Library of Arabic Linguistics

The reasons behind the establishment of this Series on Arabic linguistics are manifold. First: Arabic linguistics is developing into an increasingly interesting and important subject within the broad field of modem linguistic studies. The subject is now fully recognised in the Universities of the Arabic speaking world and in international linguistic circles, as a subject of great theoretical and descriptive interest and importance. Second: Arabic linguistics is reaching a mature stage in its development benefiting both from early Arabic linguistic scholarship and modem techniques of general linguistics and related disciplines. Third: The scope of this discipline is wide and varied, covering diverse areas such as Arabic phonetics, phonology and grammar, Arabic psycho­ linguistics, Arabic dialectology, Arabic lexicography and lexicology, Arabic sociolinguistics, the teaching and learning of Arabic as a first, second, or foreign language, communications, semiotics, terminology, translation, machine translation, Arabic computational linguistics, history of Arabic linguistics, etc. Viewed against this background, Arabic linguists may be defined as: the scientific investigation and study of the Arabic language in all its aspects. This embraces the descriptive, comparative and historical aspects of the language. It also concerns itself with the classical form as well as the Modem and contemporary standard forms and their dialects. Moreover, it attempts to study the language in the appropriate regional, social andcultural settings. It is hoped that the Series will devote itselfto all issues ofArabic linguistics in all its manifestations on both the theoretical and applied levels. The results of these studies will also be ofuse in the field oflinguistics in general, as well as related subjects. Although a number of works have appeared independently or within series, yet there is no platform designed specifically for this subject. This Series is being started to fill this gap in the linguistic field. It will be devoted to Monographs written in either English or Arabic, or both, for the benefit of wider circles of readership. Ubrary ofArabic Unguistics

All these reasons justify the establishment ofa new forum which is devoted to all areas of Arabic linguistic studies. It is also hoped that this Series will be of interest not only to students and researchers in Arabic linguistics but also to students and scholars of other disciplines w~o are looking for infor­ mation of theoretical, practical or pragmatic interest.

The Series Editors SICULO ARABIC Library of Arabic Linguistics

Series Editors Muhammad Hasan Bakalla King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdonl of Saudi Arabia Bruce Ingham School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London Clive Holes Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Canlbridge

Advisory Editorial Board Peter E Abboud, University of Texas at Austin; M. H. Abdulaziz, University of Nairobi; Yousif El-Khalifa Abu Bakr, University of Khartounl; Salih J. Altoma, Indiana University; Arne Ambros, University of Vienna; El Said M. Badawi, Alllerican University in Cairo; Michael G. Carter, University ofSydney; Ahmad al-Dhubaib, King Saud University (fornlerly University ofRiyadh); Martin Forstner, Gutenbetg University at Mainz; Otto Jastrow, University ofHeidelberg; Raja T. Nasr, University College of Beirut; C. H. M. Versteegh, Catholic University at Nijnlegen; Bougslaw R. Zagorski, University of rntrsaw.

Library of Arabic Linguistics North East Arabian Dialects: Bruce Ingham Transivity, Causation and Passivization: George Nemeh Saad Language and Linguistic Origins in Bahrain: Mehdi Abdalla al-Tajir A Linguistic Study ofthe Development ofScientific Vocabulary in Standard Arabic: Abdul Sahib Mehdi Ali Language Variation and Change in a Modernising Arab State: Clive Holes Saudi Arabian Dialects: Theodore Prochazka, Jr. From Code Switching to Borrowing: Jeffrey Heath Sibawayh the Phonologist: A. A. al-Nassir Modality, Mood and Aspect in Spoken Arabic: T. E Mitchell and Shahir El-Hassan Dionisius A. Agius

Monograph No. 12

SICULO ARABIC

~ ~~o~!!;n~~;up

LONDON AND NEW YORK First published in 1996 by Kegan Paul International

This edition first published in 2010 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint ofthe Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© Dionisius A. Agius, 1996

Transferred to Digital Printing 2010

All rights reserved. No part ofthis book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 10: 0-7103-0497-8 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978-0-7103-0497-1 (hbk)

