attached to him and acted according to his instructions – planning the work in the fields. The same respondent also told as a mit about of the chapel submerged in the lake in . “If you look the lake closely you can see the reflection of the chapel”, he said.

3.2.2. Traditions, having the message of the respect and protection of nature/landscape Some respondents from Gori čko were aware of the importance the traditional meadow orchards have for nature protection and biodiversity, especially for birds that are nesting and looking for food in these habitats. Respondents reported that people respect and feel attachment to home soil, especially among older generations. They underlined the importance of old crafts such as pottery and milling, and regret that this sense of connection with nature among the people is now losing.

3.2.3. Main changes in the agriculture The region was a subject to agricultural modernization that had important implications for the natural environment and for the social capital/ rural lifestyle. In agriculture, the image starts to change with the emergence of mechanization. If in the first half of the 20th plowing with animals was still in use. In 1960s first tractors and other agricultural machinery was introduced and thereby also changes in the technique of plowing. In the 1980s farmers started with intensive agricultural practices. This included a heavy use of pesticides and herbicides as well as extensive cultivation of monocultures. The former occurred prevalently in the lowland (south) with implications for the natural environment - water pollution.

Agricultural production is much present in the north as well, but the way locals engage with it differs as from the lowland. In the hilly Gori čko subsistence agriculture prevails, with smallholdings being managed by family members during the off-work hours (complementary activity) since families would rely on income from off-farm employment. Respondents reported that despite that most

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continued to be engaged in land cultivation at weekends/afternoons, the outflow of labor force from agriculture to other sectors (e.g. Industry) jointly with the emigration resulted in a decrease of farming activities and abandonment of agricultural land. In the surrounding of Selo in Gori čko (NE part) respondents also noticed that small vineyards are disappearing in the last 10 years. And also that intensive production of fruits expanded in the past 20 years. In the past orchards in Selo were owned by agricultural cooperatives, nowadays are privately owned.

Respondents reported that abandonment of agricultural land appears to be more present in the northern part (Gori čko) and that today most of the local population is employed in other sectors and does not depend on income from on-farm activities. The changes in farming are well captured in the words of the farmer we interviewed (80 years old): “Farming is today very confused. Now we only have three big farms with 130 cows in the village, but just a few decades ago every house in the village had two cows, because they used them also to cultivate the land. First tractors came in 1970s …”

Figure 18: Farming in Bodonci around 1930s, Gori čko (personal archive of S. Sever)

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3.2.4. Changes in the forest and the forestry Respondents didn’t perceive any major differences in size of the forests in the last 60-70 years. This result is surprising, because botanist Bakan (2006) reports about pressures on lowland and hilly forest patches. “Due to the increased felling the forests’ ground are being dried-up, pedofauna is dieing away, low forest communities are decaying and are being replaced by aggressive Bramble. Even the reforestation of these areas does not solve these woody surface because the young trees are still being planted in rows, arise from the same genetic fund, are of the same age and likely belong to species the originally have not thrived in the region.” (Bakan, 2006: 11). In Prekmurje are best preserved flood arches and forests on the Mura River and evaluated as an important nature conservation area with high biodiversity (Globevnik, 2007; Čarni et al., 2008).

Respondents did mention invasive Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia ) which is spreading, especially in the lowlands of Pomurje. Respondents had positive and negative opinions about the spreading of the invasive Black Locust tree. It is very useful plant for poles in vineyards, for making barrels, for firewood, for honey production and it is also used as a timber for the wheels of mills on the Mura River. Some respondents reported planting it on the steep areas, where the land cultivation is difficult. But there are also some reports of negative impacts, such as loosing some traditional tree species such as Alder which is replaced by Black Locust.

3.2.5 Changes in fishing and hunting Hunting and fishing were not changed significantly in the last decades. They are perceived as a tradition, a social event, and not as economic activity. The role of fishing has decreased in some areas like Mura River. Respondents report that there is less fish in the Mura River and that there were some alien species of fish and crustaceans introduced into the river. On the other hand in some areas of Gori čko the popularity of sport fishing increased with artificially made lakes, such as Hodoš lake, Ledava and Bukovniško lake. Respondent explained that the river Ledava was dammed in order to prevent floods.

