Let the Machines Out. Towards Hybrid Social Systems

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Let the Machines Out. Towards Hybrid Social Systems University of Plymouth PEARL https://pearl.plymouth.ac.uk Faculty of Arts and Humanities School of Art, Design and Architecture 2017-01-01 Let the machines out. towards hybrid social systems Straeubig, M http://hdl.handle.net/10026.1/14967 Proceedings of AISB Annual Convention 2017 All content in PEARL is protected by copyright law. Author manuscripts are made available in accordance with publisher policies. Please cite only the published version using the details provided on the item record or document. In the absence of an open licence (e.g. Creative Commons), permissions for further reuse of content should be sought from the publisher or author. Let the Machines out. Towards Hybrid Social Systems. Michael Straeubig 1 1 INTRODUCTION I speculate about some of the implications that arise from developing hybrid social systems based on this particular direction of systems When Alan Turing proposed the imitation game as a method to in- theory. vestigate the question if machines can think, he described a social system. However, the various disciplines that have pursued this sem- inal enquiry rarely touch base with sociological concepts. Cybernet- 2 ROOTS ics developed into various interdisciplinary fields, yet it was mainly rooted in physiological models. In the meantime, the mainstream of The following description focuses on five major influences of Luh- AI focused on cognitive problem solving, predominately from a top- mann’s theory that are relevant for the present discussion. down approach. Traditional cognitive science rests on the concept Distinctions: The abstract foundation for Luhmann’s theory lies of organisms as information processing systems - so does Artificial in the distinction between distinction and identity. The formal back- Life, but from a biological simulation perspective. The recently revi- ground has been developed by George Spencer-Brown in his calculus talised branch of machine learning has been successful in deploying of indications. While his work ”Laws of Form” can be read as the de- bottom-up models combined with large amounts of data. Large scale scription of a specific logical calculus, Spencer-Brown’s intention is simulations of the brain are expected to deliver new knowledge about ”proto-logical”. It demonstrates that the fundamental operation of a the human brain. ”Second-generation” cognitive science and devel- system is drawing distinctions (as opposed to constructing identities). opmental robotics are embodied and apply neural computation. System/Environment distinction: There are two fundamentally One might be tempted to say that progress has been made on different ways to observe a system. Traditionally systems are under- brains, bodies and on models of minds. I claim that there is some- stood by relations between their elements. In AI, these elements are thing largely missing in this picture, which is the social aspect. There constructed as agents that perceive, act and communicate. The be- is Social AI, and it embraces a wide variety of topics and concerns haviour of the system is then observed and analysed according to - from Stafford Beers cybernetic vision of society to simulations certain metrics, either derived from the individual behaviours or as of interacting agents, complex systems theory, language, imitation emergent properties. The second approach, going back to Ludwig and social learning, social network analysis and social bots, enact- von Bertalanffy, identifies the relevant distinction for a system as the ment, human-machine interaction, augmented and virtual environ- one between the system and its environment. Those systems are op- ments, robot assisted therapy and behavioural game theory, to name erationally closed and are located within the respective environments a few. I also would like to include autonomous weapons, computer of each other. worms and viruses, in particular crypto-ransomware, into this context Autopoietic systems: the term ”autopoietic system” was coined of social systems. From the other side, an interdisciplinary bridge is by Chilean biologists Humbero Maturana and Francisco Varela. Au- constructed under the label of digital sociology. The process of mu- topoiesis denotes the capability of a system to produce and when tual approximation is accompanied by prolific discourses around ma- necessary reproduce their own elements. To observe autopoiesis, the chine ethics and emerging legal issues. A recently introduced topic respective system references are crucial. Biological cells are autopoi- of discussion is if robots should pay taxes. etic systems; they (re-)construct their own elements. Humans grow So AI observes sociology, and sociology observes AI - yet they legs, but do not re-grow a lost one. Axolotls do, however, with the do not share a coherent theoretical program and fundamental on- help of some friends. tological questions are still left to the philosophers. To propose an Radical constructivism: An epistemological position regarding the alternative route, I consider Niklas Luhmann’s theory of social sys- distinction between a system and its environment arises from the tems as a suitable foundation for guiding the development of hybrid school of radical constructivism. According to this view, knowledge social systems. A hybrid social system is understood as a social as- is not construed as a representation of an external reality, but as a semblage in which minds and machines mingle: humans, machines, state of the system that enables some fit with the environment. Theo- certain things, cyborgs. Some animals are welcome, too. ries of acting/enactment arrive at similar conclusions from