Publisher's Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality ofthis reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original copies may be apparent. The publisher has made every effort to contact original copyright holders and would welcome correspondence from those they have been unable to trace. Editor's Introduction

This book is a historical and sociolinguistic study of the use of Arabic in Sicily during the Islamic and Nonnan periods and at the same time an exercise in the use ofdocuments to study a non standard variety oflanguage. The author ex­ amines the development of Arabic within the social history ofthe island and thus sees Siculo Arabic as an aspect of the amalgamation of the Christian and Muslim cultures. The term Siculo-Arabic as used in the book covers both a particular variety of Arabic and the population which speaks it.

Agius describes this as an "amalgamation" of Arabic and Romance being a manifestation of a geographic and ethnic identity "at the crossroads of By­ zantine, Roman, Carthaginian, Arab and Norman influences" (p.2). The author draws a parallel between the language and other features of the culture such as the interiors and painted ceilings of Sicilian buildings which combine "By­ zantine linear features and Arab arabesque decor and polygonal interlacing" (p.2). He notes that in contrast to what happened in Spain, the Norman rule did not consciously sweep away the Arab past and that "the Hauteville Kings drew on a mixed cultural heritage based on Greek, Latin and Arab ideas of rul­ ership.... The racial and ethnic backgrounds of both the Christians and the Muslims were absorbed into a remarkably heterogenous society" (p.427).

The book covers the history of Sicily up to the Norman occupation, examines ethnic and social factors contributing to the composition of the Sicilian pop­ ulation during Arab and Norman times, the sociolingiuistic scene of Islamic and post Islamic Sicily and in chapters 5, 6 and 7 covers the nature of Siculo Arabic and comparison with other western dialects. Chapter 4 reviews the Tathqil al-Lisan of Ibn Makki written during the Norman period and aimed at correcting the labn or terrors' appearing in everyday speech.

The work is based on three sources (a) Ibn Makkrs Tathqff aI-Lisan, (b) Siculo Arabic documents referring to technical and material culture and (c) Siculo Middle Arabic found in the Norman gara'id which tends towards the Classical fonn. The author admits (p.428) that these sources are defective in not show­ ing syntactic features and not being a particularly reliable source for showing vowel features because of the nature of the Arabic script. Neither do we have any idea of the position of stress in the dialect, it not being apparent from the script. However we are able to form a reasonably reliable idea of the dialect consonantal system and of the extensive suffixing ofLatin and sometimes Greek elements to words of Arabic origin. This latter feature remains in the modem Sicilian dialect and also in Maltese.

The author distinguishes between two terms tArabizationt and tArabicizationt. The first indicates cultural and ethnic assimilation, the second linguistic. He points out that it is likely that many people in Sicily may have learnt Arabic as the language ofthe ruling group, but still attended church and as such re­ mained Sicilian rather than becoming Siculo Muslim. He sees the linguistic situation ofSicily during the Islamic and Norman periods as consisting of three linguistic communities which where ofvarying importance at different stages. These were (i) a monolinguistic community speaking a Romance di- alect or Greek dotted along the western side of the island, (ii) a diglossic com­ munity composed of Arabs, Berbers and Siculo Arabs speaking Classical Arab and an Arabic la[l,n as witnessed by ibn Makki"s Tathqlf al-Lisan and (iii) Si­ culo Christians who were acculturated to the Islamic way oflife, but still held on to the church. These spoke a pidginized fonn of Arabic, alongside their original language. This pidgin later creolized into a fully fledged language. Within (ii) the diglossic community, each sub group spoke its own particular labn, although all were maghribi in type. The fonn ofthe Siculo Muslims was "unique to Sicily in all its features" although it is admitted that "Unfortunately no written documents of this type are found" (p.431).

