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Atoms, Molecules, & Ions

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Atoms, Molecules, & Ions Atoms, Molecules, & Ions Chapter 2 The Early History of Chemistry - Before 16th Century Alchemy: Attempts (scientific or otherwise) to change cheap metals into gold - 17th Century Robert Boyle: First “chemist” to perform quantitative experiments - 18th Century George Stahl: Phlogiston flows out of a burning material. Joseph Priestley: Discovers oxygen gas, “dephlogisticated air.” Law of Conservation of Mass - Discovered by Antoine Lavoisier - Mass is neither created nor destroyed - Combustion involves oxygen, not phlogiston Other Fundamental Chemical Laws Law of Definite Proportion -- Joseph Proust - A given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass. - Carbon tetrachloride is always 1 atom carbon per 4 atoms chlorine. Other Fundamental Chemical Laws Law of Multiple Proportions--John Dalton - When two elements form a series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with 1 gram of the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers. - The ratio of the masses of oxygen in H2O and H2O2 will be a small whole number (“2”). Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808) 1 Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms. 2 The atoms of a given element are identical; the atoms of different elements are different in some fundamental way or ways. Dalton’s Atomic Theory (continued) 3 Chemical compounds are formed when atoms combine with each other. A given compound always has the same relative numbers and types of atoms. 4 Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the atoms - changes in the way they are bound together. The atoms themselves are not changed in a chemical reaction. Avogadro’s Hypothesis (1811) At the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain the same number of particles. 5 liters of oxygen 5 liters of nitrogen Same number of particles! 02_17 + 2 volumes combines with 1 volume to form 2 volumes hydrogen oxygen gaseous water + 1 volume combines with 1 volume to form 2 volumes hydrogen chlorine hydrogen chloride A representation of some of Gay-Lussac’s experimental results on combining gas volumes. 02_18 H H H H H H + O O O O H H H H + Cl Cl H Cl H Cl A representation of combining gases at the molecular level. The spheres represent atoms in the molecules. Evidence for the HOFBrINCls. Chemical Symbols The chemical symbols used today were developed by Jons Jakob Berzelius. They consist of one or two letters. The first letter is always capitalized. The second, if there is one, is never capitalized. The second letter is often a letter prominent in the pronunciation. Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom - J. J. Thomson - postulated the existence of electrons using cathode ray tubes. - Ernest Rutherford - explained the nuclear atom, containing a dense nucleus with electrons traveling around the nucleus at a large distance. 02_21 Applied electric field (+) (-) Metal (+) electrode (-) Metal electrode Deflection of cathode rays by an applied electric field. 02_23 Oil spray Atomizer to produce oil X rays produce droplets charges on the oil drops (+) Microscope Electrically charged plates (-) Schematic representation of the apparatus that Millikan used to determine the charge on the electron -- the oil-drop experiment. 02_24 Some alpha Most particles particles are pass straight Uranium source of scattered through foil alpha particles (embedded in a lead block to absorb most of the radiation) Thin Beam of metal foil alpha particles Luminescent screen to detect scattered alpha particles Rutherford’s experiment of alpha particle bombardment of gold foil. 02_25 Electrons scattered throughout Diffuse positive - charge - - - - - - - - - n+ - - - - - - - - - - (a) (b) a) the expected results of the gold foil experiment if Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model were correct b) the actual results. The Modern View of Atomic Structure The atom contains: - electrons - protons: found in the nucleus, they have a positive charge equal in magnitude to the electron’s negative charge. - neutrons: found in the nucleus, virtually same mass as a proton but no charge. The Mass and Charge of the Electron, Proton, and Neutron Particle Mass (kg) Charge Electron 9.11 10−31 1− Proton 1.67 10−27 1+ Neutron 1.67 10−27 0 The Chemists’ Shorthand: Atomic Symbols Mass number → 39 Element Symbol Atomic number → 19 K A = Z + N A = mass number ( from German Atomgewicht) Z = atomic number ( from German Zahl) N = number of neutrons A = Z + N Chemical Bonds The forces that hold atoms together in compounds. Covalent bonds result from atoms sharing electrons. Molecule: a collection of covalently-bonded atoms. The Chemists’ Shorthand: Formulas Chemical Formula: Symbols = types of atoms Subscripts = relative numbers of atoms CO2 Structural Formula: Individual bonds are shown by lines. O=C=O Ions Cation: A positive ion 2+ + Mg , NH4 Anion: A negative ion − 2− Cl , SO4 