Quick viewing(Text Mode)

Divine Botany-Universal and Useful but Under Explored Traditions

Divine Botany-Universal and Useful but Under Explored Traditions

Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol. 6(3), July 2007, pp. 534-539

Divine botany-universal and useful but under explored traditions

SK Jain1* & SL Kapoor 1A-26, Mall Avenue Colony, Lucknow 226 001, ; C-166, Nirala Nagar, Lucknow 226 020, Uttar Pradesh Received 17 August 2006; revised 21 February 2007

The study of all relationships between man and based on faith, belief and tradition concerning gods, goddesses, saints & other such powers can be called Divine botany. There are three aspects; the knowledge and information contained in the ancient religious books and epics of various faiths; the beliefs and practices as presently observed or performed among various ethnic group, and the future prospects and possibility in this area of botany. The paper has a brief account of faith related to plant in epics like Ramayan and Mahabharat, in religious scriptures like Bible and Quran & associated with planets, stars, Vastu-shastra, practices relating to plants in worship and decoration of deities, taboos and plants in various ceremonies, festivals and rites from birth to death. It is discussed that such a faith belief and practice have scientific basis and is helpful for good health and preservation of biodiversity. It is also suggested that the subject is not static but due to changes in biodiversity, human attitude to tradition and introduction of many exotics in various parts of the world, there is dynamism in this relationship. The future prospects and immense possibilities of the subject are indicated.

Keywords: Divine botany, Sacred plants, Scriptures, Constellations, Nakshatras IPC Int. Cl.8: A61K36/00, A61P25/00

Human relationships with plant kingdom are very civilization in and have shown that the intense, vast and multifarious. They can be put in two worshipping of trees, putting of symbol at very broad categories, the material and the cultural. the entrance and similar other practices were common The material relationships include plants for food, feature of the civilization. Some studies have been fodder, drugs, fuel, fibres, dyes, gums, house done on this aspect in India and also other regions of building, tools, numerous articles of daily life that is the world1-5. all economic plants and also the environmental Work has also been published on plants of concerns. This is usually common knowledge. The , other epics and Jain scriptures. Buddhist cultural relationships include plants associated with literature suggests that Lord Buddha spent 4 weeks in faith and tradition and also plants in fine arts and meditation under Pipal (Ficus religosa L.), literature like painting, music, songs, legends, (Ficus bengalensis L.), Chironji (Buchanania lanzan) proverbs, poetry, sculptures and body ornamentation. and Ingar (Barringtonia acutangula Gaertn.) trees. This aspect of our relationships with plant kingdom is Also, that he covered his body with the grass Munj less familiar and under explored. The subject is very (Saccharum bengalense Retz.) so as to protect from vast; presently only a glimpse is being provided with evil effects of unholy persons. Munj was also the special reference to the Indian scenario. The study of grass from which sacred thread of Lord was plants, plant products and plant formations (such as made. In Hindu faith, a curse by turned forests and groves) associated with faith and tradition , Shankara and into Pipal, banyan, forms the discipline of Divine botany. The origin of Palash [Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.], and these such divine or spiritual relationship between man and trees became abodes of these Lords. Two species of plants will probably date back to the origin of human Ficus growing along with Pakar are also called race. Some evidences of those early or ancient Harishankari. Lord along with spent many relationships are available even today in scriptures of years of their life in forest under the shade of trees, all faiths, and in carvings. Excavations carried out at called Panchvati. The word is interpreted in various Mehragarh (Pakistan) pinpoint the beginnings of ways, eg. grove of 5 banyan trees, trees of banyan, ______pipal, bel [ (L.) Corr.], aonla *Corresponding author (Phyllanthus emblica L.) and [ asoca JAIN & KAPOOR: DIVINE BOTANY 535