The final somewhat controversial conclusion reached by Agius is that this pos­ tulated creolized fann ofArabic has a direct link with Maltese originating in the move of Siculo Christians from Sicily to Malta in the 12th century. These people, speaking a hybridized fonn ofArabic and Romance would have pop­ ulated the Maltese islands as part of Nonnan expansionist policy. Although the prevalent beliefhas been that Maltese had a North African origin, Agius argues convincingly for his alternative theory. CONTENTS

List of lllustrations

Maps

i Acknowledgements

iii Abbreviations

VI Chart

1 Introduction

13 Chapter One The Land of the Siculans

41 Chapter Two The Siculo Arabic: Ethnic and Social Features

93 Chapter Three The Socio-Linguistic Scene of Islamic and Post-Islamic Sicily

123 Chapter Four The Role of Ibn Makki in Siculo Arabic

159 Chapter Five Siculo-Lal}n Arabic: Phono- logical Correspondences

243 Chapter Six Siculo-Arabic: Phonological Correspondences 359 Chapter Seven Romance and Greek Inter- ferences in Siculo-Arabic

399 Chapter Eight Siculo-Middle Arabic

427 General Conclusion

433 Bibliography

465 Index

539 Glossary ofTechnical Terms (English-Arabic) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1 The exotic gardens and cloisters of the Byzantine church, San Giovanni degli Eremiti, south of the royal palace.

2 The Cathedral of Palenno which was once the Grand Mosque is a Sicilian hybrid with Arab, Norman and baroque features.

3 The Palazzo Reale, the eclectic royal palace and centre of power since Byzantine times. It is now the seat of the Sicilian parliament.

4 The vestibule of La Zisa palace with its honeycomb vaults, a Saracenic fountain and mosaic of peacocks and huntsmen.

5 A purely fictional scene from a traditional puppet theatre showing the defeated Saracens handing the keys of the city to Roger I of Sicily (Museo Etnografico Siciliano "Giuseppe Pitre").

6 A panel from a painted Sicilian cart depicting a battle between Roger I and the Saracens (Museo Etnografico Siciliano "Giuseppe Pitre").

7 Monreale: The cathedral represents the height of Arabo-Norman art and architecture.

8 Erice. Norman arches decorate the almost windowless facades of Arab styled houses o 25 50 Kms I I I SICILY ~'ermo Montelepre ~Bagheria ••Monreal • Termini•• • I . Imerese Misilmen Alcamo. ~./ f • C~latafi~mi• S. Giovanni lato ",J;0 • Pe~alia ) ~\ce./../ J~. Caltavuturo • Salemi ~ ~ ....-/ .CorleonV

.Ler~a / ~ ~ .Castelvetrano ? Castronovo Menfi Caltabellotta) /) .Mu~s~n:eli •• I/'.Casteltermlnl /~• Ribera Caltanissetta. ~. PSiculiana

~ J ~ Butera Caltagirone• 9{ • .Vizzini

Licata VALrD/ ,v, 0)"0

MEDITERRANEAN SEA <\) PantelJeria

Acknowledgements

My research on Siculo Arabic started as early as 1979 on the initiative of the late Aziz Ahmad, Professor of Islamic Studies at the University of Toronto. His devotion to Islamic and Norman Sicily was the beginning of my awareness of a linguistic richness hitherto unexplored. Without his inspiration and encouragement I would have never embarked upon the present work. I would like to thank Clive Holes and Bruce Ingham for their invitation to write this book; Kaori O'Connor of Kegan Paul International has shown great patience with revised deadlines. I am grateful to the Academic Development Fund of the University of Leeds for a research grant which enabled me to collect material for the book; Leonardo Chiarelli, Peter Malan, Abd al-Aziz Matar, Adalgisa De Simone, Antonino Pellitteri, Jeremy Johns, Jacques Grand'Henry, Ian Moxon, Federico Corriente, Marina Marugan, Farida Abu-Haidar, Omar Bencheikh, El-Said Badawi have generously shared with me their scholarly interest in Siculo Arabic. My thanks are also due to Bruce Ingham for reading the manuscript and Paul Auchter­ lonie for preparing a complete index. lowe profound thanks to Don Rimmington and John Macklin who were a constant source of encouragement. Finally, I am grateful to my wife who proof-read the manuscript and for her everlasting patience. ABBREVIATIONS

(a) List of abbreviated languages, dialects, registers and varieties.

