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Cyber–Physical–Social Frameworks for Urban Big Data Systems: a Survey

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Cyber–Physical–Social Frameworks for Urban Big Data Systems: a Survey applied sciences Review Cyber–Physical–Social Frameworks for Urban Big Data Systems: A Survey Suparna De 1,* ID , Yuchao Zhou 1, Iker Larizgoitia Abad 2 and Klaus Moessner 1 ID 1 Institute for Communication Systems (ICS), University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK; [email protected] (Y.Z.); [email protected] (K.M.) 2 Evrythng Limited, Unit 4, 122 East Road, London N1 6FB, UK; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +44-1483-68-2497 Received: 9 August 2017; Accepted: 26 September 2017; Published: 2 October 2017 Abstract: The integration of things’ data on the Web and Web linking for things’ description and discovery is leading the way towards smart Cyber–Physical Systems (CPS). The data generated in CPS represents observations gathered by sensor devices about the ambient environment that can be manipulated by computational processes of the cyber world. Alongside this, the growing use of social networks offers near real-time citizen sensing capabilities as a complementary information source. The resulting Cyber–Physical–Social System (CPSS) can help to understand the real world and provide proactive services to users. The nature of CPSS data brings new requirements and challenges to different stages of data manipulation, including identification of data sources, processing and fusion of different types and scales of data. To gain an understanding of the existing methods and techniques which can be useful for a data-oriented CPSS implementation, this paper presents a survey of the existing research and commercial solutions. We define a conceptual framework for a data-oriented CPSS and detail the various solutions for building human–machine intelligence. Keywords: Cyber–Physical–Social Systems; survey; cross-space data fusion; social intelligence; urban awareness; Internet of Things 1. Introduction The emerging computing paradigm of Cyber–Physical–Social Systems (CPSS) builds on the technology developments in Cyber–Physical Systems (CPS) and Cyber–Social Systems (CSS) [1–3]. As depicted in Figure1, a variety of sensors and actuators monitor the behavior and phenomena in the physical world and the resultant data are moved to the cyber world, where they are analyzed to infer the state of the physical world and generate corresponding digital representations of the involved physical entities [4,5]. The digital representation is used to derive knowledge about the state of the physical world and to optimize and control it through actions implemented through actuators. The related research area that is concerned with the integration of physical processes and computation in order to merge the physical and cyber world is termed CPS [6]. The Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm, which seeks to interconnect computers to objects with self-configuring capabilities, plays an important role in the convergence of the physical and cyber worlds by ensuring secure and energy-efficient transfer of information (in both directions) between them [5]. The confluence of CPS with IoT has resulted in an impactful association of the physical world observations, sensed by the connected smart objects, with the computational processes of the cyber world. It has enabled modeling and reasoning of the physical phenomena, which coupled with efficient communication and data processing, can result in effective actuation [7]. The variety of devices that can monitor the physical environment, as depicted in Figure1, encompass fixed sensor network installations (e.g., Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) for environment Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1017; doi:10.3390/app7101017 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1017 2 of 26 Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1017 2 of 28 environmentmonitoring [8 –monitoring10], smart home [8–10 installations], smart home [11 installations] and sensor deployments[11] and sensor for deployments air quality monitoring for air quality [12]). Themonitoring high installation [12]). The costhigh of installation fixed sensor cost networks of fixed andsensor insufficient networks spatial and insufficient coveragehas spatial led tocoverage mobile hassensing led initiatives,to mobile sensing primarily initiatives, by city authorities primarily [by13 ],city which authorities involve [ sensors13], which mounted involve on sensors public mountedtransportation on public vehicles transportation (e.g., for environment vehicles (e.g. monitoring, for environment [14–16]). monitoring [14–16]). Figure 1. Cyber–Physical—Social Systems (CPSS) (adapted from [17]). WSN: Wireless Sensor Networks. Figure 1. Cyber–Physical-–Social Systems (CPSS) (adapted from [17]). WSN ： Wireless Sensor Networks The growing