(Roxb.) De Willd.]. The position of trees in four Table 1⎯Plants associated with salvation of 24 Jain Tirthankars direction North, South, East and West are specified Name of Plant for larger Panchwati. Ashok tree is associated with Lord Rama's consort, Sita, during her stay in Sri Adinath Banyan Ajitnath Saptaparni Lanka. Lotus ( Gaertn.) is Sambhawnath Sal considered as seat of many god and goddesses in Abhinandannath Cheer Hindu faith. Sumatnath Priyangu (Calicarpa macrophyya Vahl.) In Jain faith, 24 plants are associated with Padamnath Priyangu (Calicarpa macrophyya Vahl.) salvation of 24 Jain (Table 1). In Suparshvnath Siris (Albizia lebbek Benth.) , Lord Buddha spent long periods in sal Chandranath Naagkesar ( Gaertn.f.) forest. He attained Pushpadantnath Bahera (Terminalia bellirica Roxb.) salvation under pipal, but then spent time under Sheetalnath Bel Shriyansnath Tendu (Diospyros peregrina (Gaertn.) banyan trees, seventh week under khirni [Manilkara Gurke) hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard] tree. His first samadhi was Vasupujnath Kadam made under jamun [Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels] tree. Vimalnath Jamun He preached under pakar trees. Some Buddha groves Anantnath Pipal exist where trees of mango, palms, pine and Dharmnath Kaitha grow. Pagoda tree ( acutifolia Poir.) Shantinath Tuna (Cedrella toona Roxb.) are offered in Buddhist temples. In -Granth Kunthnath Tilak Saheb, trees are said to be gods and this universe as Arahnath Mango branches of trees. Certain trees have become Mallinath Ashok Munisubratnath Champa inseparably associated with many sacred places, like Naminath Maulshiri pipal of Nanakmata, soap (Sapindus emerginatus Neminath Bamboos Vahl) of Haldwani, shisham of Santokhsar and jujub Parshwanath Deodar (Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud.) (Ber) of Harminder Saheb near Sialkot. In Islamic Mahaveernath Sal faith, date-palm, (Phoenix dactylifera L.) Olive (Olea europea L.), grapes (Vitis vinifera L.), pomegranate, in faith and belief from birth to death of human beings, (Lawsonia alba L.), jujub (Ziziphus mauritiana which is possibly the anthropological approach. This is Lam.), pilu (Salvadhra oleoides Decne.), kikar, jhau to study plants from supernatural and spiritual level (Tamarix ericoides Rottl.) and mann (Alhagi down to worldly or mundane level associated from maurorum Desv.) figure significantly in Quran. The birth to death. Associating plants with spiritual or supernatural phenomena is not only Indian or oriental main plants referred frequently in bible are date palm, 7 fig (Ficus carica L.), pomegranate, Poplar (Populas thought . Spiritual or mystic aspects of divine botany spp.), pilu, grapes, henna, Nal (Arundo donax L.), will include the following kinds of faith and beliefs elephant grass (Typha angustata Bory & Chamb), relating to plants: plants believed to establish ghritkumari (Aloe vera Tourn.ex L.), castor (Ricinus communication with spirits eg. Datura (Datura spp.), communis L.), mulberry (Morus nigra L.), and jhau. cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.), opium, (Amanita Plants in literature, like in devotional songs, muscaria) and many other psychoactive plants. Most legends relating to gods, goddesses, deities and saints Shamanic practices, which are recorded from many so- called underdeveloped or undeveloped regions of the have also been studied. The notable carvings and 8-9 paintings at places of worship, temples, churches, world, revolve round such plants . Some plants are mosques and monasteries as also rich carvings like in believed to have originated from part of body or tears Ajanta-Ellora have been studied6. Certain seeds, such of gods; for instance Pipal from body of Vishnu, as of (Elaeocarpus ganitrus Roxb.), and Palash from body of Brahma, and Aonla from tears of wood of sandal wood tree (Santalum album L.) & Brahma. Plants are believed to be abodes of spirits and sacred basil (Ocimum sanctum L.) are used for souls of the dead, eg. Saptparni tree (Alstonia scholaris making beads for sacred and rosaries. R.Br.). Lodhas in West plant this tree on burial/cremation grounds so that souls of their dead Study of divine plants ancestors may rest on it. Aonla, marking nut tree There are several possible approaches to the study (Semecarpus anacardium L.f.), kikar (Acacia nilotica of divine plants. One is to study and understand plants L.), apamarg (Achyranthes aspera L.), and harmal 536 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 6, No. 3, JULY 2007