different To this end, I present a few selected features of Luhmann’s theory premises. and briefly visit some of their theoretical foundations: distinctions, in Second order cybernetics: the original concept of cybernetics was particular the distinction between system and environment, autopoi- developed by Norbert Wiener in his groundbreaking description of etic systems, radical constructivism, and (second order) cybernetics. self-regulating control loops. Second order cybernetics developed these concepts further by introducing the observer into the obser- 1 Cognovo and School of Art, Design and Architecture, Plymouth University, vation. We arrive at systems of observers observing each other. This UK, email: [email protected] paradigm shift is comparable to the one from Newton to Einstein. It also leads to a significant but - I would argue - unavoidable concep- Radical constructivism suggests that social systems involving ar- tual complication. tificial agents may construct knowledge in a way that is not only structurally different from human knowledge - it may outright con- tradict some of our beliefs. During a debate, we treat the statements 3 SOCIAL SYSTEMS of our counterpart as opinions, not as facts. In the same manner, an Luhmann ties up these strands into an intrinsically general theory artificial agent forms opinions as consequences of the autopoiesis of of systems. He himself focuses on the development of a social the- the system. These opinions might not necessarily be ours. In a so- ory based on the work of Talcott Parsons. He incorporates Spencer- cial system, dissent does not cause logical contradictions. Instead it Browns concepts of distinction and indication as the fundamental is processed through different selections in the medium of meaning. operations of a system. In general, he distinguishes biological, psy- Finally, artificial social agents need to be exposed to social situa- chic, and social systems. These systems can be structurally coupled, tions in order to develop. What the machines need to do is to learn say, while writing a paper about systems theory. Yet spiking neu- continuously without (permanent) supervision. They also need to ex- rons, thoughts and an almost finished draft that is expected for pub- pose a sufficiently large surface of perception and interaction: ma- lication are located in different systems that operate with fundamen- chines that play, robots that go hitchhiking or share our beds or roam tally different distinctions. For Luhmann, these systems are opera- the campus while politely avoiding humans, machines that perform tionally closed, They are operating in an autopoietical manner by re- art for a robotic audience, artbots that judge each other, exhibitions constructing their own elements, and are irritated but not determined where humans need not apply, social bots that influence elections. by their respective environments. This means that in Luhmann’s con- These approaches are being explored and we need more of them. text we cannot talk about concepts like social aspects of cognition, When we design hybrid social systems, the key lies not in design- or observe an external environment that is part of the cognitive sys- ing the system, it lies in the interaction between the system and its tem. Nor can a biological system itself be social. In my opinion this environment. This suggests to release the machines from the lab as separation has the benefit to be precise about the distinctions that we soon as a minimum of functionality is implemented. The machines observe: in this case that the part/whole distinction has been replaced need to be out there and they need to be among us. by the one between system and environment. Social systems (interactions, organisations and institutions) and 5 CONCLUSION AND FURTHER WORK psychic systems (minds) operate with meaning. Meaning is under- stood as a medium in which a system can
Recommended publications
  • Complexity of Social Systems and Paradoxes of Contemporary Security Theory and Policy Making
    Czeslaw Mesjasz Cracow University of Economics Kraków, Poland [email protected] Complexity of social systems and paradoxes of contemporary security theory and policy making Paper presented at the CEEISA-ISA 2016 Joint International Conference Ljubljana, Slovenia 23-25 June 2016 (A very preliminary crude draft version, not for quotation) 1. Introduction The grand ideas such as, for example, the risk society of Beck [1992], complexity-stimulated crises discussed by Tainter [1988, 2000], Diamond [1997, 2005], ingenuity gap of Homer-Dixon [2002], and other similar, less publicized visions, lead to the following question. Was the world simpler and less risky in the past? The question brings about several paradoxes embodying actors and issues relating to broadly defined security. On the one hand we are intuitively aware that the present global society with development of IT and all its consequences, increasing number of societal interactions and environmental threats is becoming more difficult to comprehend. On the other, modern science allows for better understanding of the world. It may be then hypothesize that the contemporary discourse on the risk society and complexity of society is not correct when compared with the state of the world in any time in the past and much lower level of understanding of the world in that time. It may be even stated provocatively that although the number of social scientists is increasing only a relatively small of them have a deepened knowledge about the modern social proceses. The above paradox is used as a point of departure of the study of the links between complexity of society in the past and at present, and occurrence of large scale socioeconomic crises (countries, regions, continents, global scale).