use of sensor-enabled smartphones and tighter interactions between them and their users means that such personal devices are becoming important tools to sense and inform about the The growing use of sensor-enabled smartphones and tighter interactions between them and their ambient environment. Large numbers of such mobile smartphone users can then form a versatile users means that such personal devices are becoming important tools to sense and inform about the sensing source, providing localized information, e.g., noise levels [18], traffic conditions [19], etc. ambient environment. Large numbers of such mobile smartphone users can then form a versatile Thissensing sensed source, information providing can localized then be information, aggregated e.g. and, noise analyzed levels by [18 the], traffic processes conditions in the [ cyber19], etc. world. This Analogously,sensed information increasing can numbersthen be ofaggregated people sharing and analyzed information, by the in near processes real-time, in aboutthe cyber city-related world. Analogouslevents (e.g.,y, traffic increasing incidents numbers [20,21 ]of or people earthquakes sharing [22 information,]) on online in social near networking real-time, about platforms city-related means eventsthat they (e.g. can, traffic act asincidents a complementary [20,21] or earthquakes or corroborative [22]) on information online social source networking of city platforms dynamics means [20]. Thethat relatedthey can technology act as a complementary paradigm, termed or corroborative CSS, uses data inform on socialation behaviors source of and city relationship dynamics [20 analysis]. The relatedto provide technology relevant paradigm, information termed services CSS [1],, uses for example, data on social to discover behaviors neighborhoods and relationship and communities analysis to providein a city relevant or discovering information the functions services of[1] different, for example, urban to regions discover [23 neighborhoods–27]. The technology and communities paradigm inthat a considerscity or discovering human and the social functions dynamics of different as an integral urban regions part of CPS[23–27 is] termed. The technology CPSS [28]. paradigm CPSS are thatcharacterized considers byhuman a deep and interplay social dynamics between as sensors, an integral actuators part of and CPS smart is termed objects CPSS that [28 reside]. CPSS in theare physicalcharacterized world; by “richer a deep technology-mediated interplay between sensors, social interactions” actuators and [29] andsmart advanced objects that reasoning reside applied in the physicalto the collective world; intelligence.“richer technology-mediated social interactions” [29] and advanced reasoning appliedSmart to the cities collective are typical intelligence. CPSS, being made possible by deployments of low-cost sensors, governmentSmart cities initiatives are typical on openly CPSS, available being made city-centric possible data by and deployments citizens sharing of low and-cost exchanging sensors, governmentcity-related messagesinitiatives on openly social networks.available city The-centric vast data amounts and citizens of data sharing obtained and by exchanging the sensing city of- physicalrelated messages phenomena on social by distributed networks. The sensor vast networks amounts andof data those obtained contributed by the bysensing city inhabitantsof physical phenomenathrough their by sensor-enabled distributed sensor smartphones networks andand onthose online contributed social networks, by city inhabitants can offer nearthrough real-time their sensorlarge-scale-enabled sensing smartphones for intelligence and on mining online to social facilitate networks, responsive can andoffer intelligent near real services-time large in urban-scale sensing for intelligence mining to facilitate responsive and intelligent services in urban settings [13]. Extracting knowledge out of the data, typically through big data analytics techniques, can help to Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1017 3 of 26 settings [13]. Extracting knowledge out of the data, typically through big data analytics techniques, can help to build a picture of urban dynamics, which can enable intelligent applications and services, and guide decision-making, both for city authorities and city inhabitants [21]. Implementations of CPSS applications are emerging in everyday life in smart urban systems, in domains as varied as command and control, smart environments, smart transportation, smart social production systems and so on [19,30–35]. Such applications rely on efficient monitoring of the urban physical infrastructure and ambient environment and combine the collected data through intelligent cyber processes to deliver improved services to citizens; for example, by adjusting traffic signal timings based on vehicle and cyclist arrival information [19,36], developing sustainable waste
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