(Peganum harmala L.) are believed to keep evil spirits Plants associated with deities as pancha- away. Tantra is a special, rather mysterious process A detailed account of these is available in various practiced by some hermits10. It is believed that certain Indian treatises12. Lord Ganesh is worshipped first in plants possess special energies. Through practice, every Hindu religious ceremony, religious homage, or concentration and/ or meditation some claim to succeed performance of rites associated with adoration and in acquiring special energy or powers. The procedures reverence to the divine or even in auspicious social for these involve study of stars and planets of a activities. If idol of Ganesh is not available, then a particular person at the time of birth, collection of plant swastika symbol is drawn if possible by saffron or at particular time and season and other associated rites. kesar (Crocus sativus L.) or by a red paste on a - Some orchids such as Salib mishree (Dactylorhiza nut or supari (Areca catechu L.), and that seated on a hatagirea (Don) Soo) are associated with such small heap of rice sometimes placed on a betel-leaf, processes. Vanda (Vanda tesselata Loud.) growing on serves as a symbol of the deity. Ganesh is worshipped specific trees is associated for particular purposes like with Doob grass; for this purpose the stem top with 3 on pipal for wealth, on mahua [ longifolia or 5 leaves is taken. Besides, white flowers are also (Koen.) Mc. Br.] for body vigour, on mango tree for offered, however sacred basil (leaves and love in family and to keep evil spirits away. inflorescence both) is prohibited. The goddess

Next is an important group of divine plants under especially loves Apamarg. Besides, all fragrant white the category celestial plants. These plants are believed flowers like Bela and Chameli (Jasminum spp.) and to be associated with constellations (Nakshatras) and all red flowers are used for worshipping. The planets (Graha). Sun, stars and planets also emit prohibited ones are Doob, Tilak (Wendlandia exserta energy, which influence not only human beings but DC.), sacred basil, tej-pat (Cinnamomum tamala Nees also plants. Certain plants draw more energy than & Eberm.). Lord Vishnu loves the sacred basil most; others from these celestial bodies, and so are associated upper leaves with inflorescence (manjari) are offered. with them. The Zodiac (Saur Mandal) has been divided Being the most sacred plant it is planted in every into 27 constellations. A plant Represents each planet Hindu home. Flowers and fruits of lotus, Maulsiri and each constellation (Tables 2,3)11. (Mimusops elengi L.), Ashok, Harsingar (Nycthanthes [ arbor-tristis L.), Tagar (Valeriana hardwickii Wall.), All people are born in one or the other constellation. Bel, Kadamb [Anthocephalus chinensis (Lamk.) Rich. It is believed that the particular plant of one's ex Walp.], Champa (Michelia champaca L.), constellation should be planted, watered cared for and and Katki are also offered to lord Vishnu, while conserved by him. Any product from that species flowers of Madar, Datura, Kachnar (Bauhinia should not be used in medicine or for any other variegata L.), banyan, Gular, Pakar (Ficus lacor purpose. There have been some studies on trees Buch. -Ham.), and Kaner (Nerium indicum Mill.) are preferred for planting in religious places. Pipal (Bodhi) prohibited. All flowers, which are offered to Vishnu tree is well known for Buddhist temples. There are except Katki, are recommended for worshipping the references regarding particular woods for use in deity. Aak (Calotropis procera Br.), datura that are building places of worship. Many plants are associated prohibited in case of Vishnu are offered to lord . with worship, offering or decoration on or Bela, Kush, Patla (Ptereospermum suaveolens DC.), ornamentation of statues of various gods, goddesses Kaner, Ashok, Tilak, Lodh, lotus, Maulsiri, Palash are and saints. Some notable examples for use in worship offered to the deity, while Gunja (Abrus precatorius are (Cocos nucifera L.), rice (akshat) (Oriyza L.), Datura, Aparajita (Clitoria ternatea L.) and sativa L.), (Lavang) (Syzygium aromaticum L.), Tagar are prohibited. It may be appreciated that all almonds (Prunus amygdalus Bat.), betel nut, betel leaf flowers and other parts may not be available at all (Piper betle L.) and several fruits and flowers. There times. are several specific preferences for flowers to particular deities. In Vedic culture, an elaborate system of rituals Popular traditions / rites was devised to propitiate the gods so that the next birth During the fieldwork spread over 4 decades, be full of happiness and peace or even to attain numerous instances of faith and belief related to salvation. In many rituals, various plant or plant parts plants were observed and recorded. In most of Hindu play a very significant role as symbol of gods or as homes one or more of the following rites can be easily being devoted or addressed to gods. witnessed: planting sacred basil in courtyard, applying JAIN & KAPOOR: DIVINE BOTANY 537