AA Andalusi Arabic Nab Nabatean Akk Akkadian Neo Per Neo Persian AM Arabic Maltese Pant Pantellerian Aram Aramaic Pal Palestinian Ber Berber Per Persian (FarSI) Byz Gr Byzantine Greek Kur Kurdish CA Classical Arabic Rab Rabat (Morocco) Cal Calabrian RM Romance Maltese Chald Chaldean Ran Romance DM Dialectal Maltese SA Siculo-Arabic Egy Egyptian SAGr Siculo-Arabic Greek Etrus Etruscan SA Lat Siculo-Arabic Latin Fr French Sic Sicilian Gr Greek Sin Sindi Hin Hindi Skt Sanskrit Ir Clraql SLA Siculo-Lal)n Arabic It Italian SMA Siculo-Middle Arabic Oi Oigelli Sp Spanish Lat Latin Sum Sumerian Mag MagribI Syc Syriac Mal Maltese Syr Syrian MedGr Medieval Greek Tan Tangier Med Lat Medieval Latin Tun Tunisian Med Mal Medieval Maltese Tur Turkish Mid Per Middle Persian VB Ulad BrahIm Mar Moroccan Siculo Arabic

(b) List of general abbreviations a annus (year) m masculine AD Anno Domini (Christian era) nd no date BC before the Christian era neg negative bot botany Nr mnnber c circa (about) part particle cf confer(compare) pI plural col collective pp passive participle d died s singular eg exempli gratia (for example) sl sine loco (no place et al et alii (andothers) of publication) f feminine S) someone fl floruit (flourished) syn synonymous ibid ibidem (in the same place) [Al camma ie id est (that is) v long vowel 1M Ibn Makkl [Xl xc3$$a lit literally

(c) Symbols

single quotation; word cited from text which mayImay not contain Latin or Greek case-endings. direct quotation of meanings of words. < derives from > becomes (7 ) uncertain corresponding with consisting of I stress hypothetic origin # terminal juncture (complete utterance) II phonemictransctiption I variant, alternate + post (date) pre (date) consonants of the Arabic root morpheme (in sequential arrangement) Abbreviations

(d) Classical Arabic vowel symbols

a low intennediate unround vowel a long vowel i high front unround vowel 1 long vowel u high backround vowel 11 long vowel

Other vowel classifications are found in Charts Two, Four, Five, and Eight (see pages 160, 162, 247, 357, 406-8).

(e) Phonetic symbols not included in the charts (illustrated in various works as cited in text) a pharyngealized I al r alveolar trill voiced Q spirant bilabial voiced J affticate dental voiced 13 bilabial fricative (1 pharyngealizedI u I e pharyngealized leI 2 alveolar affricate voiced ~ non-stressed open / e/ 3 laryngeal spirant voiced e open leI E pharyngeal fricative Q spirant velar voiced voiced J pharyngealized IiI > (superscript on I ~/, IfI , k velar fiicative unvoiced In/) pharyngeal mcat- Q pharyngealized 10/ ive voiced half-open rounded back

Note1: I a I also represents the graphemic transcription of aliimaq$l1ra.

Note2: Initial hamzat al-qa.tC 17 I is included in an tenns except those of socio-economic or religious context (eg. ahl, awlacL aman, iqtim); in other instances where hamza becomes part of the phonetic elicitation it is inserted (eg. ?amlr, ?amln etc.).

Note3: With the definite article I al- I an assimilated I -1- I with the initial sun letter of the noun or adjective is only noted if it is of phonetic significance in the elicitation of the tenn concerned; otherwise I al- / is prefixed to initial moon and sun lettered nouns and adjectives.

