DOCSLIB.ORG

A Social System Analysis of the Effectiveness of an Economic Organization Otto Carlo Sampson Jr

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
A Social System Analysis of the Effectiveness of an Economic Organization Otto Carlo Sampson Jr Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Retrospective Theses and Dissertations Dissertations 1973 A social system analysis of the effectiveness of an economic organization Otto Carlo Sampson Jr. Iowa State University Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd Part of the Sociology Commons Recommended Citation Sampson, Otto Carlo Jr., "A social system analysis of the effectiveness of an economic organization" (1973). Retrospective Theses and Dissertations. 4972. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/4972 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Retrospective Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. INFORMATION TO USERS This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper !sft hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may bs ordered 2t additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you vinsh reproduced. 5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received. Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 73-25,252 SAMPSON, Jr., Otto Carlo, 1929- A SOCIAL SYSTEM ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF AN ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION. Iowa State University, Ph.D., 1973 Sociology, general university microfilms,. A XjcîvOX.Company . Ann Arbor, michigan THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY A3 RECEIVED. A social system ajialysis of the effectiveness of an economic orgsunization by Otto Carlo Sampson, Jr. A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department: Sociology and Anthropology Major: Sociology Approved: Signature was redacted for privacy. e of Major Work Signature was redacted for privacy. For the Major DepartmentDepartmen Signature was redacted for privacy. For the Graduate College Iowa State University Ames, Iowa 1973 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of Problematic 1 Dissertation Objectives 9 Approach Followed 10 CHAPTER 2. FARMER COOPERATIVES 13 Introduction 13 Meaning and Importance of Farmer Cooperatives 13 Development and Growth of Farmer Cooperatives 15 CHAPTER 3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 23 Introduction 23 What and Why of Theory 24 Organizational Theory 29 Formal Organizations 40 Orgemizational Effectiveness 60 Two Models and Approaches to the Assessment of Orgaoiizational Effectiveness 68 Selected Empirical Studies of Orgaaiizational Effectiveness 73 Orientation, Means, and Ends 85 Social Processes and Effectiveness 90 Derivation of Hypotheses 94 CHAPTER 4. METHODS 119 Introduction 119 iii Page CHAPTER 5. FINDINGS 139 Introduction 139 CHAPTER 6. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS 176 CHAPTER 7. SUMMARY 207 LITERATURE CITED 219 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 227 APPENDIX A 230 APPENDIX B 248 APPENDIX C 256 APPENDIX D 257 APPENDIX E 260 1 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Statement of Problematic The rapid growth of con^lex organizations is one of the distinguishing characteristics of modem societies. Deliberately planned formal structures appear imperative to the satisfaction of most human needs auid interests in these societies. Almost everything social is in some way affected by one or more formal organizations (Etzioni, 1964:1)o Major technological, ecological, and social changes have resulted in organization societies in which there is greater dependence upon formal, impersonal relations between people in many areas of human relations. The decline in the agraricin way of life has been accompanied by complex patterns of industrial-urban living. In the past, the Gemeinschaft environ­ ment facilitated a preponderance of interpersonal relations based on intimate feelings and a high degree of informality. The pres­ ent trend is toward a more Gesellschaft environment in which inter­ personal relations are increasingly formal, Both rural and urban segments cf the population aire being affected by this dominating trend. In modern societies, emphasis on sentiment appears to be less important than en^>hasis on such factors as contract ajid ra­ tional calculation. One of the best sociological illustrations 2 of these chamges is the phenomenal increase in the number and complexity of formal organizations. Sociological interest in formal orgemizations can be traced to the founding of the discipline in the nineteenth century. How­ ever, one of the first persons to produce a classical work explain­ ing the trend toward increasing rationality and greater orgaaiiza- tional conplexity was Meuc Weber (1947:329-341) whose discussion of bureaucracy did much to capture the attention of students of formal organizations. His ideal type bureaucracy provided the conceptual framework