Table 2⎯Association of planets and plants twigs of mango in a string and placing it at the main Planets Plants door of the house, placing new leaves of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) on the ear during Dusshera, (Sun) Madar (Calotropis gigantea (L.) Br. ex Ait) burning of (like guggul) before deities, Chandrama (Moon) Palash breaking of coconut before the deities, offering betel Mangal (Mars) Khair (Acacia catechu Willd.) leaves and nuts to visitors, and placing sacred basil Budh (Mercury) Apamarg leaf in the mouth of the dead. Brahaspati (Jupiter) Pipal Shukra (Venus) Gular (Ficus racemosa L.) Plants associated with festivals and social activities Shani (Saturn) Shami (Prosopis cineraria L.) Druce.) A large number of plants are associated with Rahu (Dragon's head) Dub (Durva) (Cynodon dactylon Pers.) religious festivals like , Ganesh Chaturthi, Ketu (Dragon's Tail) Kush ( bipinnata (Stapf) Christmas, Ramzan, Yagyas and Havans13. Festivals Beauv.) of all faiths, various tribal or other ethnic groups Table 3⎯Plants associated with 27 constellations provide abundant material for understanding the basis Constellation Plant and criteria for using specific plants, and their impact Ashwani (Beta Arietis) Kuchela ( Strychnos nux- on conservation. Associated with religious festivals is vomica L.) the social dimension of such activities, such as Bharani (41 Arietus) Amla community dances, feasting, fasting and fairs. Plants Kratika (Etatauri Alcyone-2) Gular used for wearing on body in headgear, or hairdo and Rohini (Aldebaran) Jamun in body ornamentation too have acquired the status of Mrig-shira (Lambda orionis) Khair sacred. A few examples are, Jasminum spp, Ardra (Gamma) Shesham (Dalbergia sisoo Roxb.) (Curcuma longa L.), tree, orchid Punarvasu (Beta Geminorium (Various spp.) (Rhynchostylis retusa Blume), Crossandra pollux) [Crossandra infundibuliformis (L.) Nees.], mango Pushya (Delta Cancri) Peepal (Mangifera indica L.), marigold (Tagetus erecta L.). Ashlesha (Zeta Hydare) Nagkesar (Mesua nagassarium Among Gonds, a twig of Apamarg kept on the roof of (Burm.f.) Kost.) the dwelling facilitates birth. Bach (Acorus calamus Magha (Regulus/Roleonis) Banyan L.) is an essential ingredient of paste put on the Poorva Phalguni (Delta Leonis) Palash Uttar Phallguni (Denebala) Pakar tongue of the newborn, in many parts of India. Hast (Delta Corvi) Soap nut Several dozen plants are associated with Hindu Chitra (Virginis spica) Ber marriage, e.g. mango twigs, plantain, betel-leaf, Swati (Alpha Bootis/Arcturus) Arjun sacred basil, munj stems, coconut, doob, turmeric, Vishakha (Alpha Librae) Katai (Bilangra(Flacourtia betel nut, rice and barley. Among different ethnic ramontchi L'Herit) groups, cremation rites have been associated with Anuradha (Delta Scorpii) Maulshri specific plants. These are in addition to ingredients Jyeshtha (Antares) Cheer (Pinus roxbughiii Sarg.) used for Havan or other rites. In many tribal societies, Mula (Lambada Scorpi) Sal Purvashadha (Delta sagittarii) Jalmala (Salix tetrasperma names of clans are based on some ancestral Roxb.) association with certain plants. The folk of the clan Uttarashadha (Sigma sagittavivi) Kathal (Artocarpus worship and protect that species as one of their heterophyllus Lamk.) elders14. Shravana (Alpho Aquila/Altair) Madar Ghanishtha (Beta Dalphini) Shami Divine medicinal plants Shatabhisha (Lambada Aquarii) Kadam The large category of divine plants is based on the Poorva Bhadrapada(Beta Aam faith that ancient wise sages had discovered special pegasi/Markab) Uttara Bhadrapada (Gamma Neem (Azadirachta indica curative properties bestowed by the creator to some Pegasi/Algenib) Juss.) plants for welfare of mankind, and several known Revati (Zeta piscium) Mahua medicinal applications are due to these gifts of God. Harar (Terminalia chebula Retz.) is medicinal; doob, sandalwood paste on forehead, applying turmeric kaitha and Jamun associated with Lord Ganesh are paste and rice as a tilak or bindi on forehead, offering antidiabetic; sada-bahar (Catharanthus roseus (L.) coconut to relatives at the time of departure, tying Don.), planted around religious places is effective in 538 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 6, No. 3, JULY 2007