Polyatomic: an ion containing a number of covalently bonded atoms acting as a single unit. Ionic Bonding: Force of attraction between oppositely charged ions. Cations & Anions Cations are positive ions. Na ----> Na+ + e- Anions are negative ions. - - Cl2 + 2e ----> 2Cl Periodic Table Elements classified by: - properties - atomic number Groups (vertical) 1A = alkali metals 2A = alkaline earth metals 7A = halogens 8A = noble gases Periods (horizontal) 02_29 Noble Alkaline gases earth metals 1 Halogens 18 1A 8A 1 2 H 2 13 14 15 16 17 He 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Li Be B C N O F Ne 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Na Mg Transition metals Al Si P S Cl Ar 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Alkali metals 55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 Fr Ra Ac† Unq Unp Unh Uns Uno Une Uun Uuu 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 *Lanthanides Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 † Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr The periodic table. Chemical Symbols Symbols commonly missed. • A -- Al, Ar, As, Au, & Ag. • B -- Ba, Bi, B, Br, & Be. • C -- C, Ca, Cd, Cl, Cr, Co, Cs, & Cu. • M -- Mg, Mn, & Mo. • S -- S, Sb, Si, Sr, & Sn. • Latin -- Fe, Au, Ag, Sb, Pb, Na, K, Hg, & Cu. • German -- W Physical Properties of Metals Metals are: 1. efficient conductors of heat and electricity. 2. malleable (Can be hammered into thin sheets). 3. ductile (Can be pulled into wires). 4. lustrous (shiny). 5. tend to lose electrons and form cations. Examples are: Na, Cu, Au, Ag, & Fe. Metalloids • substances with the properties of both metals and nonmetals. • also called semimetals • Lie along the zigzag line between metals and nonmetals • The six metalloids are: B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, and Te. Physical Properties of Nonmetals Nonmetals are: 1. nonconductors of heat and electricity (insulators). 2. not malleable, but are brittle. 3. not ductile. 4. dull and without a luster. 5. tend to gain electrons to form anions. Examples are: H, He, N, O, S, & P. The Chemists’ Shorthand: Atomic Symbols Mass number → 39 1+ Ion charge Element Symbol Atomic number → 19 K METALS M ---> Mn+ + n e- where n = periodic group Na ---> Na+ + e- Mg ---> Mg2+ + 2 e- Al ---> Al3+ + 3 e- Transition metals --> M2+ or M3+ are common NONMETALS NONMETAL + n e- ------> Xn- where n = 8 - Group # C + 4 e- ---> C4- C4- carbide N + 3 e- ---> N3- N3- nitride O + 2 e- ---> O2- O2- oxide F + e- ---> F1- F- fluoride Charges on Common Ions -4 -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 A = Z + N z # protons # electrons # neutrons 35 0 17 Cl 17 17 17 18 35 1- 17 17 18 18 17 Cl Common Names sugar of lead lead(II) acetate blue vitriol copper(II) sulfate quicklime calcium oxide Epsom salts magnesium sulfate milk of magnesia magnesium hydroxide gypsum calcium sulfate laughing gas dinitrogen monoxide Naming Compounds Binary Ionic Compounds: 1. Cation first, then anion 2. Monatomic cation = name of the element Ca2+ = calcium ion 3. Monatomic anion = root + -ide Cl− = chloride CaCl2 = calcium chloride Naming Compounds (continued) Binary Ionic Compounds (Type II): - metal forms more than one cation - use Roman numeral in name PbCl2 Pb2+ is cation PbCl2 = lead (II) chloride plumbous chloride Naming Compounds (continued) Binary compounds (Type III): - Compounds between two nonmetals - First element in the formula is named first. - Second element is named as if it were an anion. - Use prefixes - Never use mono- P2O5 = diphosphorus pentoxide Must Knows • Table 2.3 on page 61. • Table 2.4 on page 62. • Table 2.5 on page 66. • Table 2.6 on page 67. • Table 2.7 on page 71. • Table 2.8 on page 71. NOMENCLATURE OF COMPOUNDS Binary -- 2 elements Ternary -- (3 elements) - Ionic (metal ion + polyatomic ion) Type I - Ionic Ca3(PO4)2 -- calcium phosphate (Type I metal + nonmetal) FeSO4 -- iron (II) sulfate Group I, II, Al+3, Ag1+, -- ferrous sulfate Cd2+, & Zn2+ NaCl -- Sodium Chloride Type II - Ionic (Type II metal + nonmetal) All other metals Fe2S3 -- iron (III) sulfide Type III - covalent -- ferric sulfide (2 nonmetals) CO2 -- carbon dioxide Chemical Nomenclature Name each of the following: CuCl copper(I) chloride cuprous chloride HgO mercury(II) oxide mercuric oxide iron(III) oxide ferric oxide Fe2O3 MnO2 manganese(IV) oxide manganic oxide PbCl2 lead(II) chloride plumbous chloride CrCl3 chromium(III) chloride chromic chloride Chemical Nomenclature Name each of the following: P4O10 tetraphosphorus decoxide N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide Li2O2 lithium peroxide Ti(NO3)4 titanium(IV) nitrate SO3 sulfur trioxide SF6 sulfur hexafluoride O2F2 dioxygen difluoride Common Nomenclature Mistakes Compounds: Polyatomic ions: 2- SO3 --Sulfur trioxide SO3 -- Sulfite ion 1- NO2 -- Nitrogen NO2 -- Nitrite ion dioxide 1- NO3 -- Nitrate ion NO3 -- Nitrogen trioxide 02_33 Does the anion contain oxygen? No Yes hydro - Check the ending of the anion.
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