Note4: The ta' marbl1.ta has no graphemic representation unless, for illustration purposes, it is considered phonetically important in which case it is transcribed I-a[tll . Siculo Arabic

CHART

Arabic SA Latin SA Greek Maltese - + - + - + - + Bilabial occlusive b p b n pep) b(b) nasal m m lJ m(m) semivowel w w(w) Labiodental fricative f f v ¢ r.3 f(f) v(v) Apical-interdental fricative j Q 6 e Apical-alveolar occlusive t d t d T t(t) d(d) affricate z/c; T~ tJ(c) d3(g) ts(z) dz{z) spirant s z s Or;, ~ s(s) z(i) nasal n n 1) n(n) vibrant 1 r 1 r A P 1(1) r(r) Apical-emphatic occlusive .t q fricative ?- spirant S Palatal affricate g c g fricative j spirant S x/sc sex) sh semivowel y j/y yU) Velar occlusive k clk K k(k) g(g) fricative h/ch X y ~ (gO) xh/hy Uvular occlusive q fricative x g Pharyngeal fricative b c 0(11) *c(gn / ') Laryngeal occlusive ? ?(q) fricative h h(h)

Classical Arabic consonantal phonemes corresponding graphemically with Siculo Arabic (Latin and Greek) and the Maltese phonetic representation with the graphemic eqUivalent in brackets INTRODUCTION

Within a span of three hundred years Sicily underwent two processes of ethnic, cultural and linguistic transformation. Under the Arab rule it witnessed a period of change from Hellenization and Christianization to Arabization and Islamization. In the struggle for Christianity over Islam the Normans defended Latinity though this did not affect eastern Sicily for it remained Hellenic. Linguistically, the transformation was not entirely due to Latinization. The Arabic elements in place­ names and material cultural terminology are still alive in the Sicilian language today. In this sense the process of assimilation and transformation was never completed dUring the Norman period; it continued to operate for a long time afterwards. It is necessary to distinguish between two terms used in this book, Arabization and Arabicization. I would like to propose that Arabization means the process of conforming to a culture and an ethnic community, in this case Arab, while Arabicization a process of adopting Arabic as a language or dialect which was socially and economically advantageous at the time. When we speak

1 Siculo Arabic of an ethnic Arab community we mean not a nationality as such, but a group with a common cultural affiliation into which people of a particular community are brought up with a common language. For example a Sicilian who spoke Arabic was still a Sicilian if he held to the church; while a Sicilian who abandoned her/ his church for Islam became a full member of an Islamic community and completely accultured to it. She/ he is therefore called Muslim or Siculo Muslim. Arabicization was a slow process and took different forms. It constituted a type with its own characteristics which I termed Siculo Arabic. The word IISiculo ll is a geographical and ethnic identity. Sicily was the crossroads of Byzantine, Roman, Carthaginian, Arab and Norman influences. This meeting comes to light in the unique work of Greek and Arab artists who, influenced by earlier cultures, beautified the interiors and painted the ceilings of bUildings. The Byzantine linear features and the Arab arabesque decor and polygonal interlacing demonstrate a richness and harmony of colours which are typically

li Sicilian. This I call IISiculo • It is an identity formed from a pot-pourri that distinguished itself socially, culturally and linguistically. Recent scholarship has r~-assessed the history of Islamic and post-Islamic Sicily. In his thesis Sicily dUring the Fatimid Age (1986), Leonard Chiarelli explores the political, social, economic and cultural life of Fatimid Sicily (297-432/909-1040). He fills the gap left by scholars seeking