upon which many studies of formal organiza­ tions have been based. Weber was particularly concerned with patterns of authority auid the rational aspects of formal orgainiza- tions. For some writers, Weber's es^hasis on the rational and formal aspects of humain behavior has become the basis for criti­ cism (Mouzelis, 1969:38 and Gouldner, 1965:402-404), They argue 1*7O"»0>" T* O 'TT O4-V* v-3 4-4 ^1 ^ O /">f V»1 ^^ 3» T T o devoting insufficient attention to informal groups found within formal structures. Another criticism has been directed against his assertion that the goals of formal organizations are delib­ erately planned, that is, Weber failed to stress the unplanned cuid irrational aspects of such organizations. In addition, Etzioni (1961:xiii) says Weber's model of bureaucracy places too much em­ phasis on the similarities of formal orgsuiizations and too little enphasis on how they differ. 3 A common characteristic of all formal organizations is their focus on the achievement of goals. Yet, there axe divergent per- ^ectives concerning the nature of goals. For instance, writers such as Etzioni (1964) stress the primacy of goals in keeping the organization intact, while writers such as Hall (1970:3) argue that goals may at times constrain orgamizational activ­ ities. Etzioni (1964:5) says: Goals also constitute a source of legit­ imacy which justifies the activities of an organization and, indeed, its very existence. Moreover, goals serve as stand­ ards by which members of an organization and outsiders caai assess the success of the organization — i.e., its effectiveness and efficiency. In spite of the diverse perspectives concerning goals, much has been written about organizational effectiveness in terms of the achievement of formal goals. However, there is a paucity of empirical studies of orgaoiizational goals, as well as orgarni za- tional effectiveness. Furthermore, the research findings tend to be inconsistent. Most of the writings on organizational goals and orgamiza- tional effectiveness have been published since World War II (For exanple, see Comrey elt al.. 1952; Georgopoulos and Tannenbaum, 1957; Etzioni, 1964; Hall, 1970; and Perrow, 1961), Ghorpade (1971:173) says studies of orgainizational goal;, have been treated in a cursory and simplistic fashion. Prior to World War II, stud­ ies of formal organizations tended to stress the psychological 4 aspects of participation in orgaoiizations, auid little attention was given to such topics as organizational goals and organiza­ tional effectiveness (Blau, 1962:289). According to Blau (1962: 289), "Empirical research eîqplicitly oriented to problems of bureaucratic organization began to appear only sifter World War II, primarily in the form of case studies, such as Selznick's study of the TVA and Gouldner's study of industrial bureaucracy." The primary concern in this dissertation is with orgamiza- tional effectiveness. Therefore, some attention will be given to the nature of organizational goals. The need for empirical studies of organizational effectiveness is
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Complexity of Social Systems and Paradoxes of Contemporary Security Theory and Policy Making
    Czeslaw Mesjasz Cracow University of Economics Kraków, Poland [email protected] Complexity of social systems and paradoxes of contemporary security theory and policy making Paper presented at the CEEISA-ISA 2016 Joint International Conference Ljubljana, Slovenia 23-25 June 2016 (A very preliminary crude draft version, not for quotation) 1. Introduction The grand ideas such as, for example, the risk society of Beck [1992], complexity-stimulated crises discussed by Tainter [1988, 2000], Diamond [1997, 2005], ingenuity gap of Homer-Dixon [2002], and other similar, less publicized visions, lead to the following question. Was the world simpler and less risky in the past? The question brings about several paradoxes embodying actors and issues relating to broadly defined security. On the one hand we are intuitively aware that the present global society with development of IT and all its consequences, increasing number of societal interactions and environmental threats is becoming more difficult to comprehend. On the other, modern science allows for better understanding of the world. It may be then hypothesize that the contemporary discourse on the risk society and complexity of society is not correct when compared with the state of the world in any time in the past and much lower level of understanding of the world in that time. It may be even stated provocatively that although the number of social scientists is increasing only a relatively small of them have a deepened knowledge about the modern social proceses. The above paradox is used as a point of departure of the study of the links between complexity of society in the past and at present, and occurrence of large scale socioeconomic crises (countries, regions, continents, global scale).