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3.2.6. Changes in the tourism Respondents see some positive changes in the tourism sector. Respondents reported about constant development of thermal tourism in the last decades. They mentioned spa resorts in Lendava, Moravske toplice and Radenci. This development is also bringing some additional changes in the landscape, such as golf course in Moravske toplice. Since the landscape park Gori čko was established, the number of local tourist associations raised . Respondents from Gori čko also noticed the increase in the number of tourists visiting Gori čko since the Landscape Park was established in 2003. Local tourist associations host numerous events, especially related to reviving the traditional customs and crafts . Respondents also mentioned new thematic tourist roads with signs like wine and historical roads.

3.2.7 Changes in the traffic and infrastructure of the area Respondents noticed that the infrastructure in the region is getting better in the last decades . Roads are covered with asphalt. Infrastructure development is evident in the improved road connections, new railway connection with Hungary and telephone connections. In 2009 a highway connected Pomurje with the rest of Slovenia. In some areas in Gori čko plumbing and sewage system is remaining a problem . Some people are still using the water from the wells and rainwater. In the proximity of the Hungarian border the infrastructure is poorer then in other parts of the region.

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Figure 19: Well attached to the house Figure 20: Well on the crop field

Figure 21: Murska Sobota – after World War I Figure 22: Murska Sobota – in 2011

On the interview we collected the postcard of the street in Murska Sobota. The photograph was taken after World War I. The street scene axis in Murska Sobota (Figure 21 and 22) is dominated by a row of pollard oak trees and the line of telegraph poles opposite. The more substantial buildings are on the left side of the street while lower buildings line the right hand side. An open drain lies beneath the telegraph poles. Regular piles, possible of gravel for reinforcing the road surface are positioned on the right hand side of the street. In the recent photograph of the street, the telegraph poles and the buildings on the right hand side of the road have

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disappeared. Several of the substantial earlier buildings on the left, however, remain. The former street trees have been replaced by new ones. The open drain has also disappeared and a wide footpath, with trees and garden plantings, has been established. On the road surface asphalt is seen and provision for parked cars on the left hand side of the street.

3.2.8. Changes in the character of the settlements and buildings The extension of settlements and buildings has increased. The function of rural settlements was changed and now passes into an urban village life. Farm buildings such as stables are transformed into garages for cars and into new houses. Respondents also noticed changes in the architecture. Some respondents dislike the colorful visual image of the newly built houses in Pomurje. While in the proximity of the Hungarian border architectural style is more traditional and because of the former iron curtain there is poorer infrastructure.

Figure 23: Pannonian house in

“In 1960s and 1970s traditional Pannonian houses dominated in Črenšovci. Today are all gone. Houses were made of wood, some even from the earth. They were covered with straw, and later also with the brick. The houses were L-shaped - first inside was the residential building, followed by a outbuilding. Residential part had one large room and a black kitchen. In these two rooms have been important parts of furniture – bench, extendible table, religious statues and paintings. In the house has

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also been a "little room" where the grandparents lived. This room was then followed by a storage room.” (pensioner, 71 years old)

3.2.9. Changes in the industrial activities Respondents reported the changes in industrial sector in the region had a substantial effect. In the 1960s state investments went into the development of industrial plants in the lowland part of Pomurje : textile industry (Mura), agro-processing industry (ABC Pomurka, Panvita, Pomurske mlekarne), wood processing industry (Murales), metal industry (Kovino Panonia), chemical industry (Nafta, Krka, Kema), etc. These offered an employment alternative and many preferred to seek job opportunities in the industry sector, but also migrated to urban centers elsewhere. In recent years there is a high unemployment in the region, many industries have failed.

3.2.10. Nature conservation activity in the area An important novelty in the region is the designation in 2003 of a protected area, the Gori čko Landscape Park. This park is the result of a bottom-up initiative that saw in a protected area the opportunity to cope with some of the above mentioned. The mandate of the park authority is to protect the natural environment while keeping in focus the development needs and current issues of this area. Plut et al. (2008) report that the locals in the park appreciate the natural heritage in particular, drinking water, the variety of flora and fauna and rich cultural heritage. Our survey supports these findings; in particular our respondents mentioned sacral heritage, local crafts and traditions and old trees (chestnut trees, oaks).