2 Introduction to elucidate the impact of Arab rule in Sicily by using primary sources which have come to light since Michele Amarfs Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia (1854-1872) and revised by the erudite scholar Carlo Alfonso Nallino (1933-1939). An attempt to re-evaluate the socio-cultural status of the Muslims in Norman Sicily was made by Jeremy Johns in his thesis The Muslims of Nonnan Sicily, c. 1060-c. 1194 (1983). This again is a development beyond the work of Amari as it reviews his theories, according to which Sicilians resisted the Normans whereas Johns clarifies the point that the Hauteville kings, though they encouraged acculturation in some areas, did impose segregation in others throughout the twelfth century. Johns (1993, 133-59) has also recently examined the Arabic facet of the Norman kingship, some components of which were fashioned after the Sicilian Kalbite amirs (336­ 432/ 948-1040) and others imported from the Egyptian Fatimid caliphs (358-567/969-1171). It is evident from his study that a radical reform of the components of the Arabic facet took place after c. 1130. The practices and structure of the Norman dTwa-n or Arabic fiscal administration is discussed in his forthcoming book, Duana Regis: Arabic Administration and Royal Authority in Norman Sicily. On a lexical level, etymological investigation was considered essential in this present work in order to establish the history and culture of the target words in question. The question of which medieval linguistic tools

3 SicuJo Arabic are available for a serious inquiry was discussed at length in my book Arabic Literary Works as a Source of Documentation for Technical Terms of the Material Culture (1984, 60-87). The argument focused on the fact that the researcher encounters numerous problems because of the lack of basic tools. There is no adequate dictionary for classical and post-classical Arabic, and no historical dictionary at all, let alone one dealing, for example, with material cultural terms as such. Medieval philologists regarded most of these terms as being foreign, obscure, commonplace or dialectal so considered unimportant and therefore were excluded from lexica. The traditional approach of medieval Arabic lexica was purely descriptive, their purpose being to deal with pronunciation, quotations from the Qur'an, baml and pre­ Islamic poetry, and to arrange the meanings according to frequency or other descriptive criteria. The modern researcher is not interested merely in what the root or form may mean, but in how the word is used in the context given for the speaker or writer of the time. Medieval lexica are monumental yet incomplete works, containing errors that have slipped through in the copying of manuscripts, or may be attributed to carelessness or relative ignorance on the part of the Muslim compilers. European dictionaries of classical and post-classical Arabic compiled by orientalists did not at first contribute anything new to leXicographical technique. They followed

4 Introduction old Arabic models very closely in respect of their contents. E. W. Lane's An Arabic-English Lexicon (1984) is perhaps an exception. It is an excellent dictionary in the accuracy of its definitions and the fullness of its examples. It encompasses several classical lexica, most important of which are, Ibn Manzur's (d. 711/1311-2) Lisan al-cArab (1955­ 1956) and al-Zabld1's (d. 1205/1790-1) Taj al-cAras (1888). Yet, like all such works, Lane's lexicon is not infallible. It includes obscure meanings and fonns that do not assist the researcher and may often be misleading. R. Dozy's Supplement aux dictionnaries arabes (1967) on the other hand, is a far more important work because it includes a number of medieval technical and material cultural tenns as well as dialectal and, in particular, Magribl usages. Nonetheless, even though western lexicographers of the nineteenth century attempted to investigate classical Arabic words by reconstructing the history of the word in the light of the culture or cultures wherein they flourished, such scholars sometimes failed to see into the intellectual processes of speakers who used them and to view the words against the whole background of the language they pertained to, not only in their actual use, but also in their literary and social value and in their innumerable relations with other words. The pioneering works of Pellegrinfs Gli arabismi nelle lingue neolatine (1972) in two volumes and Caracausi's Arabismi m edievali di Sicilia (1983) look at lexicographical investigation from the viewpoint of the

5 Siculo Arabic afore-mentioned criteria. They set out to compile data from several medieval and modern sources. Pellegrini includes in his work some 250 authors who dealt with general linguistic and lexicographical issues in the Italian and Sicilian languages in particular and Romance languages in general; most of these works are studies concerning etymological discussions on toponymic and onomastic references which Pellegrini revised and annotated. He classified his word entries thematically under several headings. Caracausi went a step further. His work which refers to some 280 authors (most of whom were cited by Pellegrini) used a number of notarial

documents from the State Archives of Agrigentol Ennal Palermo and Trapani which were transcribed by several research students in the seventies. Apart from these

documents Caracausi studies carefully the gara?idl which are deeds including names of individuals listed for tax purposes that go back to the Norman-Swabian period (1060-1266). They maintain several traces of Arabo-Islamic culture and a linguistic survival. These documents had originally attracted the attention of Cusa who studied the texts of the parchments and published them in one

volumel I diplomi greci ed arabi di Sicilia (1868-1882). Cusa intended to publish a second volume to his work which would have included translations with annotations but it never appeared. The importance of

these documents is topographic1 onomastic1 historic and linguistic. A useful development in Caracausfs work is

