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Download Thesis This electronic thesis or dissertation has been downloaded from the King’s Research Portal at https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/ Conflict Resolution As a Learning Process The Sudanese People’s Liberation Movement/Army 1983-2005 Dor, Malual Ayom Awarding institution: King's College London The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without proper acknowledgement. END USER LICENCE AGREEMENT Unless another licence is stated on the immediately following page this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ You are free to copy, distribute and transmit the work Under the following conditions: Attribution: You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). Non Commercial: You may not use this work for commercial purposes. No Derivative Works - You may not alter, transform, or build upon this work. Any of these conditions can be waived if you receive permission from the author. Your fair dealings and other rights are in no way affected by the above. Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 04. Oct. 2021 Conflict Resolution As a Learning Process: The Sudanese People’s Liberation Movement/Army 1983-2005 Malual Ayom Dor In partial fulfilment of the regulations for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy King’s College, University of London 1 Abstract This research focuses on the role of the SPLM/A in the negotiating process that eventually brought about the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in 2005. It uses a comparative study methodology to present a precise description and explanation of the processes involved in the design and implementation of the CPA and its predecessor, the Addis Ababa Agreement (AAA), signed in 1972. It takes an interpretative constructivist approach to underline the importance of studying the process by which peace agreements are made, particularly the concept of 'learning by doing'. The study concludes that the process by which the CPA was achieved challenges the widely held conviction in conflict resolution theories that armed conflicts are ended when the warring parties have reached a stalemate or when international pressure is high. The Sudanese experience suggests that a true peace agreement comes when the parties mutually acquire confidence through social interaction in the negotiating process. It was the back- and-forth dynamic of ‘learning- by-doing’ through negotiation that was as important as any rationally-based deal reflecting costs and benefits. Through these negotiating sessions the belligerent delegations were able to build mutual confidence and trust and were able to reciprocate and adjust their positions; a clear indication that both sides were increasingly able to compromise on their positions – something that had been lacking when negotiations began. Continuous interaction between opposing sides is, therefore, a vital element in conflict resolution. During these negotiations and the ongoing interaction they required, Vice President Ali Osman Taha and the leader of the SPLM/A, Dr John Garang 2 de Mabior, developed a personal relationship to the extent that they learned to trust one another. The IGAD mediators ensured that the gains made as a result of this personal relationship between the principal negotiators would lead to the eventual success of the mediation process. 3 Dedication This thesis is dedicated to the martyrs of South Sudan and to Dr John Garang de Mabior, whose sacrifice made the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) possible. 4 Acknowledgements Innumerable friends and relatives made this thesis a reality and I seek their forgiveness if I fail to mention all of them. However, I must express my gratitude to Professor Vivienne Jabri and Mr. Richard Schofield whose continuous supervision and comments were essential to the successful completion of this thesis. I am also indebted to my family, Susan Agum and Susan Keji and our children. David Walker and his family made me feel truly at home and, without them, London would have been a nightmare. Last but not least, I am grateful to Professor Mervyn Frost, the director of the Department of War Studies who encouraged me to undertake the task of writing this thesis. He once said to me, “General Malual, no doubt because of the financial constraints it imposes, Africa is under-represented in the academic world, but our hope lies with you!” Great words from a generous man. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to the Embassy of the Republic of South Sudan in Nairobi, Kenya which provided me with access to first-hand SPLM/A archival material. Allow me to also express my sincere appreciation to all my interviewees, without whom the preparation of this thesis would not have been possible. General Lazaro Sumbeyeio and Dr Mansur Khalid, in particular, shared with me their experiences of Sudan’s conflict resolution process and for that I am extremely grateful. 5 Definitions of Abbreviations and Acronyms AAA Addis Ababa Agreement BFPS Berghof Foundation for Peace Support CCI Compagnie des Constructions Internationales CIDCM Center for International Development and Conflict Management CDR Commander Col Colonel CPA Comprehensive Peace Agreement DoP Declaration of Principles ELF Eritrean Liberation Front EPRDF Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front EU European Union 6 Gen General GoS Government of Sudan GoSS Government of Southern Sudan IAFF International Association of Fire Fighters ICG International Crisis Group IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development INGOs International Non-Governmental Organisations IRIN Integrated Regional Information Network IPF International Partners Forum KPA Khartoum Peace Agreement MOU Memorandum of Understanding NANS National Alliance for National Salvation NCC National Constitutional Conference 7 NCP National Congress Party NDA National Democratic Alliance NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations NIF National Islamic Front NRA National Resistance Army OAGs Other Armed Groups OLS Operation Lifeline Sudan PAF People’s Armed Forces PMHC Political Military High Command PRIO Peace Research Institute of Oslo SAF Sudan Armed Forces SPLM/A Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army 8 SRSG Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary General SSLM South Sudan Liberation Movement UCDP Uppsala Conflict Data Program UN United Nations USA United States of America 9 Table of Contents ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................... 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................ 5 DEFINITIONS OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...................................................... 6 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION, RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND METHODOLOGY ....13 RESEARCH QUESTIONS, OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY ....................................................... 16 Figure 1: Anyanya I’s theatre of operations ....................................................................................... 19 SOURCE MATERIAL ........................................................................................................................ 22 RESEARCH QUESTIONS .................................................................................................................. 25 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO THE CPA ..................................................................................... 30 LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE CPA ............................................................................................. 42 THEORETICAL MODELS AND PEACE AGREEMENTS .................................................................... 43 INADEQUACIES IN THE LITERATURE ............................................................................................ 44 LEARNING AND CONSTRUCTIVISM ................................................................................................ 49 THE SUDANESE EXPERIENCE ........................................................................................................ 53 CHAPTER CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 61 CHAPTER 2: LEARNING IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION ......................................................64 PERSPECTIVES ON THE SUDANESE CONFLICT ............................................................................. 65 ROOT CAUSES OF THE SUDANESE CONFLICT............................................................................... 66 WHAT IS LEARNING? ..................................................................................................................... 76 OPERATIONALIZING LEARNING .................................................................................................... 87 CONSTRUCTIVIST AND RATIONALIST APPROACHES TO LEARNING ........................................... 88 SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO LEARNING ....................................................... 96 CHAPTER CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 98 CHAPTER 3:
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