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Uhm Phd 4350 R.Pdf UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'! LIBRARY EMERGENT PROPERTIES OF JAPANESE VERBAL INFLECTION A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN LINGUISTICS AUGUST 2003 By Terry Klafehn Dissertation Committee: Ann M. Peters, Chair Niklaus R. Schweizer John H. Haig William D. O'Grady Benjamin K. Bergen © Copyright 2003 By Terry Klafehn iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are a number ofpeople I wish to thank for making this dissertation possible. I could not have completed my research and writing without their assistance, professional and technical expertise, and warm encouragement. First of all there is my wife Sharyn, who patiently urged me to keep going when I was discouraged and overwhelmed by the task. I wish to thank my friend Mr. Kazuki Daimon, president of the International Sports Education and Cultural Foundation (ISEC Japan), for making arrangements in Japan so that I was able to conduct research at the Ushigomi Nakano Kindergarten in Shinjuku. My friend Jeffrey Hayden from the EALL department spent many long hours preparing the computerized test that I used with the Japanese children. He continues to patiently help me with computer problems. Wendy Onishi from the office of the Department of Linguistics processed any number of important documents (including a number of extensions) for me in a timely manner. Her "Well, are we making progress?" was more encouraging than she realizes. Evelyn Nakanishi, student services specialist at EALL was always willing to listen to my complaints, offer some encouragement, and conclude our conversation with the friendly admonition "Get back to work!" Stan Starosta made a very important contribution this dissertation. We seemed to always bump into one another on Sunday mornings near the Natatorium during the early spring of 2002. He was on his way from brunch at the New Otani and I had just finished swimming. One morning he said, "I have a book you might be interested in." The Bybee book that he recommended later became very important to my dissertation. I wish I could have shown him this completed version. IV Finally, I am deeply grateful to my dissertation committee and wish to thank them all for their guidance and helpful comments. A chance meeting on an airplane to the mainland some years ago led to my acquaintance with Nicklaus Schweizer. I admire his enthusiasm for languages and life and appreciated his encouragement. I was especially happy that Benjamin Bergen agreed to serve on my committee because he enthusiastically represents a newer cognitive approach to linguistics that I hope to be able to adopt in future work. I admire William O'Grady for his dedication to the field of linguistics and for his intellectual rigor. I thank him for his very careful review of my drafts, his insightful questions and helpful comments. I admire John Haig because he is an accomplished linguist and a fluent Japanese reader, writer, and conversationalist. I appreciate the time he took with the details of my drafts. He caught my careless Japanese errors, and at the same time raised questions with serious methodological and linguistic implications. Finally, I cannot say enough to thank my chair Ann Peters. She was so patient and encouraging for so long. She treated each rough draft that I gave her, especially in the beginning, in the same way as some article that she was editing for journal publication. No matter what I gave her, she always made some suggestion that made it better. I really appreciate the effort she made to help me. v ABSTRACT This study investigates how speakers of Japanese mentally represent and process verbal inflection. Japanese exhibits an agglutinating inflectional typology, however, morpheme boundaries are not always transparent and there is considerable stem allomorphy. Furthermore, there are no bare stems. The stems of consonant-stem verbs never appear in isolation because they are unpronounceable phonotactic violations. This feature of Japanese presents two problems to a rule hypothesis of verbal processing, whereby regular verb forms are produced by the combination of stem and inflection: 1) How do Japanese speakers compute stems? 2) Are speakers ofJapanese able to mentally represent and process forms that they cannot pronounce? An alternative to a rule hypothesis is Bybee's Schema Model, which allows for the mental representation of fully inflected forms. In this study, Schema Model and rule hypothesis predictions about errors and productivity are compared. First, it is shown that the native analysis of inflection reflects phonological and orthographical constraints consistent with the notion that native speakers do not segment verbs into stems and endings. Second, results of a search of the Miyata database show that: 1) Japanese children under three years of age do not overregularize. 