6 Introduction

his attempt to discuss some comparative phonological features in the inventory of words he compiled. Pellegrinrs and Caracausrs method of synchronic and diachronic investigation has been successful. Most interesting of all in their works is the inclusion of lexemes from the islands of Pantelleria and Lampedusa. Both have opened the way for linguistic inquiry and their works are indeed a monument to the science of lexicography. The investigation of material cultural terms in this book has suggested that a structural-semantic attempt is possible. There is no unique starting-point for analysing the selected technical terms, nor is there any definite stopping-point. Most of the terms were selected as examples to illustrate phonologically correspondences between Classical Arabic and each of the Siculo Arabic varieties. The semantic investigation was only a peripheral exercise, but essential to understanding the socio-economic and cultural background of such material cultural terminology at the time of its usage. The question of language use dUring these periods is complex. The Arabic spoken by Arabs and non-Arabs at different layers or registers was a different type to the highly archaized form of Classical Arabic. Our medieval Muslim grammarians failed to accept the fact that Class­ ical Arabic is a separate language. Their narrow-minded view that this was the only spoken language was sheer fallacy. La1)n authors were no exception because they set out to correct common errors in the dialect in question

7 5iculo Arabic and prescribed in their stead what they believed to be IIgood ll Arabic. Peter Molan has examined labn data of medieval Magribl Arabic in his thesis Medieval Western Arabic: Reconstructing Elements of the Dialects of AI­ Andalus, Sicily and North Africa from the Lahn al­ cAmmah Literature (1978) in which he demonstrated that it was possible to reconstruct the vocalic and stress systems from the consonant inventory. This approach encouraged the present researcher to analyse, on a phonological level, the data found in Siculo Arabic comparing them, where necessary, with Andalusi Arabic and contemporary Maltese and contrasting them with Classical Arabic. Andalusi Arabic, a generic term, is used here to include Spanish Arabic dialects, registers, loan words, place names and names. It sums up the linguistic complexities of medieval Islamic Spain as much as Siculo Arabic, also a general term, does for Islamic and post­ Islamic Sicily (up to 1266). Corriente1s A Grammatical Sketch of the Spanish Arabic Dialect Bundle (1977) and his revised edition Arabe andalusi y lenguas romances (1992) have been indispensable to the present researcher. His data come from a number of medieval sources covering various regional differences over different periods of time and the reader/ researcher may wish to consult his works for further detailed reference. In my phonological and lexical investigation I have included contemporary Maltese because of close affinities with the Siculo Arabic group of varieties. For this

8 Introduction particular exercise, Aquilina1s Maltese-English Dictionary (1987-1990) was invaluable. His work is descriptive as well as historical; it is both diachronic, including entries by earlier lexicographers and synchronic with a breadth and depth of coverage comprising entries not only of standard Maltese but dialectal words. Maltese consists of Arabic and Romance features. It shares phonological and morphological characteristics with the Magribl dialects, but it has been affected by Sicilian and Italian, probably dUring the Norman period in Malta (1091-1283). The subsequent Romance speaking occupiers (1283-1800) began to exert considerable phonetic and lexical influence on Maltese [ego AM / d51bya / (gibja) IIcistern ll > RM / d5ibyl1n / (gibjun) IIhuge cisternll = CA gabiya + (augmentative) Sicilian suffix / -uni /; AM / inkeyya / (nkejja) IIvexationll > RM / inkeyyl1z / (nkejjuz) IIspitefurl = CA nika;ya + (adjectival) Sicilian suffix / -usu/; AM / sakran / (sakran) IIdrunkll > RM / sakranatsts / (sakranazz) IIdrunkardll = CA sakr~n + (pejorative) Italian suffix / -atstso / (Agius 1990b, 171 and see Chart One, Chapter Five)]. A major part of the Arabic lexical input came from Sicily dUring the Arab occupation but a very small number of words can be traced back to Levantine origin (Agius 1980b, 14). The Arabic inventory loaned from Sicily does not exclude of course the Berber element. Syntactically Maltese has an Arabic base but sharing at times Romance features.