    [Show full text]
  • An Accidental Resource: the Social Ecological System Framework Applied to Small Wetlands in Sierran Foothill Oak Woodlands1
    An Accidental Resource: the Social Ecological System Framework Applied to Small Wetlands in Sierran Foothill Oak 1 Woodlands 2 2 3 Tracy V. Hruska, Lynn Huntsinger, and Jose L. Oviedo, Abstract An ongoing study of the small wetlands in the northern Sierra Nevada foothill oak woodlands that provide habitat for the state-threatened California black rail (Laterallus jamaicensis coturniculus) offers an example of the way that the social ecological systems (SES) framework can be used to analyze a natural resource problem. At the outset, it was hypothesized that the area’s hydrology, West Nile Virus from wetland mosquitos, the population ecology of the bird, and the decisions of landowners would have important impacts on the wetlands and birds. A SES framework was applied to identify and understand the interactions among ecological and human factors. The case of irrigated wetlands in Sierra foothill woodlands turns out to be an example of a fractured SES. Actions within the social system are having profound impacts on the natural system, but these resulting changes in the natural system appear to have little or no feedback to the social system. Intervention points identified include education of landowners, influencing water districts, and incentivizing conservation. Key words: California black rail, irrigation, pasture, water conservation, wildlife Introduction: social ecological systems Small wetlands in the northern Sierra Nevada foothill oak woodlands provide habitat for the state-threatened California black rail (Laterallus jamaicensis coturniculus). One ongoing study of the sustainability of the wetlands offers an example of the way that the social ecological systems (SES) framework can be used to analyze a natural resource problem.
    [Show full text]
  • Systems Theory
    1 Systems Theory BRUCE D. FRIEDMAN AND KAREN NEUMAN ALLEN iopsychosocial assessment and the develop - nature of the clinical enterprise, others have chal - Bment of appropriate intervention strategies for lenged the suitability of systems theory as an orga - a particular client require consideration of the indi - nizing framework for clinical practice (Fook, Ryan, vidual in relation to a larger social context. To & Hawkins, 1997; Wakefield, 1996a, 1996b). accomplish this, we use principles and concepts The term system emerged from Émile Durkheim’s derived from systems theory. Systems theory is a early study of social systems (Robbins, Chatterjee, way of elaborating increasingly complex systems & Canda, 2006), as well as from the work of across a continuum that encompasses the person-in- Talcott Parsons. However, within social work, sys - environment (Anderson, Carter, & Lowe, 1999). tems thinking has been more heavily influenced by Systems theory also enables us to understand the the work of the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy components and dynamics of client systems in order and later adaptations by the social psychologist Uri to interpret problems and develop balanced inter - Bronfenbrenner, who examined human biological vention strategies, with the goal of enhancing the systems within an ecological environment. With “goodness of fit” between individuals and their its roots in von Bertalanffy’s systems theory and environments. Systems theory does not specify par - Bronfenbrenner’s ecological environment, the ticular theoretical frameworks for understanding ecosys tems perspective provides a framework that problems, and it does not direct the social worker to permits users to draw on theories from different dis - specific intervention strategies.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Umpleby Stuart Reconsidering Cybernetics
    UMPLEBY STUART RECONSIDERING CYBERNETICS The field of cybernetics attracted great attention in the 1950s and 1960s with its prediction of a Second Industrial Revolution due to computer technology. In recent years few people in the US have heard of cybernetics (Umpleby, 2015a, see Figures 1 and 2 at the end of Paper). But a wave of recent books suggests that interest in cybernetics is returning (Umpleby and Hughes, 2016, see Figure at the end of Paper). This white paper reviews some basic ideas in cybernetics. I recommend these and other ideas as a resource for better understanding and modeling of social systems, including threat and response dynamics. Some may claim that whatever was useful has already been incorporated in current work generally falling under the complexity label, but that is not the case. Work in cybernetics has continued with notable contributions in recent years. Systems science, complex systems, and