    [Show full text]
  • An Accidental Resource: the Social Ecological System Framework Applied to Small Wetlands in Sierran Foothill Oak Woodlands1
    An Accidental Resource: the Social Ecological System Framework Applied to Small Wetlands in Sierran Foothill Oak 1 Woodlands 2 2 3 Tracy V. Hruska, Lynn Huntsinger, and Jose L. Oviedo, Abstract An ongoing study of the small wetlands in the northern Sierra Nevada foothill oak woodlands that provide habitat for the state-threatened California black rail (Laterallus jamaicensis coturniculus) offers an example of the way that the social ecological systems (SES) framework can be used to analyze a natural resource problem. At the outset, it was hypothesized that the area’s hydrology, West Nile Virus from wetland mosquitos, the population ecology of the bird, and the decisions of landowners would have important impacts on the wetlands and birds. A SES framework was applied to identify and understand the interactions among ecological and human factors. The case of irrigated wetlands in Sierra foothill woodlands turns out to be an example of a fractured SES. Actions within the social system are having profound impacts on the natural system, but these resulting changes in the natural system appear to have little or no feedback to the social system. Intervention points identified include education of landowners, influencing water districts, and incentivizing conservation. Key words: California black rail, irrigation, pasture, water conservation, wildlife Introduction: social ecological systems Small wetlands in the northern Sierra Nevada foothill oak woodlands provide habitat for the state-threatened California black rail (Laterallus jamaicensis coturniculus). One ongoing study of the sustainability of the wetlands offers an example of the way that the social ecological systems (SES) framework can be used to analyze a natural resource problem.
    [Show full text]
  • Systems Theory
    1 Systems Theory BRUCE D. FRIEDMAN AND KAREN NEUMAN ALLEN iopsychosocial assessment and the develop - nature of the clinical enterprise, others have chal - Bment of appropriate intervention strategies for lenged the suitability of systems theory as an orga - a particular client require consideration of the indi - nizing framework for clinical practice (Fook, Ryan, vidual in relation to a larger social context. To & Hawkins, 1997; Wakefield, 1996a, 1996b). accomplish this, we use principles and concepts The term system emerged from Émile Durkheim’s derived from systems theory. Systems theory is a early study of social systems (Robbins, Chatterjee, way of elaborating increasingly complex systems & Canda, 2006), as well as from the work of across a continuum that encompasses the person-in- Talcott Parsons. However, within social work, sys - environment (Anderson, Carter, & Lowe, 1999). tems thinking has been more heavily influenced by Systems theory also enables us to understand the the work of the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy components and dynamics of client systems in order and later adaptations by the social psychologist Uri to interpret problems and develop balanced inter - Bronfenbrenner, who examined human biological vention strategies, with the goal of enhancing the systems within an ecological environment. With “goodness of fit” between individuals and their its roots in von Bertalanffy’s systems theory and environments. Systems theory does not specify par - Bronfenbrenner’s ecological environment, the ticular theoretical frameworks for understanding ecosys tems perspective provides a framework that problems, and it does not direct the social worker to permits users to draw on theories from different dis - specific intervention strategies.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Umpleby Stuart Reconsidering Cybernetics
    UMPLEBY STUART RECONSIDERING CYBERNETICS The field of cybernetics attracted great attention in the 1950s and 1960s with its prediction of a Second Industrial Revolution due to computer technology. In recent years few people in the US have heard of cybernetics (Umpleby, 2015a, see Figures 1 and 2 at the end of Paper). But a wave of recent books suggests that interest in cybernetics is returning (Umpleby and Hughes, 2016, see Figure at the end of Paper). This white paper reviews some basic ideas in cybernetics. I recommend these and other ideas as a resource for better understanding and modeling of social systems, including threat and response dynamics. Some may claim that whatever was useful has already been incorporated in current work generally falling under the complexity label, but that is not the case. Work in cybernetics has continued with notable contributions in recent years. Systems science, complex systems, and cybernetics are three largely independent fields with their own associations, journals and conferences (Umpleby, 2017). Four types of descriptions used in social science After working in social science and systems science for many years I realized that different academic disciplines use different basic elements. Economists use measurable variables such as price, savings, GDP, imports and exports. Psychologists focus on ideas, concepts and attitudes. Sociologists and political scientists focus on groups, organizations, and coalitions. Historians and legal scholars emphasize events and procedures. People trained in different disciplines construct different narratives using these basic elements. One way to reveal more of the variety in a social system is to create at least four descriptions – one each using variables, ideas, groups, and events (See the figures and tables in Medvedeva & Umpleby, 2015).