9 Siculo Arabic

Our study includes little reference to Medieval Maltese because, it was felt that due to the paucity of documents in this area it seemed safer to concentrate on the many examples found in contemporary Maltese. And only when more examples in Medieval Maltese are available can a serious study be undertaken. Even then, this book does not venture to explore in any real depth the Maltese element but uses it for general comparative purposes. The intention is at this stage to show potential links with Siculo Arabic varieties. For a detailed phonological analysis of Maltese the reader/researcher is referred to Aquilina1s The Structure of Maltese (1959). The phonological representation of the symbols in this present work is broad and I must confess that I have applied a linguistic approach which is unconventional and perhaps not the ideal way to look at dialects on a comparative basis. Some dialectologists may object to my terminology but I have tried to keep as close as possible to the current research in linguistics. The Arabic lexemes, including grammatical, historical and cultural concepts, as well as names of countries, cities/ towns (with the exception of some modem established names) nisbas and tribal names are represented by the International Phonetic Alphabet system; however, names of Muslim rulers, scholars, dynasties, religious and political movements and Arabic titles of books, articles and monographs in the text and bibliography are cited in the Library of Congress system. Christian dates are normally preceded by Islamic

10 Introduction dates if the subject concerns the Islamic period; in other instances only the date of the Christian era is inserted. The areas which this book covers are as follows: Chapter One liThe Land of the Siculansll is an outline of the history of Sicily up to the Norman occupation. Chapter Two liThe Siculo Arabic: Ethnic and Social Features II discusses some important factors that have contributed to the make-up of Sicily dUring the Arab and Norman rules. I will then attempt to assess liThe Socio­ linguistic Scene of Islamic and post-Islamic Sicilyll which is the subject of Chapter Three. Ibn Makkl I-Siqill1 (d. 501/1107) is the only la!)n author that Islamic Sicily had witnessed in its time; Chapter Four will therefore examine liThe Role of Ibn Makkl in the Siculo Arabicll . Both Chapter Five IISiculo-Lahn Arabic: Phonological Correspondencesll and Chapter Six IISiculo Arabic: Phonological Correspondencesll will concentrate on the Siculo Arabic varieties comparing data with other western dialects while Chapter Seven IIRomance and Greek Interferences in Siculo-Arabicll looks into the hybridized features of this variety. The final Chapter is a general description of IISiculo- Middle Arabicll based on the gara?id of Norman Sicily. The book is by no means exhaustive. It is hoped that it will contribute to the understanding of Siculo Arabic in that: (i) it re-evaluates some traditionally accepted theories on the socio-ethnic and cultural status of native Sicilians and settlers of Islamic and post-Islamic rules (until 1266),

11 SicuJo Arabic

(ii) it re-examines the linguistic situation in Sicily and it reveals that the Arabic of Sicily was not confined to one variety but several and, in spite of the dearth of documents, we are able to reconstruct phonologically (and in some instances morphologically) these varieties. The book focuses on the Siculo Arabic group of varieties. Scant attention has been given by dialectologists to the dialects of Arabic in Sicily and my intention is to explore these varieties in the light of our Sicilian medieval documents. This study is therefore, an attempt to draw together the linguistic data covering the Arab and post-Arab periods. It further illuminates the diversity and compleXity of the Arabic varieties in Sicily with the hope that further research in comparative dialectology will establish historical-linguistic links with contemporary Magribl dialects and Maltese in particular.

12 References

Contents

465 Index

539 Glossary of Technical Terms (English-Arabic) Bibliography

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