cybernetics are three largely independent fields with their own associations, journals and conferences (Umpleby, 2017). Four types of descriptions used in social science After working in social science and systems science for many years I realized that different academic disciplines use different basic elements. Economists use measurable variables such as price, savings, GDP, imports and exports. Psychologists focus on ideas, concepts and attitudes. Sociologists and political scientists focus on groups, organizations, and coalitions. Historians and legal scholars emphasize events and procedures. People trained in different disciplines construct different narratives using these basic elements. One way to reveal more of the variety in a social system is to create at least four descriptions – one each using variables, ideas, groups, and events (See the figures and tables in Medvedeva & Umpleby, 2015).
    [Show full text]
  • What Is a Complex System?
    What is a Complex System? James Ladyman, James Lambert Department of Philosophy, University of Bristol, U.K. Karoline Wiesner Department of Mathematics and Centre for Complexity Sciences, University of Bristol, U.K. (Dated: March 8, 2012) Complex systems research is becoming ever more important in both the natural and social sciences. It is commonly implied that there is such a thing as a complex system, different examples of which are studied across many disciplines. However, there is no concise definition of a complex system, let alone a definition on which all scientists agree. We review various attempts to characterize a complex system, and consider a core set of features that are widely associated with complex systems in the literature and by those in the field. We argue that some of these features are neither necessary nor sufficient for complexity, and that some of them are too vague or confused to be of any analytical use. In order to bring mathematical rigour to the issue we then review some standard measures of complexity from the scientific literature, and offer a taxonomy for them, before arguing that the one that best captures the qualitative notion of the order produced by complex systems is that of the Statistical Complexity. Finally, we offer our own list of necessary conditions as a characterization of complexity. These conditions are qualitative and may not be jointly sufficient for complexity. We close with some suggestions for future work. I. INTRODUCTION The idea of complexity is sometimes said to be part of a new unifying framework for science, and a revolution in our understanding of systems the behaviour of which has proved difficult to predict and control thus far, such as the human brain and the world economy.
    [Show full text]
  • Transformations)
    TRANSFORMACJE (TRANSFORMATIONS) Transformacje (Transformations) is an interdisciplinary refereed, reviewed journal, published since 1992. The journal is devoted to i.a.: civilizational and cultural transformations, information (knowledge) societies, global problematique, sustainable development, political philosophy and values, future studies. The journal's quasi-paradigm is TRANSFORMATION - as a present stage and form of development of technology, society, culture, civilization, values, mindsets etc. Impacts and potentialities of change and transition need new methodological tools, new visions and innovation for theoretical and practical capacity-building. The journal aims to promote inter-, multi- and transdisci- plinary approach, future orientation and strategic and global thinking. Transformacje (Transformations) are internationally available – since 2012 we have a licence agrement with the global database: EBSCO Publishing (Ipswich, MA, USA) We are listed by INDEX COPERNICUS since 2013 I TRANSFORMACJE(TRANSFORMATIONS) 3-4 (78-79) 2013 ISSN 1230-0292 Reviewed journal Published twice a year (double issues) in Polish and English (separate papers) Editorial Staff: Prof. Lech W. ZACHER, Center of Impact Assessment Studies and Forecasting, Kozminski University, Warsaw, Poland ([email protected]) – Editor-in-Chief Prof. Dora MARINOVA, Sustainability Policy Institute, Curtin University, Perth, Australia ([email protected]) – Deputy Editor-in-Chief Prof. Tadeusz MICZKA, Institute of Cultural and Interdisciplinary Studies, University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland ([email protected]) – Deputy Editor-in-Chief Dr Małgorzata SKÓRZEWSKA-AMBERG, School of Law, Kozminski University, Warsaw, Poland ([email protected]) – Coordinator Dr Alina BETLEJ, Institute of Sociology, John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Poland Dr Mirosław GEISE, Institute of Political Sciences, Kazimierz Wielki University, Bydgoszcz, Poland (also statistical editor) Prof.