There are several initiatives that the park authority undertakes as well as is active in awareness raising activities, but when asked respondents have prevalently expressed detachment with the park and did not seem too confident in the pursued achievements . Most frequently they have mentioned restrictions and additional bureaucratic procedures now need for land purchase . In fact, the northern part, due to abandonment of agricultural practices some choose to sell

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property and being inside a landscape park brings up additional procedures. Respondents living within and outside (lowland) the protected area also see some positive changes since the designation in 2003, especially in the tourism sector. Since the protected area was established, the number of local tourist associations raised. They host numerous events, especially related to reviving the traditional customs and crafts.

Among other conservational activities mentioned by respondents are community actions in cleaning trash in the surrounding of the villages and towns. Many respondents and park authorities from Landscape Park Gori čko (Slovenia) noticed the drastic land abandonment in the Park area which is changing the image of the landscape and reducing the landscape diversity.

3.2.11. The landscape affected changes in the future Respondents are aware that the population is aging and that the young generation is moving into larger cities . Respondents are pessimistic with regard to agricultural and economic future in Pomurje and they think this will have negative effects on the landscape. Younger generations are working in industry and therefore many respondents think that the land abandonment will be even more evident in the future. Respondents also expect that in future people will be more environmentally aware , but they are concerned that the agricultural land is changed into building areas.

A respondent working in the park administration expressed that he would like to see changes in the mindset of local people. This will be then reflected in the appearance of the streams and rivers, there will be less light pollution and hopefully more people will dependent economically on agricultural land and farming, and additionally with touristic activities.

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3.2.12. The ideal landscape For the respondents natural and cultural characteristic of the landscape should not change and landscape mosaic should be preserved. They think that people should live in harmony with nature, there should be more solidarity among people and more community work in the villages. They would like to live in quiet and unpolluted environment, far away from modern world. Respondent from Cankova (64 years of age) said that “ everything should stay as it is now. Young should be motivated to stay here... I am also afraid that cultural landscape will disappear if only big farms will remain and there will be no diversity .”

3.3. Comparison of the situation on the both side of the state border

In the third (final) part of the questionnaire we aimed at making a comparison between the two sides of the state border. What are the differences and similarities on the focus areas and what the reasons are.

State border had important implications on local development dynamics and has seen different periods of closure and openness. Currently, the border with Austria and Hungary is open and people can move without any major impediment. A substantial portion of the local population commutes to Austria to work, or for shopping, while Austrians come to Slovenia for leisure and tourism. In 2008 almost 64% of all overnight accommodations of foreign tourists in the Pomurje region were Austrian tourists (SORS, 2010). Hungary is less visited by Slovenians, and this occurs mostly for leisure. In the neighboring region of Porabje (Orseg) there is a Slovenian minority, while the Hungarian minority in Slovenia.

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Figure 24: River Ku čnica on the border between Slovenia and Austria Figure 25: Monument on the border between Slovenia, Hungary and Austria

3.3.1. Common landscape elements and differences The formation of Iron Curtain between Hungary and former Yugoslavia in 1949 caused geopolitical re-orientation and the state border became highly secured. Respondents explained that the border cut economical and social strings between nations and minorities. Until the end of 1960s, when the first border crossings were open, they had no or minimal communication with relatives living on the other side of the border. Many people on Slovenian and Hungarian side were forced to leave the area close to the border; they abandoned the land and went abroad . The privately owned land, especially in Hungarian side of the border, was nationalized and field patterns were changed. Respondents mentioned that arable land patterns on Hungarian side (on the eastern border) are still larger in size and less complex then in Slovenia despite similar natural conditions on both sides of the border . The state border lost importance for local residents after the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, and especially after 2004 when Slovenia and Hungary joined the European Union.

Locals in Prekmurje report having closer ties with people from Austria than from Hungary. Richer Austria offered and still offers a significantly better income to people in Prekmurje. Respondents explained that Austria is an important destination for daily migrant workers and shopping from the villages and towns that gravitate to the border. In the proximity of the Austrian border the infrastructure is better

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developed, houses are bigger and land is more cultivated. They also explained that the infrastructure is better in Austria and worst in Hungary in comparison to Slovenia. “ The west part of Gori čko is more inhabited, there is less forest and higher living standard, because people work in Austria.” (Respondent, 30 years old). Cultural landscape along the border with Austria preserved most of its complexity – complex mosaic of grasslands, different crop types, orchids, vineyards, forests, hedgerows and wet meadows . Respondents explained that Austria is an important destination for daily migrant workers and shopping from the villages and towns that gravitate to the border.