    [Show full text]
  • What Is a Complex System?
    What is a Complex System? James Ladyman, James Lambert Department of Philosophy, University of Bristol, U.K. Karoline Wiesner Department of Mathematics and Centre for Complexity Sciences, University of Bristol, U.K. (Dated: March 8, 2012) Complex systems research is becoming ever more important in both the natural and social sciences. It is commonly implied that there is such a thing as a complex system, different examples of which are studied across many disciplines. However, there is no concise definition of a complex system, let alone a definition on which all scientists agree. We review various attempts to characterize a complex system, and consider a core set of features that are widely associated with complex systems in the literature and by those in the field. We argue that some of these features are neither necessary nor sufficient for complexity, and that some of them are too vague or confused to be of any analytical use. In order to bring mathematical rigour to the issue we then review some standard measures of complexity from the scientific literature, and offer a taxonomy for them, before arguing that the one that best captures the qualitative notion of the order produced by complex systems is that of the Statistical Complexity. Finally, we offer our own list of necessary conditions as a characterization of complexity. These conditions are qualitative and may not be jointly sufficient for complexity. We close with some suggestions for future work. I. INTRODUCTION The idea of complexity is sometimes said to be part of a new unifying framework for science, and a revolution in our understanding of systems the behaviour of which has proved difficult to predict and control thus far, such as the human brain and the world economy.
    [Show full text]
  • Transformations)
    TRANSFORMACJE (TRANSFORMATIONS) Transformacje (Transformations) is an interdisciplinary refereed, reviewed journal, published since 1992. The journal is devoted to i.a.: civilizational and cultural transformations, information (knowledge) societies, global problematique, sustainable development, political philosophy and values, future studies. The journal's quasi-paradigm is TRANSFORMATION - as a present stage and form of development of technology, society, culture, civilization, values, mindsets etc. Impacts and potentialities of change and transition need new methodological tools, new visions and innovation for theoretical and practical capacity-building. The journal aims to promote inter-, multi- and transdisci- plinary approach, future orientation and strategic and global thinking. Transformacje (Transformations) are internationally available – since 2012 we have a licence agrement with the global database: EBSCO Publishing (Ipswich, MA, USA) We are listed by INDEX COPERNICUS since 2013 I TRANSFORMACJE(TRANSFORMATIONS) 3-4 (78-79) 2013 ISSN 1230-0292 Reviewed journal Published twice a year (double issues) in Polish and English (separate papers) Editorial Staff: Prof. Lech W. ZACHER, Center of Impact Assessment Studies and Forecasting, Kozminski University, Warsaw, Poland ([email protected]) – Editor-in-Chief Prof. Dora MARINOVA, Sustainability Policy Institute, Curtin University, Perth, Australia ([email protected]) – Deputy Editor-in-Chief Prof. Tadeusz MICZKA, Institute of Cultural and Interdisciplinary Studies, University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland ([email protected]) – Deputy Editor-in-Chief Dr Małgorzata SKÓRZEWSKA-AMBERG, School of Law, Kozminski University, Warsaw, Poland ([email protected]) – Coordinator Dr Alina BETLEJ, Institute of Sociology, John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Poland Dr Mirosław GEISE, Institute of Political Sciences, Kazimierz Wielki University, Bydgoszcz, Poland (also statistical editor) Prof.