    [Show full text]
  • Social Systems: Resources and Strategies
    systems Article Social Systems: Resources and Strategies Pavel Brazhnikov ID Scientific Academy for Research of Social and Psychological Systems, Moscow 125319, Russia; [email protected]; Tel.: +7-916-334-1137 Received: 5 October 2017; Accepted: 10 November 2017; Published: 15 November 2017 Abstract: This theoretical article reviews the model describing processes in social systems based on the analysis of their resource base. Application of the system theory can help to explain why some systems are aimed at prevention of type I errors, while others seek to decrease the quantity of type II errors. Such differences are manifested in investment of resources either into deep interaction or into wide coverage. Some examples of such strategies in economic, market and production systems are provided in the article. The article introduces some provisions of the system theory in the context of the resource flows. The main indicators that are considered in this article are the characteristics of the sources of the exchanging flows of resources. Their relative frequency and quality are investigated; on the basis of which the most effective strategy of the system is derived; as a mechanism for redistribution of resources. The rigor of the system’s strategy depends on the magnitude of the difference in characteristics. It is explained how exactly it influences the exchange processes, that in reality systems do not interact simultaneously and one of the opposite resource flows is always delayed. It is shown how the system strategy depends on the risks linked with interactions. Also, there are grounds for the need to accumulate resources, including in the situation of their surplus.
    [Show full text]
  • A Social System Analysis of the Effectiveness of an Economic Organization Otto Carlo Sampson Jr
    Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Retrospective Theses and Dissertations Dissertations 1973 A social system analysis of the effectiveness of an economic organization Otto Carlo Sampson Jr. Iowa State University Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd Part of the Sociology Commons Recommended Citation Sampson, Otto Carlo Jr., "A social system analysis of the effectiveness of an economic organization" (1973). Retrospective Theses and Dissertations. 4972. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/4972 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Retrospective Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. INFORMATION TO USERS This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image.
    [Show full text]
  • The Theories of Talcott Parsons the Theories of Talcott Parsons
    THE THEORIES OF TALCOTT PARSONS THE THEORIES OF TALCOTT PARSONS The Social Relations of Action Stephen P. Savage MACMILLANM PRESS LONOON © Stephen P. Savage 1981 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission First edition 1981 Reprinted 1983 Published by THE MACMILLAN PRESS L TD London and Basingstoke Companies and representatives throughout the world ISBN 978-0-333-36165-8 ISBN 978-1-349-06969-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-06969-9 To my Parents Contents Acknowledgements IX List of Abbreviations x Introduction Xl 1 Modes of Critique and the Theoretical Analysis of Discourse 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The Subject of Discourse as the Object of Critique 5 1.3 The Realist Mode of Critique 10 1.4 Epistemological Modes of Critique 16 1.5 Parsons' Mode of Reading in The Structure of Social Action: the Proof of the Validity of the Action Frame of Reference 24 1.6 Internal Modes of Critique 30 (i) Modes of Internal Critique of Parsons 31 (ii) The Althusserian Project for a Theory of Theoretical Production 48 1.7 Conclusion: the Concepts for the Analysis of Discourse 57 2 The Epistemology of 'Analytical Realism' 62 2.1 Analytical Realism: Anti-Empiricism and Anti- Fictionalism 64 2.2 The Theoretical Component of Analytical Realism 82 2.3 The 'Reality' Component of Analytical Realism 87 2.4 Conclusion 90 3 The Structure of Action: Parsons' Formulation of the Action Frame of Reference 91 3.1 Introduction 91 3.2 The 'Voluntaristic' Nature of Action: the Role of Free-will
    [Show full text]
  • Complex Adaptive Systems Theory Applied to Virtual Scientific Collaborations: the Case of Dataone