Respondents see the similarities between Hungary and Slovenia in local architecture – in preserved traditional Pannonian houses. Some respondents dislike the colourful (blue, yellow, pink) visual image of the newly built houses that are particularly common in the area closer to the border with Austria, because owners are richer and want to show this also with the colours of the houses. Many respondents believe that this is ruining the visual image of the landscape in Prekmurje.

Today, for younger people and those working in Austria the border does no longer exist (mentally). They cross it without noticing. The state border is inexistent as they are now used to move freely and go on the other side on a daily basis for work, buy goods or visit friends. They noticed that the landscape in Austria is better organized and cultivated . Many grasslands on Slovenian side are mulched and not mowed anymore. This is something they didn’t notice across the border in Austria.

3.3.2. The border-line and the effect of the border on the landscape changes During the Yugoslav period the state border with Austria and Hungary was highly secured. Most of the respondents remember this period that lasted until 1990s. On the Hungarian side of the state border a strip of land was plowed and regularly checked for human footsteps. Respondents reported, that some people were

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illegally crossing the border with reindeer hooves placed under their shoes in order to fool the soldiers on the border. On the Austrian side the state border was also highly secured after the World War II. Local farmers were not allowed to grow corps higher than one meter in the 100 meter border zone. One respondent explained that in this zone corn was not planted, because it is higher then 1 meter.

State border also influenced on the regulation of the Ku čnica riverbed. Ku čnica is a small river along the border between Austria and Slovenia that was regulated during the 1980-s. Land-consolidation program followed on both sides of the state border. Respondents report that regulation of the river Ku čnica helped to stabilize the state border .

The privately owned land, especially in Hungarian side of the border, was nationalized and field patterns were changed. The state border lost importance for local residents after the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, and especially after 2004 when Slovenia and Hungary joined the European Union. But for many of the respondents it is still as a mental barrier in place. Today, the border zone is in many places overgrown with bushes and forests.

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4. Conclusions

This report has found that a combination of geomorphologic, socioeconomic, cultural, and historic factors have shaped the Pomurje landscape and have influenced land use patterns in the region. The respondents talked about their perceptions of natural elements as well as landscape changes due to the influence of the human. It is obvious that both, natural assets, like hills, rivers floodplains, forests, and cultural assets, like traditional Pannonian houses, water mills and churches, give the Pomurje its unique shape. Through the respondents’ narratives the report identifies a number of issues that local inhabitants identify as problematic as is: land abandonment, loosening of community ties, the presence of water and soil pollution, and unemployment . The emergence of agricultural modernization and policy trends, present in the country after the World War II, appear to have most influenced the landscape and the rural lifestyle in the last 60-70. years. Of a particular relevance are the impacts that the state border (its closure/openness) had on local development dynamics. Particularly the formation of Iron Curtain between Hungary and former Yugoslavia in 1949 caused economical and social changes, cut connections between nations and minorities. The privately owned land, especially in Hungarian side of the border, was nationalized and field patterns were changed. Arable land patterns on Hungarian side (on the eastern border) are still larger in size and less complex despite similar natural conditions on both sides of the border.

This study has indentified that despite the local population has a good degree of awareness about environmental quality and nature protection measures, they are not familiar with ecological networks nor are able to identify what these are. This suggests that targeted awareness raising measures may help to in this regard and raise awareness on the role of ecological networks.

In the united Europe of different regions, the life on the frontier or borderland is finally not the life on the edge; it is becoming a place of cultural dialogue and various opportunities. In the frontiers live people with rich historical experiences in coexistence with the neighboring nations (Fujs, 2008).