    [Show full text]
  • Social Systems: Resources and Strategies
    systems Article Social Systems: Resources and Strategies Pavel Brazhnikov ID Scientific Academy for Research of Social and Psychological Systems, Moscow 125319, Russia; [email protected]; Tel.: +7-916-334-1137 Received: 5 October 2017; Accepted: 10 November 2017; Published: 15 November 2017 Abstract: This theoretical article reviews the model describing processes in social systems based on the analysis of their resource base. Application of the system theory can help to explain why some systems are aimed at prevention of type I errors, while others seek to decrease the quantity of type II errors. Such differences are manifested in investment of resources either into deep interaction or into wide coverage. Some examples of such strategies in economic, market and production systems are provided in the article. The article introduces some provisions of the system theory in the context of the resource flows. The main indicators that are considered in this article are the characteristics of the sources of the exchanging flows of resources. Their relative frequency and quality are investigated; on the basis of which the most effective strategy of the system is derived; as a mechanism for redistribution of resources. The rigor of the system’s strategy depends on the magnitude of the difference in characteristics. It is explained how exactly it influences the exchange processes, that in reality systems do not interact simultaneously and one of the opposite resource flows is always delayed. It is shown how the system strategy depends on the risks linked with interactions. Also, there are grounds for the need to accumulate resources, including in the situation of their surplus.
    [Show full text]
  • The Theories of Talcott Parsons the Theories of Talcott Parsons
    THE THEORIES OF TALCOTT PARSONS THE THEORIES OF TALCOTT PARSONS The Social Relations of Action Stephen P. Savage MACMILLANM PRESS LONOON © Stephen P. Savage 1981 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission First edition 1981 Reprinted 1983 Published by THE MACMILLAN PRESS L TD London and Basingstoke Companies and representatives throughout the world ISBN 978-0-333-36165-8 ISBN 978-1-349-06969-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-06969-9 To my Parents Contents Acknowledgements IX List of Abbreviations x Introduction Xl 1 Modes of Critique and the Theoretical Analysis of Discourse 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The Subject of Discourse as the Object of Critique 5 1.3 The Realist Mode of Critique 10 1.4 Epistemological Modes of Critique 16 1.5 Parsons' Mode of Reading in The Structure of Social Action: the Proof of the Validity of the Action Frame of Reference 24 1.6 Internal Modes of Critique 30 (i) Modes of Internal Critique of Parsons 31 (ii) The Althusserian Project for a Theory of Theoretical Production 48 1.7 Conclusion: the Concepts for the Analysis of Discourse 57 2 The Epistemology of 'Analytical Realism' 62 2.1 Analytical Realism: Anti-Empiricism and Anti- Fictionalism 64 2.2 The Theoretical Component of Analytical Realism 82 2.3 The 'Reality' Component of Analytical Realism 87 2.4 Conclusion 90 3 The Structure of Action: Parsons' Formulation of the Action Frame of Reference 91 3.1 Introduction 91 3.2 The 'Voluntaristic' Nature of Action: the Role of Free-will
    [Show full text]
  • Complex Adaptive Systems Theory Applied to Virtual Scientific Collaborations: the Case of Dataone
    University of Tennessee, Knoxville TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School 8-2011 Complex adaptive systems theory applied to virtual scientific collaborations: The case of DataONE Arsev Umur Aydinoglu [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss Part of the Communication Technology and New Media Commons, Library and Information Science Commons, and the Organizational Behavior and Theory Commons Recommended Citation Aydinoglu, Arsev Umur, "Complex adaptive systems theory applied to virtual scientific collaborations: The case of DataONE. " PhD diss., University of Tennessee, 2011. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/1054 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized administrator of TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. For more information, please contact [email protected]. To the Graduate Council: I am submitting herewith a dissertation written by Arsev Umur Aydinoglu entitled "Complex adaptive systems theory applied to virtual scientific collaborations: The case of DataONE." I have examined the final electronic copy of this dissertation for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the equirr ements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, with a major in Communication and Information. Suzie Allard, Major Professor We
    [Show full text]
  • Cyber–Physical–Social Frameworks for Urban Big Data Systems: a Survey
    applied sciences Review Cyber–Physical–Social Frameworks for Urban Big Data Systems: A Survey Suparna De 1,* ID , Yuchao Zhou 1, Iker Larizgoitia Abad 2 and Klaus Moessner 1 ID 1 Institute for Communication Systems (ICS), University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK; [email protected] (Y.Z.); [email protected] (K.M.) 2 Evrythng Limited, Unit 4, 122 East Road, London N1 6FB, UK; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +44-1483-68-2497 Received: 9 August 2017; Accepted: 26 September 2017; Published: 2 October 2017 Abstract: The integration of things’ data on the Web and Web linking for things’ description and discovery is leading the way towards smart Cyber–Physical Systems (CPS). The data generated in CPS represents observations gathered by sensor devices about the ambient environment that can be manipulated by computational processes of the cyber world. Alongside this, the growing use of social networks offers near real-time citizen sensing capabilities as a complementary information source. The resulting Cyber–Physical–Social System (CPSS) can help to understand the real world and provide proactive services to users. The nature of CPSS data brings new requirements and challenges to different stages of data manipulation, including identification of data sources, processing and fusion of different types and scales of data. To gain an understanding of the existing methods and techniques which can be useful for a data-oriented CPSS implementation, this paper presents a survey of the existing research and commercial solutions. We define a conceptual framework for a data-oriented CPSS and detail the various solutions for building human–machine intelligence.