    University of Tennessee, Knoxville TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School 8-2011 Complex adaptive systems theory applied to virtual scientific collaborations: The case of DataONE Arsev Umur Aydinoglu [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss Part of the Communication Technology and New Media Commons, Library and Information Science Commons, and the Organizational Behavior and Theory Commons Recommended Citation Aydinoglu, Arsev Umur, "Complex adaptive systems theory applied to virtual scientific collaborations: The case of DataONE. " PhD diss., University of Tennessee, 2011. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/1054 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized administrator of TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. For more information, please contact [email protected]. To the Graduate Council: I am submitting herewith a dissertation written by Arsev Umur Aydinoglu entitled "Complex adaptive systems theory applied to virtual scientific collaborations: The case of DataONE." I have examined the final electronic copy of this dissertation for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the equirr ements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, with a major in Communication and Information. Suzie Allard, Major Professor We
    [Show full text]
  • Cyber–Physical–Social Frameworks for Urban Big Data Systems: a Survey
    applied sciences Review Cyber–Physical–Social Frameworks for Urban Big Data Systems: A Survey Suparna De 1,* ID , Yuchao Zhou 1, Iker Larizgoitia Abad 2 and Klaus Moessner 1 ID 1 Institute for Communication Systems (ICS), University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK; [email protected] (Y.Z.); [email protected] (K.M.) 2 Evrythng Limited, Unit 4, 122 East Road, London N1 6FB, UK; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +44-1483-68-2497 Received: 9 August 2017; Accepted: 26 September 2017; Published: 2 October 2017 Abstract: The integration of things’ data on the Web and Web linking for things’ description and discovery is leading the way towards smart Cyber–Physical Systems (CPS). The data generated in CPS represents observations gathered by sensor devices about the ambient environment that can be manipulated by computational processes of the cyber world. Alongside this, the growing use of social networks offers near real-time citizen sensing capabilities as a complementary information source. The resulting Cyber–Physical–Social System (CPSS) can help to understand the real world and provide proactive services to users. The nature of CPSS data brings new requirements and challenges to different stages of data manipulation, including identification of data sources, processing and fusion of different types and scales of data. To gain an understanding of the existing methods and techniques which can be useful for a data-oriented CPSS implementation, this paper presents a survey of the existing research and commercial solutions. We define a conceptual framework for a data-oriented CPSS and detail the various solutions for building human–machine intelligence.
    [Show full text]
  • Talcott Parsons: an Outline of the Social System
    CIJ~15'ita\Socid0tJl'(dl~Theo~/~"~&t'IH~t-f t6l1 C ,Cd\hull-'\ et dl re~s) e,la<-kwel\ Pt.Ab\~S;hlt1j 1-1d lJeli\ M A €Qoo '7- Chapter 33 An Outline of the Social System [1961] Talcott Parsons Let us now turn to a more detailed discussion of our conception of a social system. First, the concept of interpenetration implies that, however important logical closure may be as a theoretical ideal, empirically social systems are conceived as open systems, engaged in complicated processes of interchange with environing systems. The environing systems include, in this case, cultural and personality systems, the behavioral and other subsystems of the organism, and, through the organism, the physical environment. The same logic applies internally to social systems, conceived as differentiated and segmented into a plurality of subsystems, each of which must be treated analytically as an open system interchanging with environing subsystems of the larger system. The concept of an open system interchanging with environing systems also implies boundaries and their maintenance. When a set of interdependent phenom• ena shows sufficiently definite patterning and stability over time, then we can say that it has a "structure" and that it is fruitful to treat it as a "system." A bound• ary means simply that a theoretically and empirically significant difference between structures and processes internal to the system and those external to it exists and tends to be maintained. In so far as boundaries in this sense do not exist, it is not possible to identify a set of interdependent phenomena as a system; it is merged in some other, more extensive system.
    [Show full text]