leukaemia. Many such plants are seen in places of cutting of a sal tree except on a full moon day and worship. plucking fruits of jujube before March/April, i.e. till full seed setting for dispersal and prospect of Plants in Vastu shastra regeneration. They also do not uproot Sankhapushpi Certain plants associated with Vastu Shastra, are plant till seed setting. Lodhas do not dig whole tuber believed to be auspicious or inauspicious near of Melothria heterophylla; a part is left in ground for dwellings or in particular locations. Banyan is regeneration. Santhals peel Anola bark by rotation considered lucky if planted in east of the house but from all sides, to allow healing. Among Mikhir of unlucky if planted in the west; gular is auspicious in Assam, cutting or damaging trees of banyan and pipal South of the house and inauspicious in North; pipal is is as sinful as killing a saint. It is believed that cutting auspicious in West of the house but inauspicious in of trees after sunset or burning pipal wood in yagna East. Arjun (Terminalia Wight & Arn.) and can bring wrath in the form of sickness of children or maulshri are considered to be inauspicious if growing other ill luck to the family. Some cures through touch near dwellings, while neem is believed to keep ill luck therapy like passing certain twigs over body in case of away, so it is planted near dwellings. fever, or wearing a of pieces of Bhuiaonla Magico-religious beliefs (Phyllanthus fraternus Webst.) in jaundice are Certain beliefs of the people have been given practiced. Shisham is considered auspicious and religious touch to make them easily acceptable and contact with its wood is considered to be good for popular. These beliefs relate to luck, health, health. prosperity, good harvest, easy childbirth and such According to Hindu Shastras (treatises), the one other facts of human life. Some plants are believed to who plants one each of the pipal, neem and banyan, 10 possess energies to enable people to profess or , 3 each of kaitha (Limonia acidissima L.), forecast events. A tilak on forehead or application in aonla & bel and five mango plants, saves himself from eyes as eye salve, e.g. Ud-salap (Paeonia emodi Wall. being sent to hell. Cutting trees of mahua (Madhuca Ex Royle) and malkangni (Celastrus paniculatus longifolia), indrajau (Wrightia tinctoria) and palash in Willd.) gives such power. Chewing Apamarg for cremation grounds is a taboo. Many beliefs relating to 12 yrs gives power that anything spoken comes true. plants directly suggest the objective of conservation. A Among Gonds, Tikhur (Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.) very significant aspect of this is preservation of certain is eaten on days of fast while Ramdana (Amaranthus forest patches called sacred forests, locally called as caudatus L.), makhana (Euryale ferox Salisb.), kutu devban and Law-lyndoh15-18. The role of communities (Fagopyrum esculantum Moench.), and water in proper restoration and preservation of these samples chestnut (Trapa natans L.) are eaten in rural and of remnants of pristine forest cover in these regions has urban places. been highlighted18. Conservation of individual species through faith has also played significant role in Conservation aspects controlling exploitation. A banyan tree near Bangalore Many such beliefs lead to regulated exploitation and another along Narmada in , and those of and promote conservation. Tubers of Turhur baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) near Ajmer (Dioscorea glabra Roxb.) are believed to be the food (mangaliawas), and at Barabanki have attained fame as of rain Gods and digging them till the end of rains is a kalpvriksh tree, which is believed to taboo among the Andamanese. Lodhas of West fulfill all needs and desires of the believers. Bengal believe Bhut raj [Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw.] to be abode of Gods. In Assam, only mature Divine botany of future rhizomes of tree [Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) The first step in this is an appeal for more Hoffm.] are allowed to be dug for eating. Gonds in exploration both of scriptures and of existing practices Central India use wood of only fallen branches of and beliefs. Intensive observations and analysis should Chironji for making the violin like musical instrument reveal scientific basis of many elements of faith and called, Kikir. Felling a tree or cutting a branch is not belief. Such research will need coordinated efforts of allowed. For edible fruit bearing trees, plucking only scholars in botany, theology and ancient languages like ripe fruits is allowed among several ethnic groups, eg. , Pali, Arabic, as the case may be. plantain (Musa balbisiana Colla) in Assam, mango Simultaneously, faith could be put to a very useful among Gonds in Central India. Santhals do not allow practical work on conservation of individual species JAIN & KAPOOR: DIVINE BOTANY 539