    [Show full text]
  • Talcott Parsons: an Outline of the Social System
    CIJ~15'ita\Socid0tJl'(dl~Theo~/~"~&t'IH~t-f t6l1 C ,Cd\hull-'\ et dl re~s) e,la<-kwel\ Pt.Ab\~S;hlt1j 1-1d lJeli\ M A €Qoo '7- Chapter 33 An Outline of the Social System [1961] Talcott Parsons Let us now turn to a more detailed discussion of our conception of a social system. First, the concept of interpenetration implies that, however important logical closure may be as a theoretical ideal, empirically social systems are conceived as open systems, engaged in complicated processes of interchange with environing systems. The environing systems include, in this case, cultural and personality systems, the behavioral and other subsystems of the organism, and, through the organism, the physical environment. The same logic applies internally to social systems, conceived as differentiated and segmented into a plurality of subsystems, each of which must be treated analytically as an open system interchanging with environing subsystems of the larger system. The concept of an open system interchanging with environing systems also implies boundaries and their maintenance. When a set of interdependent phenom• ena shows sufficiently definite patterning and stability over time, then we can say that it has a "structure" and that it is fruitful to treat it as a "system." A bound• ary means simply that a theoretically and empirically significant difference between structures and processes internal to the system and those external to it exists and tends to be maintained. In so far as boundaries in this sense do not exist, it is not possible to identify a set of interdependent phenomena as a system; it is merged in some other, more extensive system.
    [Show full text]
  • Methodological Individualism and Holism in Political Science: a Reconciliation
    1 Methodological Individualism and Holism in Political Science: A Reconciliation Christian List and Kai Spiekermann London School of Economics and Political Science* Abstract: Political science is divided between methodological individualists, who seek to explain political phenomena by reference to individuals and their interactions, and holists (or non-reductionists), who consider some higher-level social entities or properties such as states, institutions, or cultures ontologically or causally significant. We propose a reconciliation between these two perspectives, building on related work in philosophy. After laying out a taxonomy of different variants of each view, we observe that (i) although political phenomena result from underlying individual attitudes and behaviour, individual-level descriptions do not always capture all explanatorily salient properties, and (ii) non-reductionistic explanations are mandated when social regularities are robust to changes in their individual-level realization. We characterize the dividing line between phenomena requiring non-reductionistic explanation and phenomena permitting individualistic explanation and give examples from the study of ethnic conflicts, social-network theory, and international-relations theory. * Christian List is Professor of Political Science and Philosophy, Departments of Government and Philosophy, LSE, London WC2A 2AE, U.K. Kai Spiekermann is Associate Professor of Political Philosophy, Department of Government, LSE, London WC2A 2AE, U.K. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the LSE Workshop on “Reductionism and Non-Reductionism in the Social Sciences”, June 2012. We thank the participants at this event, Michael Baurmann, Peter Menzies, Philip Pettit, four anonymous reviewers, and the editors for helpful comments or discussions. 2 Introduction Political science is divided between those who think that a scientific approach to the study of politics requires methodological individualism and those who consider this idea hopelessly reductionistic.
    [Show full text]