2) Most verb errors are stem errors. 3) There are many more errors with regulars than with irregulars. 4) There is no default error pattern. Third, a written test asks fifty adult native speakers and fifty adult instructed (L2) learners to choose appropriately inflected nonce forms. The learners outperform the native speakers. 76% of the learner group responses are correct, but only 53% of the vi native group responses. No evidence is found that learners or natives make use of a default rule. Finally, an oral response, nonce probe test with Japanese children (five and six years of age) finds that the children cannot productively inflect novel verbs. It is concluded that the lack of default error patterns and the inability of native children and adults to productively inflect novel verbs is best explained by a Schema Model whereby inflectional morphology emerges from use (including verb type and token frequency) and not from the manipulation of abstract verbal stems. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements iv Abstract vi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1. Processing of Japanese verbal inflection 1 1.2. Typology and processing mechanisms 3 1.3. Emergent properties 4 1.4. Chapter outline 5 Chapter 2: Japanese verbal inflection 7 2.1. Outline ofJapanese verbal inflection 7 2.2. Regular vowel-stem verbs 8 2.3. Regular consonant-stem verbs 10 2.3.1. Stem-final r verbs 10 2.3.1.1. Stem identification 10 2.3.1.2. Stem allomorphy 11 2.3.1.3. Conjugation of derived forms 14 2.3.2. Stem-final k, g, and s verbs 17 2.3.3. Stem-final m, b, and n verbs 18 2.3.4. Stem-final w verbs 19 2.4. Irregular verbs and forms 20 2.4.1. Irregular verbs kuru and suru 20 2.4.2. Suppletive and irregular derived forms 22 2.4.3. Irregular nai forms 23 2.4.4. Irregular form itta 23 2.4.5. Five irregular honorific verbs 24 2.4.6. Irregular bound verbal nouns 26 2.4.7. Irregular free verbal nouns 27 2.5. Native Japanese analysis of verbal inflection 30 2.5.1. The six stem system 32 2.5.2. No-root verbs in native analysis 36 Chapter 3: General morphological models 39 3.1. Introduction 39 3.2. Models and theories 39 3.2.1. Hockett's 1954 models 40 3.2.1.1. Item and process (IP) 41 3.2.1.2. Item and arrangement (IA) 42 3.2.1.3. Word and paradigm (WP) 44 3.3. Conclusion: Hockett's five evaluation criteria 47 Chapter 4: Processing mechanisms 49 4.1. Introduction 49 4.2. Rules 49 4.3. Analogy 52 4.4. Competing cues 64 4.5. Connections 68 viii Chapter 5: Process models 72 5.1. Introduction 72 5.2. Words and rules model (Pinker 1999) 73 5.3. Connectionist models 77 5.4. Schema models (Bybee's 2001 network model) 82 5.5. Japanese inflection and model predictions 88 Chapter 6: Acquisition of inflection by Japanese children 90 6.1. Introduction 90 6.2. Contrastive English and Japanese acquisition 90 6.2.1. English acquisition order 91 6.2.2. Japanese acquisition order 92 6.3. Database study 94 6.3.1. Japanese equivalent of *goed 94 6.3.2. Japanese equivalents ofEnglish *doed and *comed 97 6.3.3. Overregularization of irregular *nai 100 6.3.4. Overregularization and overgeneralization 102 6.3.5. Stem segmentation 105 6.3.6. Regular verb and irregular verb error frequency 108 6.3.7. Error patterns 109 6.3.8. Japanese default error pattern 112 Chapter 7: Experimental studies: Nonce probe tests 117 7.1. Introduction 117 7.2. Previous Japanese nonce probe experiments 118 7.2.1. Oral nonce probe experiments 118 7.2.1.1. Sentence completion (de Chene 1982) 118 7.2.1.2. Paradigm matching (Batchelder 1999) 119 7.2.2. Written nonce probe experiments 122 7.2.2.1. Paradigm matching (Yokomizo 1990) 122 7.2.2.2. Forced choice nonce test (Vance 1991) 125 7.3. New replication ofthe Vance test 127 7.3.1. Purpose of the replication 127 7.3.2. Questionnaire form with sample responses 129 7.3.3. Schema and strong rule hypothesis predictions 130 7.3.4. Method 131 7.3.4.1. Japanese subjects 131 7.3.4.2. Instructed learner subjects 132 7.3.5. Results 132 7.3.6. Discussion 135 7.3.6.1. Default rule versus type frequency 135 7.3.6.2. Type frequency and productivity 137 7.3.6.3. Low type frequency and low productivity 138 7.3.6.4. High type frequency and high productivity.............. 138 7.3.6.5. Low type frequency and low productivity (k stems) 140 7.3.6.6. Differential performance: natives and learners 141 7.4. Oral nonce probe test with Japanese children 142 7.4.1.
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