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Necrotizing Fasciitis (NF) Is a Severe Bacterial Infection That Attacks Subcutaneous Fat Tissues, Superfi Cial Fascia, Deep Fascia, and Muscle

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Necrotizing Fasciitis (NF) Is a Severe Bacterial Infection That Attacks Subcutaneous Fat Tissues, Superfi Cial Fascia, Deep Fascia, and Muscle 2.0 CONTACT HOURS Abstract: Necrotizing fasciitis (NF) is a severe bacterial infection that attacks subcutaneous fat tissues, superfi cial fascia, deep fascia, and muscle. NF is a rare condition with a mortality that requires nurse practitioners to be adept at identifying signs and symptoms to prompt a quick diagnosis and treatment. By Deedra H. Harrington, DNP, MSN, ACNP-BC; Christy M. Lenahan, DNP, MSN, FNP-BC and Rachelle M. Sanders, BSN, FNPs ecrotizing fasciitis (NF) is a severe bacterial infec- it can lead to chronic, devitalizing consequences and a need tion that attacks subcutaneous fat tissues, super- for continued healthcare. Postinfection deformity can have N fi cial fascia, deep fascia, and muscle.1 According to considerable economic effects on the patient.14-16 The loss the CDC, “necrotizing” is defi ned as “causing the death of of a limb could prevent return to a specifi c profession, or tissues.”2 Causative bacteria multiply releasing toxins and work in general, and place a substantial fi nancial burden on enzymes, which creates thrombosis in blood vessels that the patient.14,15 quickly progress to massive destruction of soft tissues and fascia.3,4 NF spreads rapidly; in a matter of hours to days, ■ Risk factors the infection can progress from a seemingly benign skin Most patients who are diagnosed with NF have comorbidi- lesion (often mistaken for a spider or insect bite) to a high- ties that may lower their body’s ability to fi ght infection.2 ly lethal disease.5 Risk factors for NF include, but are not limited to, diabetes NF is a rare condition with a mortality between 24% mellitus, peripheral vascular disease, varicella infection, and 34% and as high as 40% to 70% in patients with dia- alcohol use, impaired kidney function, malnutrition, and betes.6-9 In 1996, the CDC estimated that of the 500 to 1,500 the use of nonsteroidal anti-infl ammatory drugs due to their cases of NF reported, 20% were fatal.1 The incidence of NF possible impairment of lymphocytic function.17 Precipitat- due to Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is rising, but research- ing events include traumatic injury, surgery, soft-tissue ers have not been able to pinpoint a root cause for escalat- infections, minor invasive procedures (joint aspirations, ing rates.5 In 2010, Olsen and Musser estimated as many acupuncture), burns, childbirth, or a penetrating injury as 1,500 to 3,000 cases occurred annually.5 Nationally, in (insect and animal bites).17 Although there are known risk 2010, the CDC reported 12,500 cases and an estimated factors and precipitating events, this fatal disease can also 1,250 deaths attributed to GAS-related NF.10 In total, NF be idiopathic.6,18 is fatal in approximately 38% to 50% of adults and 25% of children.11,12 ■ Categories/pathology NF can be caused by different types of bacteria and di- ■ Cost of disease vided into two clinical types based on bacterial origin. Any Onset of acute illnesses such as NF can have negative effects site of the body can become infected with NF, but it is on family fi nances and have an even larger impact on unin- most commonly seen in the lower extremities, abdomen, 13 19 sured patients. NF is primarily an acute illness, although perianal area, groin, and postoperative surgical sites. Cavallini James / BSIP Science Photo Library iStock Keywords: bacterial infection, Fournier gangrene, group A Streptococcus, necrotizing fasciitis, nongroup A Streptococcus 48 The Nurse Practitioner • Vol. 40, No. 4 www.tnpj.com Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved. A practitioner’s guide to necrotizing fasciitis www.tnpj.com TheThe Nurse Nurse Practitioner Practitioner • January• April 2015 49 Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved. A practitioner’s guide to necrotizing fasciitis Bacteria penetrate into the subcutaneous tissue, track into Type 2, Gram-positive, monomicrobial, NF is usually the superfi cial fascia, and migrate into the soft tissue and caused by bacteria, such as a GAS and Staphylococcus aureus muscle planes.19,20 As a result of their metabolism, anaero- in the absence of comorbities.3,6,14,23 GAS is considered the bic and aerobic organisms produce toxins.14,21 These toxins most common cause of NF and is also the cause of strep accumulate in soft tissues, due to reduced water solubility, throat.2,27 As GAS organisms proliferate in the area of entry, producing subcutaneous gas formation and crepitus.14,21 there is rapid infl ux of acute infl ammatory cells.5 Loose orga- Once the tissues begin to die, circulation ceases in that nization of fi brous connective tissue and neurovascular struc- area; therefore, tissues are deprived of needed oxygen. tures within the superfi cial and