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List of Figures

Figure 1. Pomurska region Figure 2. Prekmurje and Lower Styria divided by Mura River Figure 3: Age Class Histogram Figure 4: Map of the interviewes’ home towns and vilages in Pomurje region Figure 5: Current occupation of respondents Figure 6: Church in Selo Figure 7: Water mill on the river Mura Figure 8: Ferry on Mura River Figure 9: Pottery tradition Figure 10. Dafodills near Veržej (http://www.donbosko.si/verzej/node/15086) Figure 11. Oak ( Q. petrea ) in Trdkova is marking the crossroads Figure 12: Common boxwood ( Buxus sempervirens) Figure 13: Weping willow ( Salix babylonica ) in front of the cemetary in Hodoš Figure 14: Regulations on the streams Figure 15: Plan for regulations on river Ku čnica Figure 16: Landscape mosaic near Melinci (Prekmurje) (DOF GURS 2006) Figure 17: Landscape mosaic near Veržej (former Styria) (DOF GURS 2006) Figure 18: Farming in Bodonci around 1930s, Gori čko Figure 19: Well attached to the house Figure 20: Well on the crop field Figure 21: Murska Sobota – after World War I Figure 22: Murska Sobota – in 2011 Figure 23: Pannonian house in Filovci Figure 24: River Ku čnica on the border between Slovenia and Austria Figure 25: Monument on the border between Slovenia, Hungary and Austria

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List of Tables

Table 1: Pomurska statistical region (SORS, 2010: 36)

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References

1. Bakan, B. 2006. Slikovni pregled višjih rastlin Prekmurja. Razvojni center, Lendava.

2. Borak, N., Čepi č, Z., Fisher, J. 2006. Slovenska novejša zgodovina. od programa Zedinjena Slovenija do mednarodnega priznanja Republike Slovenije: 1848–1992. , Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino, Mladinska knjiga.

3. Čarni, A., Košir, P., Marin ček, L., Marinšek, A., Šilc, U., Zelnik, I. 2008. Komentar k vegetacijski karti gozdnih združb Slovenije v merilu 1:50.00 – List Murska Sobota, karta, zgoš čenka, PAZU, Murska Sobota.

4. Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia (2010). http://www.arso.gov.si/vode/podzemne vode (30.6.2010).

5. Fujs, M. 2008. V valovih zgodovine. V: Gori čko – na zelenem otoku presahlega morja: F. Just et al. (Eds.). Petanjci, Ustanova dr. Šiftarjeva fundacija.

6. Globevnik, L. 2007. Ohranjanje biotske raznovrstnosti reke Mure v Sloveniji= Conservation of Biodiversity of the Mura River in Slovenia. V: Kolar-Planinši č, V., Lebez Lozej, J. Life III - nature in Slovenia : rewiew of projects. Ljubljana, Ministrytvo za okolje in prostor.

7. Kodre, L. 2005. Položaj in vloga judovske skupnosti v Slovenski družbi in prostoru / The situation and role of jewish community in Slovenian space and society. Ljubljana: University of Ljubljana, Faculy of Arts, Department of Geography.

8. Kuštor, V. 2006. Krajinski park Gori čko živi z naravo. Grad, Javni zavod Krajinski park Gori čko.

9. Olas, L., Kert, B. 1993. Vplivi državnih meja na družbenogeografski razvoj Prekmurja. Dela, 10: 135-142. Ljubljana.

10. Plut, D., Cigale, D., Lampi č, B., Mrak, I., Kavaš, D., Slabe Erker, R., Trebše, P., Pleterski, A., Štular, B., Pirnat, J. (2008). Trajnostni razvoj varovanih obmo čij - celostni pristop in aktivna vloga države : trajnostno gospodarjenje v varovanih obmo čjih z vidika doseganja skladnejšega regionalnega razvoja : kon čno poro čilo. Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta, Oddelek za geografijo.

11. Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia (SORS), 2010. Slovenske regije v številkah / Slovene regions in figures. Ljubljana.

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12. Štih, P., Simoniti, V. (2009). Na sti čiš ču svetov: Slovenska zgodovina od prazgodovinskih kultur do konca 18. stoletja. Ljubljana, Modijan.

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Appendix I: Vprašalnik (Questionnaire in Slovene language)

I. Osebni podatki o intervjuvancu

Ime in priimek: Spol: Naselje: Starost: Poklic:

Kako dogo vi in vaša družina živite v teh krajih? Kje ste živeli pred tem?