and sacred forest. Such studies have immense potential computer composing of the manuscript, and to Ms in different parts of the world, particularly among Shambhavi Misra for reading through the script, and indigenous societies who have always been sincere useful suggestions. custodians of tradition and heritage. A very potential area is the study of temple gardens, temple trees and References establishment of gardens of Divine botany of various 1 Majumdar GP, Vanaspati- Plants and plant life as in India in kinds. Garden of different faiths could be called as treatises and traditions, (University Calcutta, Calcutta), 1927. 2 Moldenke HN, & Moldenke AL, Plants of the Bible, 1952. Tirthankara Vatika for Jain faith, a Bodhi Vatica for 3 Farooqi MIH, Plants of the Quran, (Sidrah Publications, plants in Buddhist faith, a Guru Vatika for plants for Lucknow), 1994. Sikh faith, and so on. Such gardens will serve several 4 Sensarma P, Plants in the Indian - An Ethnobotanical objectives. Apart from being educative like any other Investigation, (Naya Pradesh, Calcutta), 1989. botanical garden in a general sense, they will propagate 5 Sensarma P, Ethnobiological Information in Kautilya Arthashashtra, (Naya Prakash, Calcutta), 1998, 167. the principles of faith, and promote conservation. There 6 Gupta SM, Floral motifs based on legends, In: A Manual of are still many aspects, like sacred plants, etc. where Ethnobotany, by Jain SK, 1987. further research work are needed19-21. 7 Schultes RE, Plants of the Gods, (Alfred Van Der Marck, New York), 1987. 8 Schultes RE, Raffauf R, Vine of the Soul- Medicine men, Dynamism in Divine botany their plants and rituals in the Columbian Amazan, Dynamism is the other dimension in Divine botany (Synergetic Press, Oracle), 1992. of future. Divine botany is not static or stagnant. To 9 Jain SK, Magico-religious beliefs about plants among some degree, evolution in the subject is evident. adivasis of Baster, Q J Mythic Soc, 54 (1963) 73-94. 10 Kumar K, Bharat Ki Divya Vanaspatiyan (), (National Abundant material is available in Jain, Buddhist and Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow), 2004, 45. Brahmanical texts and that information may throw light 11 Dube RK, Nakshatra Vriksha (Hindi), (Forest Employment on many aspects such as when, why and how an Welfare Organisation, Lucknow), 1998. indigenous plant species was divinized; when, why and 12 Misra Ram Bhawan & Misra Lal Behari, Dev Puja Mein how the species got associated with Indian gods and Vihit evam Nishiddha Patra-Pushpa Nityakarma-Puja prakash (Hindi), (Gita Press, Gorakhpur) (Samvat 2060), goddesses. One sees several references to exotic 343-361. species, some of which are of recent introduction in 13 Pal DC, Plants associated with Durga Puja Ceremony in India. Fixing precise date or period of introduction into , J Bengal Nat His Soc, 36 (1970) 61-67. India is possible for it. Exotics to which mention is 14 Tirkey Amia, Jain SK, Tradition of Clan names and found include shoe (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.), conservation among the Oraons of Chhattishgarh, Indian J Traditional Knowledge, 5(2) (2006) 224-226. kaner, pomegranate (Punica granatum L.), and 15 Gadgil Madhav & Vartak VD, The sacred groves of western marigold. More studies will help in fixing with in India, Econ Bot, 30(1976) 152-160. precision the identity of plants referred to in scriptures. 16 Ghate V, Sane H & Ranade SS, Focus on sacred groves & Comparative studies regarding faith and divine aspects ethnobotany, Proc Natl Seminar Ethnobot, Sacred Groves: Role in Conservation Strategy for India, (Prism Publications, of various common plants in different faiths can be ), 2004, 253. other new areas of further studies. 17 Hajra PK., Law-lyngdoh (Sacred groove) Mawphlang, (Forest Department, Shillong), 1975, 56. 18 Godbole A, Sarnaik J, Tradition of sacred grooves and Acknowledgement communities contribution in their conservation, (Applied Authors are grateful to scholars whose work has Environment Research Foundation, Pune), 2004, 60. been consulted or cited in the paper. The senior author 19 Lancaster S Percy, Sacred Plants of the , Bull No 113, (SKJ) is grateful to Indian National Science (National Botanical Garden, Lucknow), 1965 1-56. Academy, New Delhi for partial financial support 20 Wasson RG, Soma- divine of immortality, (Harcourt, New York), 1969. through award of an INSA Honorary Scientist 21 Sengupta S, Tree symbol worships in India, (India folklore position. Thanks are due to Ms Sumita Srivastava for Society, Calcutta), 1965.

Top View