deep fascial planes pose little Facultative aerobic organisms grow as a result of decreased anatomic barrier to local dissemination.5 The combined action polymorphonuclear (PMN) leukocyte function under of many potent protease and other degradative virulence factors expressed by invading GAS organisms and tissue-damaging enzymes Necrotizing fasciitis is diffi cult to diagnose released by host PMN leukocytes results 5 in its initial and advanced stages as it can in severe tissue damage. As the infection progresses, fascial sheaths are breached, mimic other diseases. and nutrient-rich skeletal muscle fi bers are exposed.5 The severe tenderness and pain a patient experiences initially might hypoxic wound conditions.20 Subsequent abundance of later diminish due to subsequent nerve damage, leading to organisms further lowers the oxidation/reduction poten- localized anesthesia of the affected area.28 Progression of NF tial, leading to an even greater proliferation of anaerobic to include widespread muscle cell death is termed necrotizing organisms and progression to disease.14,21 Moreover, toxins myositis and is associated with a poor prognosis.5 and enzymes released by the bacteria involved further Although GAS has been noted to be the most common facilitate spread of the organism along superfi cial and deep cause of NF, a resistant form of staphylococcus, methicillin- fascia, resulting in a deep-seeded infection with vascular resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), is on the rise, occlusion, superfi cial nerve damage, ischemia, and tissue causing growing concern due to its antibiotic resistance.29 necrosis.14,21 According to results of a Taiwan research study conducted Type 1, polymicrobial, NF is caused by a mixture of during 2004 to 2008, patients with MRSA infection had nongroup A streptococcal (non-GAS) anaerobes, aerobes, more severe clinical outcomes than those affected by any and facultative anaerobes, such as staphylococci, entero- other microbe.30 Moreover, of the 247 cases of NF reviewed, cocci, and enterobacteriaceae.3,14,22,23 Type 1 NF occurs most 42 microbial species were identifi ed; staphylococcus was the commonly after a surgical procedure or in patients with major prevalent pathogen with MRSA accounting for 19.8% coexisting comorbidities, such as diabetes mellitus, of all cases reviewed.30 peripheral vascular disease, or other causes of immunosup- There are many different types of bacteria and organisms pression.14 Toxins and adhesion proteins produced by the that can cause NF, but most function similarly by attacking bacteria play an important role in the disease process.19 tissue and decreasing immune response through production Fournier gangrene is an aggressive variant of type 1 NF of toxins that block the body’s defense mechanisms.29 M that affects the genital, perianal, and perineal regions with protein, an important virulence factor of GAS, produces potential for extension into the abdominal wall between pyrogenic exotoxins that act as super-antigens, causing a fascial planes.14,24,25 The cause of infection is identifi able in rapid proliferation of T cells.14,31 Bacterial factors M-1 and 95% of cases, mainly arising from anorectal, genitourinary, M-3 surface proteins also increase the adherence of strepto- and cutaneous sources.24 Infection can spread rapidly to cocci to tissues and protect bacteria from phagocytosis by gluteal muscles, the anterior abdominal wall, and, in males, neutrophils.20 The T cells stimulate the host’s immune system the scrotum and penis.14,25 Another variant of type 1 NF is resulting in production of cytokines, such as TNF-a, IL-1, saltwater NF, which occurs when a minor skin wound be- and IL-6. This in turn causes over activation of the host’s comes contaminated with saltwater-containing Vibrio spe- immune system, leading to chills, fever, hypotension, shock, cies.14,26 Vibrio, which is a bacteria living in warm waters, tissue destruction, and possible organ failure.14,19,31 can also result in contamination through ingestion of in- fected seafood.26 Vibrio infection has a high incidence of ■ Differential diagnosis septicemia development and is often fatal, carrying a mor- NF is very diffi cult to diagnose in its initial and advanced tality of 30% to 40%.22 stages, as it mimics other diseases such as cellulitis, 50 The Nurse Practitioner • Vol. 40, No. 4 www.tnpj.com Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved. A practitioner’s guide to necrotizing fasciitis Case study A 52-year-old Asian male presented to the clinic with an for Vibrio vulnifi cus infection. The orthopedic hand initial complaint of pain and swelling in the left 4th digit surgeon was consulted and the patient was taken directly of his hand for approximately 2 weeks. The patient stated to surgery for debridement as soon as radiographs were he worked as a shrimper for a local company. Two weeks reviewed. Once initial debridement was complete, the ago, he received a minor cut when cleaning out his patient was admitted to the postoperative unit and shrimp nets.
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