II. Sedanje stanje in vplivi na krajino

1. Prosimo vas, da na zemljevidu ozna čite meje obmo čja, ki ga zelo dobro poznate. 2. Katere so unikatnosti, posebnosti vašega obmo čja, ki so druga čne od bližnjih pokrajin (naravni in grajeni elementi)? 3. Kaj vam je zares vše č v tej pokrajini in ste na to ponosni? 4. Kaj vam ni vše č v tej pokrajini in na to niste ponosni? 4.1. Najpomemnejša kulturna dediš čina ali zna čilnost te pokrajine? 4.2. Ali poznate kakšno staro drevo, redko rastlino ali žival, ali drugo naravno dediš čino te pokrajine? 5. Kateri je vaš najljubši kraj v tej pokrajini? Kakšna je njegova vloga v vašem življenju? Opišite ga in pokažite na zemljevidu. 6. Ali so na obmo čju kakšni ve čji parki, pokopališ ča, ki so za vas pomembni? Zakaj jih cenite? 7. Kakšne vrtove imajo ljudje v tem okolju? Opišite jih prosim? 8. Ali poznate kakšen element (del) pokrajine, ki ima lahko pozitiven ali negativen vpliv na naravo? 9. Ali opazite kakšne okoljske probleme v vašem okolju? 10. A ste že kdaj slišali za pojem ekološke mreže? (če odgovori pritrdilno, nadaljujte s podvprašanji) 10.1. Kako bi definirali izraz “ekološka mreža”? 10.2. Ali poznate za kakšne aktivnosti gre?

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10.3. Kako bi ocenili delovanje ekoloških mrež na vašem obmo čju? 10.4. Kakšni so po vašem mnenju problemi povezani z ekološko mrežo na vašem obmo čju?

III. Preteklo stanje in spremembe v krajini

1. Opišite prosim preteklo stanje v pokrajini in najprej definirajte ( časovno) najstarejše obdobje vašega življenja, ki se ga še spomnite. 2. Ali poznate kakšno staro pripoved, zgodbo, mit, reklo, pregovor..., ki je povezan z vašim okoljem? 3. Ali poznate kakšne tradicije povezane s kmetovanjem in naravo, ki kažejo na posebno vez, spoštovanje in varovanje narave? 4. Prosimo vas, da primerjate sedanjost in preteklost; katere so glavne spremembe, ki ste jih opazili v pokrajini: 4.1. Katere spremembe ste opazili v gozdu, pri jezerih, rekah, pašnikhi, vinogradih in sadovnjakih? 5. Katere spremembe ste opazili v poljedelstvu in živinoreji? 6. Katere spremembe ste opazili v gozdarstvu? 7. Katere spremembe ste opazili v lovstvu in ribištvu? 8. Katere spremembe ste opazili v turizmu? 9. Kakšne spremembe ste opazili v cestni infrastrukturi in prometu? 10. Kakšne spremembe ste opazili v samem izgledu krajev in hiš in kakšno je vaše mnenje o spremembah? 11. Kakšne spremembe ste opazili v industrijski dejavnosti na vašem obmo čju? 12. Ali poznate kakšne naravovarstvene aktivnosti, ki potekajo na vašem obmo čju? Kaj menite o njih? 13. Kakšne spremembe ste opazili v ravnanju z rekami in jezeri? Ali se je podoba vodotokov kaj spremenila? Opišite kako? 14. Kakšne spremembe pri čakujete v prihodnje? Kako se bo spreminjala pokrajina? 15. Opišite, kakšna bi bila po vašem mneju idealna pokrajina v kateri bi si želeli živeti.

IV. Primerjajte situacijo v krajini na obeh straneh državne meje

1. Kako pogosto zahajate čez mejo (Madžarska, Avstrija) in kam? Prosimo vas, da ozna čite kraje na karti. 2. Kako dobro poznate te kraje? 3. Kakšne so glavne razlike med obema stranema meje (neko č-danes)? 4. Kaj bi lahko bili razlogi za razlike?

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5. Kateri so skupni elementi pokrajine na vaši in drugi strani meje? Ali veste kaj o izvoru teh podobnosti? 6. Ali še vedno opazite obmo čja, kjer je vidna državna meja v pokrajini? če je odgovor da, opišite kaj vidite, kar predstavlja mejo? 7. Kako se je vpliv meje spreminjal v pokrajini?

------1. Ali imate morda kakšno staro fotografijo, razglednico, sliko ali zemljevid pokrajine? 2. Ali imate stara pisma ali druge pisne dokumente, ki bi nas lahko informirali o preteklosti pokrajine?

Zaklju čite intervju z vprašanjem, ali je zainteresiran izvedeti kaj ve č o rezultatih projekta Transeconet ter povprašajte jih, koga bi še priporo čili za pogovor.

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